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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Section 1: President and vice president subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Section_1:_President_and_vice_president-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clause_1:_Executive_power_and_term_of_office" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_1:_Executive_power_and_term_of_office"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Clause 1: Executive power and term of office</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_1:_Executive_power_and_term_of_office-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Clause 2: Method of choosing electors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_3:_Electoral_College" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_3:_Electoral_College"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Clause 3: Electoral College</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_3:_Electoral_College-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_4:_Election_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_4:_Election_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Clause 4: Election day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_4:_Election_day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_5:_Qualifications_for_office" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_5:_Qualifications_for_office"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Clause 5: Qualifications for office</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_5:_Qualifications_for_office-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Clause 6: Vacancy and disability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_7:_Salary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_7:_Salary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Clause 7: Salary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_7:_Salary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_8:_Oath_or_affirmation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_8:_Oath_or_affirmation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Clause 8: Oath or affirmation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_8:_Oath_or_affirmation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Section_2:_Presidential_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Section_2:_Presidential_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Section 2: Presidential powers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Section_2:_Presidential_powers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Section 2: Presidential powers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Section_2:_Presidential_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clause_1:_Command_of_military;_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries;_Pardons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_1:_Command_of_military;_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries;_Pardons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Clause 1: Command of military; Opinions of cabinet secretaries; Pardons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_1:_Command_of_military;_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries;_Pardons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Clause 2: Advice and Consent Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Treaties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_3:_Recess_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_3:_Recess_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Clause 3: Recess appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_3:_Recess_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Section_3:_Presidential_responsibilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Section_3:_Presidential_responsibilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Section 3: Presidential responsibilities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Section_3:_Presidential_responsibilities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Section 3: Presidential responsibilities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Section_3:_Presidential_responsibilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Clause 1: State of the Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Clause 2: Making recommendations to Congress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_3:_Extraordinary_sessions_and_prorogation_of_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_3:_Extraordinary_sessions_and_prorogation_of_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_3:_Extraordinary_sessions_and_prorogation_of_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_4:_Receiving_foreign_representatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_4:_Receiving_foreign_representatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Clause 4: Receiving foreign representatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_4:_Receiving_foreign_representatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Clause 5: Caring for the faithful execution of the law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_6:_Officers'_commissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_6:_Officers'_commissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Clause 6: Officers' commissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_6:_Officers'_commissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Section_4:_Removal_of_convicted_criminals_from_office" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Section_4:_Removal_of_convicted_criminals_from_office"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Section 4: Removal of convicted criminals from office</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Section_4:_Removal_of_convicted_criminals_from_office-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Article Two of the United States Constitution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="المادة الثانية من دستور الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المادة الثانية من دستور الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_dos_de_la_Constituci%C3%B3_dels_Estats_Units" title="Article dos de la Constitució dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Article dos de la Constitució dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%C3%ADculo_II_de_la_Constituci%C3%B3n_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Artículo II de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Artículo II de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="اصل دوم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اصل دوم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_II_de_la_Constitution_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Article II de la Constitution des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Article II de la Constitution des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articolo_II_della_Costituzione_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Articolo II della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Articolo II della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A7_2_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פרק 2 לחוקת ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרק 2 לחוקת ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E7%AC%AC2%E6%9D%A1" title="アメリカ合衆国憲法第2条 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国憲法第2条" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artigo_Segundo_da_Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Artigo Segundo da Constituição dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Artigo Segundo da Constituição dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Вторая статья Конституции США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вторая статья Конституции США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Article Two of the United States Constitution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/160px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/240px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/320px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments XI–XXVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Unsuccessful_attempts_to_amend_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/16px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/24px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Article Two</b> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> establishes the <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, which carries out and enforces federal laws. Article Two vests the power of the executive branch in the office of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, lays out the procedures for electing and removing the President, and establishes the President's powers and responsibilities. </p><p>Section 1 of Article Two establishes the positions of the President and the Vice President, and sets the term of both offices at four years. Section 1's <a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting Clause</a> declares that the executive power of the federal government is vested in the President and, along with the Vesting Clauses of <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One</a> and <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three</a>, establishes the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> among the three branches of government. Section 1 also establishes the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a>, the body charged with electing the President and the Vice President. Section 1 provides that each state chooses members of the Electoral College in a manner directed by each state's respective legislature, with the states granted electors equal to their combined representation in both houses of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>. Section 1 lays out the procedures of the Electoral College and requires the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> to hold a <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">contingent election</a> to select the President if no individual wins a majority of the electoral vote. Section 1 also sets forth the eligibility requirements for the office of the President, provides procedures in case of a Presidential vacancy, and requires the President to take an <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">oath of office</a>. </p><p>Section 2 of Article Two lays out the powers of the Presidency, establishing that the President serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the military, among many other roles. This section gives the President the power to grant <a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">pardons</a>. </p><p>Section 2 also requires the "principal officer" of any executive department to tender advice. Though not required by Article Two, President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> organized the principal officers of the executive departments into the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a>, a practice that subsequent Presidents have followed. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty Clause</a> grants the President the power to enter into treaties with the approval of two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a> grants the President the power to appoint judges and public officials subject to the <a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a> of the Senate, which in practice has meant that Presidential appointees must be <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_positions_filled_by_Presidential_appointment_with_Senate_confirmation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of positions filled by Presidential appointment with Senate confirmation (page does not exist)">confirmed</a> by a majority vote in the Senate. The Appointments Clause also establishes that Congress can, by law, allow the President, the courts, or the heads of departments to appoint "inferior officers" without requiring the advice and consent of the Senate. The final clause of Section 2 grants the President the power to make <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">recess appointments</a> to fill vacancies that occur when the Senate is in recess. </p><p>Section 3 of Article Two lays out the responsibilities of the President, granting the President the power to convene both Houses of Congress, receive foreign representatives, and commission all federal officers. Section 3 requires the President to inform Congress of the "state of the union"; since 1913 this has taken the form of a speech referred to as the <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a>. The Recommendation Clause requires the President to recommend measures deemed "necessary and expedient." The Take Care Clause requires the President to obey and enforce all laws, though the President retains some discretion in interpreting the laws and determining how to enforce them. </p><p>Section 4 of Article Two gives directives on impeachment. The directive states, "The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States shall be removed from office on <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a> for, and conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." <span class="anchor" id="Section_1"></span> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Section_1:_President_and_vice_president">Section 1: President and vice president</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Section 1: President and vice president"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_1"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_1:_Executive_power_and_term_of_office">Clause 1: Executive power and term of office</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Clause 1: Executive power and term of office"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive Vesting Clause</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. The person shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="George Washington, inaugurated as President, April 30, 1789" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg/280px-Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg/420px-Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg/560px-Washington%27s_Inauguration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>'s inauguration as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the United States">first</a> U.S. president, April 30, 1789, by <a href="/wiki/Ramon_de_Elorriaga" title="Ramon de Elorriaga">Ramon de Elorriaga</a> (1889)</figcaption></figure> <p>Section 1 begins with a <a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">vesting clause</a> that confers federal <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a> power upon the President. Similar clauses are found in <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III</a>; the former bestows federal <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislative</a> power exclusively to Congress, and the latter grants <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial</a> power solely to the Supreme Court, and other federal courts established by law.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three articles together secure a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> among the three branches of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, and individually, each one entrenches <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution#Checks_and_balances" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">checks and balances</a> on the operation and power of the other two branches.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Article I grants <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">certain powers</a> to Congress, and the Vesting Clause does not reassign those powers to the President. In fact, because those actions require legislation passed by Congress which must be signed by the President to take effect, those powers are not strictly executive powers granted to or retained by Congress per se. Nor were they retained by the U.S. Congress as leftovers from the Articles of Confederation. The Articles of Confederation, Continental Congress and its powers were abolished at the time the new U.S. Congress was seated and the new federal government formally and officially replaced its interim predecessor. </p><p>The President may order military action in defense of the United States pursuant to "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces". The President must notify Congress within 48 hours after the beginning of military operations, giving the source of his authority for the action. Once legal notification is given to Congress, military action can continue for up to 60 days without further authorization from Congress, or up to 90 days if the President "determines and certifies to the Congress in writing that unavoidable military necessity respecting the safety of United States Armed Forces requires the continued use of such armed forces in the course of bringing about a prompt removal of such forces."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Treaties are official agreements with foreign governments. Treaties must be approved by Senate. While the President does not make treaties, the President shapes and determines U.S. foreign policy initiatives, can enter into discussions and give conditional approval to agreements reached with foreign governments subject to Senate approval.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In their capacity as Head of State and individual representative of the United States, the President has the authority to withdraw the United States from treaties when it is in the best interests and well being of the U.S. </p><p>Presidential appointments are approved by advice and consent of the Senate. Senate consent occurs when a majority of senators votes to approve a nominee. </p><p>The head of the Executive Branch is the President. The Constitution states that the President and Vice President are to be elected at the same time, for the same term, and by the same constituency. It is believed the framers wanted to preserve the independence of the executive branch should the Vice President assume the Presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_2"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors">Clause 2: Method of choosing electors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Clause 2: Method of choosing electors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">United States Electoral College</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">United States presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">Indirect election</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">Faithless elector</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Choosing_electors"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.</p></blockquote> <p>Under the U.S. Constitution the President and Vice President are chosen by <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">electors</a>, under a Constitutional grant of authority delegated to the legislatures of the several states. The Constitution reserves the choice of the precise manner for selecting electors to the will of the state legislatures. It does not define or delimit what process a state legislature may use to create its <i>state</i> college of electors. In practice, the state legislatures have generally chosen to select electors through an indirect popular vote, since the 1820s. Most states use a "winner-take-all" system in which all the state's electors are awarded to the candidate gaining the most popular votes.<sup id="cite_ref-ncsl.org_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncsl.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maine and Nebraska allow individual congressional districts to each elect one elector. </p><p>In an indirect popular vote, it is the names of the candidates who are on the ballot to be elected. Most states do not put the names of the electors on the ballot.<sup id="cite_ref-ncsl.org_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncsl.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is generally understood by the voters and the electors themselves that they are the representative "stand-ins" for the candidates and are expected to cast their electoral college ballots for the president and vice president who appeared on the ballot. The actual electors being voted for are usually selected by the candidate's party. There have been a few cases where some electors have refused to vote for the designated candidate, termed a <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">faithless elector</a>. Many states have mandated in law that electors <i>shall</i> cast their electoral college ballot for the designated presidential candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-ncsl.org_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ncsl.org-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constitutionality of such mandates was established by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a></i> (2020). </p><p>Each state chooses as many electors as it has representatives and senators representing it in Congress. Under the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23rd Amendment</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Washington_D.C." class="mw-redirect" title="Washington D.C.">District of Columbia</a> may choose no more electors than the state with the lowest number of electoral votes (in effect, three electors), although since that amendment's ratification the District's population has never reached the threshold that would otherwise entitle it to choose four or more electors. U.S. Senators, Representatives and federal government officials are barred from becoming electors; in practice, the two major federal parties frequently select senior state party and government officials (up to and including governors) to serve as electors. </p><p>All states other than Maine (including the District of Columbia) use a <a href="/wiki/First_past_the_post_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="First past the post voting">first past the post</a> system in their presidential elections. In 2020, Maine switched from first past the post to <a href="/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting" title="Instant-runoff voting">ranked choice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/McPherson_v._Blacker" title="McPherson v. Blacker">McPherson v. Blacker</a></i> (1892), the Supreme Court affirmed the ability of a state to appoint its electors based on electoral districts rather than a statewide popular vote, describing the power of state legislatures to determine the method of appointment of electors as "plenary", and suggesting that it was not limited even by state constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lcp_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcp-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Palm_Beach_County_Canvassing_Board" title="Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board">Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board</a></i> (2000), the Supreme Court remanded to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Florida" title="Supreme Court of Florida">Supreme Court of Florida</a> the question of "the extent to which the Florida Supreme Court saw the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Constitution">Florida Constitution</a> as circumscribing the legislature's authority under Art. II, § 1, cl. 2".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Rhodes" title="Williams v. Rhodes">Williams v. Rhodes</a></i> (1968), the Court struck down as a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> an Ohio law which placed heavy burdens on minor parties seeking to be placed on the ballot for presidential electors. </p><p>The Supreme Court upheld the power of Congress to regulate political contributions intended to influence the appointment of electors in <i><a href="/wiki/Burroughs_v._United_States" title="Burroughs v. United States">Burroughs v. United States</a></i> (1934).<sup id="cite_ref-lcp_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lcp-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_3"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_3:_Electoral_College">Clause 3: Electoral College</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Clause 3: Electoral College"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition amendment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_reform_the_United_States_Electoral_College" title="Efforts to reform the United States Electoral College">Efforts to reform the United States Electoral College</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact" title="National Popular Vote Interstate Compact">National Popular Vote Interstate Compact</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] the President. But in chusing [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] from them by Ballot the Vice President.<br /><i>(<b>Note:</b> This procedure was changed by the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12th Amendment</a> in 1804.)</i></p></blockquote> <p>In modern practice, parties nominate their electors through various methods, see <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College#Nominations" title="United States Electoral College">Elector Nominations</a>. Then, each state chooses its electors in popular elections. In most states, the party with the plurality of the popular vote gets all of its electors chosen. Once chosen, the electors meet in their respective states to cast ballots for the president and vice president. Originally, each elector cast two votes for president; at least one of the individuals voted for had to be from a state different from the elector's. The individual with the majority of votes became president, and the runner-up became vice president. In case of a tie between candidates who received votes from a majority of electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of the tied candidates; if no person received a majority, then the House could again choose one of the five with the greatest number of votes. When the House voted, each state delegation cast one vote, and the vote of a majority of states was necessary to choose a president. If second-place candidates were tied, then the Senate broke the tie. A quorum in the House consisted of at least one member from two-thirds of the state delegations; there was no special quorum for the Senate. This procedure was followed in 1801 after the electoral vote produced a tie, and nearly resulted in a <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election#1801_contingent_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">deadlock in the House</a>. </p><p>While the Constitution reflects the framers' clear preference for the president to be elected by a constituency independent of the Congress, one of the most palpable limitations created by the stipulation that electors meet in their respective states as opposed to a single venue was that given the constraints of eighteenth-century technology there was no practical means for that constituency to resolve deadlocked elections in a timely manner, thus necessitating the involvement of Congress in resolving deadlocked elections. Obviously, having the electors meet in the national capital or some other single venue could have permitted the electors to choose a president by means of an <a href="/wiki/Exhaustive_ballot" title="Exhaustive ballot">exhaustive ballot</a> without Congressional involvement, but the framers were dissuaded from such an arrangement by two major considerations. First, it would have been quite burdensome for electors from distant states to travel to the national capital using eighteenth century means for the sole purpose of electing the president – since they were to be barred from simultaneously serving in the federal government in any other capacity, electors would likely have no other reason to go there. But probably even more importantly, many framers genuinely feared that if the electors met in a single venue, especially under the initial assumption that they would <a href="/wiki/Unpledged_elector" title="Unpledged elector">act independently</a> as opposed to being bound to vote for particular candidates, they would be vulnerable to the influence of mobs who might try to ensure a particular result by means of threats and intimidation – this had been a fairly common occurrence in European elections for powerful officials by relatively small constituencies (for example, and perhaps in particular, in <a href="/wiki/Papal_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal election">papal elections</a>) from the Middle Ages up to the Constitution's creation. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The 12th Amendment introduced a number of important changes to the procedure. Now, electors do not cast two votes for president; rather, they cast one vote for president and another for vice president. In case no presidential candidate receives a majority, the House chooses from the top three (not five, as before the 12th Amendment). The Amendment also requires the Senate to choose the vice president from those with the two highest figures if no vice presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes (rather than only if there's a tie for second for president). It also stipulates that to be the vice president, a person must be qualified to be the president. <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_4"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_4:_Election_day">Clause 4: Election day</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Clause 4: Election day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day (United States)</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College#Meetings" title="United States Electoral College">United States Electoral College § Meetings</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/250px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/375px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/500px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2793" data-file-height="4376" /></a><figcaption>Certificate for the vote for <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">William A. Wheeler</a> for the State of Louisiana</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Congress may determine the Time of chusing [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.</p></blockquote> <p>Congress sets a national <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a>. Currently, electors are chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November (the first Tuesday after November 1), in the year before the president's term is to expire.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electors cast their votes on the Monday following the second Wednesday in December (the first Monday after December 12) of that year. Thereafter, the votes are opened and counted by the vice president, as <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Senate" title="President of the Senate">president of the Senate</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Joint session of the United States Congress">joint session of Congress</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_5"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_5:_Qualifications_for_office">Clause 5: Qualifications for office</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Clause 5: Qualifications for office"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_3:_Disqualification_from_office_for_insurrection_or_rebellion" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution § Section 3: Disqualification from office for insurrection or rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_eligibility_legislation" title="United States presidential eligibility legislation">United States presidential eligibility legislation</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg/500px-NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg/750px-NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/NaturalBornCitizenClause.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="81" /></a><figcaption>Beginning of the clause in the 1787 document</figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States#Eligibility" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RooseveltTruman1944poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/RooseveltTruman1944poster.jpg/250px-RooseveltTruman1944poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/RooseveltTruman1944poster.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 poster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> (left) successfully campaigned for a fourth term. He was the only president who served more than two terms.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the time of <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_inauguration" title="United States presidential inauguration">taking office</a>, the President must be: </p> <ul><li>a <a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">natural-born citizen</a>, or a person recognized as a citizen before September 17, 1787</li> <li>at least 35 years of age</li> <li>an inhabitant of the United States for at least fourteen years.</li></ul> <p>A person who meets the above qualifications, however, may still be constitutionally barred from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_7:_Judgment_in_cases_of_impeachment;_Punishment_on_conviction" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 3, Clause 7</a>, gives the U.S. Senate the option of forever disqualifying anyone convicted in an impeachment case from holding any federal office.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Participants_in_rebellion" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 3 of the 14th Amendment</a> prohibits anyone who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, from becoming president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22nd Amendment</a> prohibits anyone from being elected to the presidency more than twice (or once if the person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a presidential term to which someone else was originally elected).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_6"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability">Clause 6: Vacancy and disability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Clause 6: Vacancy and disability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">United States presidential line of succession</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyler_receives_news.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustration: Tyler stands on his porch in Virginia, approached by a man with an envelope. Caption reads "Tyler receiving the news of Harrison's death."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tyler_receives_news.jpg/220px-Tyler_receives_news.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tyler_receives_news.jpg/330px-Tyler_receives_news.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tyler_receives_news.jpg/440px-Tyler_receives_news.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2587" data-file-height="1873" /></a><figcaption>1888 illustration of new <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> John Tyler receiving the news of President <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William H. Harrison</a>'s death from <a href="/wiki/Chief_Clerk_(United_States_Department_of_State)" title="Chief Clerk (United States Department of State)">Chief Clerk of the State Department</a> <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_Webster" title="Fletcher Webster">Fletcher Webster</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.<br /><i>(<b>Note:</b> This clause was partially <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/supersede" class="extiw" title="wikt:supersede">superseded</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25th Amendment</a> in 1967.)</i></p></blockquote> <p>The wording of this clause caused much controversy at the time it was first used. When <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> died in office, a debate arose over whether the vice president would become president, or if he would just inherit the powers, thus becoming an acting president. Harrison's vice president, <a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a>, believed that he had the right to become president. However, many senators argued that he only had the right to assume the powers of the presidency long enough to call for a new election. Because the wording of the clause is so vague, it was impossible for either side to prove its point. Tyler took the Oath of Office as president, setting a precedent that made it possible for later vice presidents to ascend to the presidency unchallenged following the president's death. The "Tyler Precedent" established that if the president dies, resigns or is removed from office, the vice president becomes president. </p><p>The Congress may provide for a <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">line of succession</a> beyond the vice president. The current <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act</a> establishes the order as the speaker of the House of Representatives, the president <i>pro tempore</i> of the Senate and then the fifteen Cabinet secretaries in order of each department's establishment. There are concerns regarding the constitutionality of having members of Congress in the line of succession, however, as this clause specifies that only an "<a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Officer of the United States">officer of the United States</a>" may be designated as a presidential successor. Constitutional scholars from <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> to the present day have argued that the term "officer" excludes members of Congress. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25th Amendment</a> explicitly states that if the president dies, resigns or is removed from office, the vice president becomes president, and also establishes a procedure for filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president. The Amendment further provides that the president, or the vice president and Cabinet, can declare the president unable to discharge his or her duties, in which case the vice president becomes Acting president. If the declaration is done by the vice president and Cabinet, the Amendment permits the president to take control back, unless the vice president and Cabinet challenge the president and two-thirds of both Houses vote to sustain the findings of the vice president and Cabinet. If the declaration is done by the president, the president may take control back without risk of being overridden by the Congress. <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_7"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_7:_Salary">Clause 7: Salary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Clause 7: Salary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Domestic Emoluments Clause" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Emoluments_Clause_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Emoluments Clause (disambiguation)">Emoluments Clause</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States#Compensation" title="President of the United States">President of the United States § Compensation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.</p></blockquote> <p>The president's salary, currently $400,000 a year,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> must remain constant throughout the president's term. The president may not receive other compensation from either the federal or any state government. <span class="anchor" id="Section_1,_Clause_8"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_8:_Oath_or_affirmation">Clause 8: Oath or affirmation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Clause 8: Oath or affirmation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath of office of the president of the United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/200px-Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/300px-Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/400px-Second_oath_of_office_of_Barack_Obama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> being administered the oath of office by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> for the second time at his first inauguration, on January 21, 2009</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."</p></blockquote> <p>According to the Joint Congressional Committee on Presidential Inaugurations, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> added the words "So help me God" during his first inaugural,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this has been disputed. There are no contemporaneous sources for this fact, and no eyewitness sources to Washington's first inaugural mention the phrase at all—including those that transcribed what he said for his oath. </p><p>Also, the president-elect's name is typically added after the "I", for example, "I, George Washington, do...." Normally, the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">chief justice of the United States</a> administers the oath. It is sometimes asserted that the oath bestows upon the president the power to do whatever is necessary to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution." <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, while vetoing an Act for the renewal of the charter of the national bank, implied that the president could refuse to execute statutes that he felt were unconstitutional. In suspending the privilege of the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">writ of <i>habeas corpus</i></a>, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> claimed that he acted according to the oath. His action was challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> (led by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a>) in <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Merryman" title="Ex parte Merryman">Ex Parte Merryman</a></i>, 17 F. Cas. 144 (C.C.D. Md. 1861). Lincoln ignored Taney's order. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>'s counsel referred to the theory during his <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">impeachment trial</a>. Otherwise, few have seriously asserted that the oath augments the president's powers. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_vice_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the vice president of the United States">vice president also has an oath of office</a>, but it is taken under the <a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Oaths" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Oath or Affirmation Clause of Article VI</a> that provides that "all ... <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Officer of the United States">Officers ... of the United States</a> ... shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pursuant to Article VI, the <a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">1st United States Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/An_act_to_regulate_the_time_and_manner_of_administering_certain_oaths" title="An act to regulate the time and manner of administering certain oaths">Oath Administration Act</a> (that remains in effect) which provides that "...the oath or affirmation required by the sixth article of the Constitution of the United States… shall be administered to [the President of the Senate]".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, the vice presidential oath is the same as that for members of Congress and members of the Cabinet. </p> <blockquote><p>I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><span class="anchor" id="Section_2"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Section_2:_Presidential_powers">Section 2: Presidential powers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Section 2: Presidential powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">Powers of the president of the United States</a></div> <p>In the landmark decision <i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._General_Services_Administration" title="Nixon v. General Services Administration">Nixon v. General Services Administration</a></i> (1977), <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a>, afterwards the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">chief justice</a>, declared in his dissent "It would require far more of a discourse than could profitably be included in an opinion such as this to fully describe the preeminent position that the president of the United States occupies with respect to our Republic. Suffice it to say that the president is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed."<sup id="cite_ref-Justia_Law_2020_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justia_Law_2020-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the modern constitutions of many other countries, which specify when and how a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a> may be declared and which rights may be suspended, the U.S. Constitution itself includes no comprehensive separate regime for emergencies. However, according to <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>, some legal scholars believe that the Constitution gives the president inherent <a href="/wiki/Emergency_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency powers">emergency powers</a> by making him commander in chief of the armed forces, or by vesting in him a broad, undefined “executive Power.”<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress has delegated at least 136 distinct statutory emergency powers to the President, each available upon the declaration of an emergency. Only 13 of these require a declaration from Congress; the remaining 123 are assumed by an <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States#Executive_branch" title="Federal government of the United States">executive</a> declaration with no further Congressional input.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congressionally-authorized emergency presidential powers are sweeping and dramatic and range from seizing control of the Internet to declaring martial law.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i> to observe that "the misuse of emergency powers is a standard gambit among leaders attempting to consolidate power",<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because, in the words of Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>'s dissent in <i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i> (1944), the decision that upheld the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of Japanese Americans</a>, each emergency power "lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need."<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Section_2,_Clause_1"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_1:_Command_of_military;_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries;_Pardons"><span id="Clause_1:_Command_of_military.3B_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries.3B_Pardons"></span>Clause 1: Command of military; Opinions of cabinet secretaries; Pardons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clause 1: Command of military; Opinions of cabinet secretaries; Pardons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three men are seated in lounge chairs. One is standing, holding a long stick and pointing to the location of Japan on a wall map of the Pacific." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG/220px-FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG/330px-FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG/440px-FDR_conference_1944_HD-SN-99-02408.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2665" data-file-height="2167" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> as commander-in-chief, with his military subordinates during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<br />Left to right: General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a>, Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a>, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Chester_W._Nimitz" title="Chester W. Nimitz">Chester W. Nimitz</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.</p></blockquote> <p>The Constitution vests the president with <a href="/wiki/Executive_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive power">executive power</a>. The Supreme Court has interpreted that power as reaching its zenith when wielded to protect <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ruled that federal courts in the United States must show deference to the executive in assessing threats to the country.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president is the military's <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a>; however, <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One</a>'s <a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers Clause</a> gives Congress, and not the president, the exclusive right to <a href="/wiki/Declare_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Declare war">declare war</a>. Nevertheless, the power of the president to initiate hostilities has been subject to question. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Woods">Thomas Woods</a>, "Ever since the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, Article II, Section 2 [...] has been interpreted 'The president has the power to initiate hostilities without consulting Congress' [....] But what the framers actually meant by that clause was that once war has been declared, it was the president's responsibility as commander-in-chief to direct the war. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> spoke in such terms when he said that the president, although lacking the power to declare war, would have 'the direction of war when authorized or begun.' The president acting alone was authorized only to repel sudden attacks (hence the decision to withhold from him only the power to 'declare' war, not to 'make' war, which was thought to be a necessary emergency power in case of foreign attack)."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, every major military action has been technically a U.S. military operation or a U.N. "<a href="/wiki/Police_action" title="Police action">police action</a>", which are deemed legally legitimate by Congress, and various <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Resolution">United Nations Resolutions</a> because of decisions such as the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_Resolution" title="Gulf of Tonkin Resolution">Gulf of Tonkin Resolution</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq Resolution">Resolution of The Congress Providing Authorization for Use of Force In Iraq</a>. </p><p>The president may require the "principal officer" of any executive department to tender their advice in writing. While the Constitution nowhere requires a formal <a href="/wiki/United_States_Cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Cabinet">Cabinet</a>, it does authorize the president to seek advice from the principal officers of the various departments as they perform their official duties. George Washington found it prudent to organize his principal officers into a Cabinet, and it has been part of the executive branch structure ever since. Presidents have used Cabinet meetings of selected principal officers to widely differing extents and for different purposes. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> advocated the use of a parliamentary-style Cabinet government to President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, but was rebuffed. Later, <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> advocated use of a parliamentary-style Cabinet while he was a professor, but as president he would have none of it in his administration. In recent administrations, cabinets have grown to include key White House staff in addition to department and agency heads. President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> formed seven subcabinet councils to review many policy issues, and subsequent presidents have followed that practice.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardons</a> and reprieves may be granted by the president, except in cases of <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a>. There is currently no universally accepted interpretation of the impeachment exception. Some argue that the president simply cannot use a pardon to stop an officeholder from being impeached, while others suggest that crimes underlying an impeachment cannot be pardoned by the president.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As ruled by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wilson" title="United States v. Wilson">United States v. Wilson</a></i> (1833), the pardon could be rejected by the convict. Then, in <i><a href="/wiki/Burdick_v._United_States" title="Burdick v. United States">Burdick v. United States</a></i> (1915), the court specifically said, "Circumstances may be made to bring innocence under the penalties of the law. If so brought, escape by confession of guilt implied in the acceptance of a pardon may be rejected, preferring to be the victim of the law rather than its acknowledged transgressor, preferring death even to such certain infamy." </p><p><a href="/wiki/Commutation_(law)" title="Commutation (law)">Commutations</a> (reduction in prison sentence), unlike pardons (restoration of civil rights after prison sentence had been served) may not be refused. In <i><a href="/wiki/Biddle_v._Perovich" title="Biddle v. Perovich">Biddle v. Perovich</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_274" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 274">274</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/274/480/">480</a> (1927), the subject of the commutation did not want to accept life in prison but wanted the death penalty restored. The Supreme Court said, "[a] pardon in our days is not a private act of grace from an individual happening to possess power. It is a part of the Constitutional scheme. When granted it is the determination of the ultimate authority that the public welfare will be better served by inflicting less than what the judgment fixed."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_2,_Clause_2"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause">Clause 2: Advice and Consent Clause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Clause 2: Advice and Consent Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president exercises the powers in the Advice and Consent Clause with the <a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a> of the Senate. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaties">Treaties</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty Clause</a></div> <p>The President shall have the Power to make treaties, with approval of two-thirds of the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Article II however, the Constitution is not explicit about the termination of treaties. The first abrogation of a treaty occurred in 1798, when Congress passed a law terminating the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance (1778)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (May 2020)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1854, however, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> terminated a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> with the consent of the Senate. A Senate committee ruled that it was correct procedure for the president to terminate treaties after being authorized by the Senate. President Pierce's successors, however, returned to the former procedure of obtaining authorization from both Houses. Some Presidents have claimed to themselves the exclusive power of terminating treaties. The first unambiguous case of a President terminating a treaty without authorization, granted prior to or after the termination, occurred when <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> terminated a treaty with the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, judicial determination was sought, but the effort proved futile: the Supreme Court could not find a majority agreeing on any particular principle, and therefore instructed the trial court to dismiss the case. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Appointments">Appointments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a></div> <p>The president may also appoint <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge">federal judges</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._ambassadors" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. ambassadors">U.S. ambassadors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consul_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Consul of the United States">consuls</a>, ministers, and other <a href="/wiki/Officers_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Officers of the United States">officers of the United States</a> with the advice and consent of the Senate. However, Congress may instead legislate for the appointment of particular inferior officials by the president, heads of executive departments, or the courts. </p><p>The Senate has a long-standing practice of permitting <a href="/wiki/Motions_to_reconsider" class="mw-redirect" title="Motions to reconsider">motions to reconsider</a> previous decisions. In 1931, the Senate granted advice and consent to the president on the appointment of a member of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission" title="Federal Power Commission">Federal Power Commission</a>. The officer in question was sworn in, but the Senate, under the guise of a motion to reconsider, rescinded the advice and consent. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Quo_warranto" title="Quo warranto">quo warranto</a></i> proceedings that followed, the Supreme Court ruled that the Senate was not permitted to rescind advice and consent after the officer had been installed. </p><p>After the Senate grants advice and consent, however, the Supreme Court has ruled that the president is under no compulsion to <a href="/wiki/Commission_(document)" title="Commission (document)">commission</a> the officer. It has not been settled whether the president has the prerogative to withhold a commission after having signed it. This issue played a large part in the seminal court case <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>. </p><p>At times, the president has asserted the power to remove individuals from office. Congress has often explicitly limited the president's power to remove; during the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a>, proscribing, without the advice and consent of the Senate, presidential removal of anyone appointed with the advice and consent of the Senate. President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> ignored the Act, and was later impeached and acquitted. The constitutionality of the Act was not immediately settled. In <i><a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court held that Congress could not limit the president's power to remove an executive officer (the <a href="/wiki/Postmaster_General" title="Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a>), but in <i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a></i>, it upheld Congress's authority to restrict the president's power to remove officers of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a>, an "administrative body [that] cannot in any proper sense be characterized as an arm or an eye of the executive."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress may repeal the legislation that authorizes the appointment of an executive officer. But according to the Supreme Court, it "cannot reserve for itself the power of an officer charged with the execution of the laws except by impeachment."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_2,_Clause_3"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_3:_Recess_appointments">Clause 3: Recess appointments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Clause 3: Recess appointments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.</p></blockquote> <p>The president may fill critical federal executive and judicial branch vacancies unilaterally but temporarily when the Senate is in <a href="/wiki/Recess_(motion)" title="Recess (motion)">recess</a>, and thus unavailable to provide advice and consent. Such appointments expire at the end of the next Senate session. To continue to serve thereafter, the appointee must be formally nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_3"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Section_3:_Presidential_responsibilities">Section 3: Presidential responsibilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Section 3: Presidential responsibilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the <a href="/wiki/Officers_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Officers of the United States">Officers of the United States</a>.</p></blockquote> <p><span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_1"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union">Clause 1: State of the Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Clause 1: State of the Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president must give the Congress information on the "<a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union</a>" "from time to time." This is called the State of the Union Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally, presidents personally delivered annual addresses to Congress. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, who felt that the procedure resembled the <a href="/wiki/Speech_from_the_throne" title="Speech from the throne">speech from the throne</a> delivered by British monarchs, chose instead to send written messages to Congress for reading by clerks. Jefferson's procedure was followed by future presidents until <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> reverted to the former procedure of personally addressing Congress, which has continued to this day<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kesavan and Sidak explain the purpose of the State of the Union clause: </p> <blockquote><p>The State of the Union Clause imposes an executive duty on the president. That duty must be discharged periodically. The president's assessment of the State of the Union must be publicized to Congress, and thus to the nation. The publication of the president's assessment conveys information to Congress—information uniquely gleaned from the president's perspective in his various roles as commander-in-chief, chief law enforcer, negotiator with foreign powers, and the like—that shall aid the legislature in public deliberation on matters that may justify the enactment of legislation because of their national importance.<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_2"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress">Clause 2: Making recommendations to Congress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Clause 2: Making recommendations to Congress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president has the power and duty<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to recommend, for the consideration of Congress, such measures which the president deems as "necessary and expedient". At <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_George_Washington" title="First inauguration of George Washington">his inauguration</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> declared in his <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/George_Washington%27s_First_Inaugural_Address" class="extiw" title="s:George Washington's First Inaugural Address">Inaugural Address</a>: "By the article establishing the executive department it is made the duty of the president 'to recommend to your consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.'" This is the Recommendation Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-SidakRecClause_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SidakRecClause-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kesavan and Sidak explain the purpose of the Recommendation Clause: </p> <blockquote><p>The Recommendation Clause also imposes an executive duty on the president. His recommendations respect the equal dignity of Congress and thus embody the anti-royalty sentiment that ignited the American Revolution and subsequently stripped the trappings of monarchy away from the new chief executive. Through his recommendations to Congress, the president speaks collectively for the People as they petition Government for a redress of grievances, and thus his recommendations embody popular sovereignty. The president tailors his recommendations so that their natural implication is the enactment of new legislation, rather than some other action that Congress might undertake. Finally, the president shall have executive discretion to recommend measures of his choosing.<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Sidak explained that there is a connection between the Recommendation Clause and the <a href="/wiki/Petition_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Petition Clause">Petition Clause</a> of the 1st Amendment: "Through his performance of the duty to recommend measures to Congress, the president functions as the agent of a diffuse electorate who seek the redress of grievances. To muzzle the president, therefore, is to diminish the effectiveness of this right expressly reserved to the people under the first amendment."<sup id="cite_ref-SidakRecClause_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SidakRecClause-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2119, note 7">: 2119, note 7 </span></sup> Kesavan and Sidak also cited a Professor Bybee who stated in this context: "The Recommendation Clause empowers the president to represent the people before Congress, by recommending measures for the reform of government, for the general welfare, or for the redress of grievances. The Right of Petition Clause prevents Congress from abridging the right of the people to petition for a redress of grievances."<sup id="cite_ref-KesavanSidak_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KesavanSidak-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 43">: 43 </span></sup> </p><p>The Recommendation clause imposes a duty, but its performance rests solely with the president. Congress possesses no power to compel the president to recommend, as he alone is the "judge" of what is "necessary and expedient." Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a> of Article I, which limits Congress's discretion to carrying out only its delegated powers, the phrase "necessary and expedient" implies a wider range of discretion for the president. Because this is a political question, there has been little judicial involvement with the president's actions under the clause as long as presidents have not tried to extend their legislative powers. In <i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i> (1952), the Supreme Court noted that the Recommendations Clause serves as a reminder that the president cannot make law by himself: "The power to recommend legislation, granted to the president, serves only to emphasize that it is his function to recommend and that it is the function of the Congress to legislate."<sup id="cite_ref-HFDKesavan20121027_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HFDKesavan20121027-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court made a similar point in striking down the <a href="/wiki/Line-item_veto" title="Line-item veto">line-item veto</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Clinton_v._City_of_New_York" title="Clinton v. City of New York">Clinton v. City of New York</a></i> (1998).<sup id="cite_ref-HFDKesavan20121027_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HFDKesavan20121027-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> attempted to shield the records of the President's Task Force on Health Care Reform as essential to his functions under the Recommendations Clause, a federal circuit court rejected the argument and noted in <i>Ass'n of American Physicians & Surgeons v. Clinton</i> (1993): "[T]he Recommendation Clause is less an obligation than a right. The president has the undisputed authority to recommend legislation, but he need not exercise that authority with respect to any particular subject or, for that matter, any subject."<sup id="cite_ref-HFDKesavan20121027_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HFDKesavan20121027-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_3"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_3:_Extraordinary_sessions_and_prorogation_of_Congress">Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Special_session" title="Special session">Special session</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prorogation" title="Prorogation">Prorogation</a></div> <p>To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered to call a <a href="/wiki/Special_session" title="Special session">special session</a> of one or both houses of Congress. Since <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> first did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> was the most recent to do so in July 1948 (the so called "<a href="/wiki/Turnip_Day_Session" title="Turnip Day Session">Turnip Day Session</a>"). Additionally, prior to ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twentieth Amendment</a> (which brought forward the date on which Congress convenes from March to January) in 1933, newly <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_inauguration" title="United States presidential inauguration">inaugurated</a> presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. Clause 3 also authorizes the president to <a href="/wiki/Prorogation#United_States" title="Prorogation">prorogue</a> Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this administrative power.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> threatened to use this clause as a justification to prorogue both houses of Congress in order to make recess appointments during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a>; however, the President does not have the authority to do so unless either the Senate or the House of Representatives were to alter their scheduled adjournment dates.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_4"></span><span class="anchor" id="Reception_Clause"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_4:_Receiving_foreign_representatives">Clause 4: Receiving foreign representatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Clause 4: Receiving foreign representatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president receives all foreign ambassadors. This clause of the Constitution, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to provide support for the president's exclusive authority to grant <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">recognition</a> to a foreign government.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_5"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law">Clause 5: Caring for the faithful execution of the law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Clause 5: Caring for the faithful execution of the law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president must "take care that the laws be faithfully executed."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This clause in the Constitution imposes a duty on the president to enforce the laws of the United States and is called the <b>Take Care Clause</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-USLegal.com_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USLegal.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the <b>Faithful Execution Clause</b><sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>Faithfully Executed Clause</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This clause is meant to ensure that a law is faithfully executed by the president<sup id="cite_ref-USLegal.com_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USLegal.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even if he disagrees with the purpose of that law.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addressing the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution#Ratification_2" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">North Carolina ratifying convention</a>, William Maclaine declared that the Faithful Execution Clause was "one of the [Constitution's] best provisions."<sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the president "takes care to see the laws faithfully executed, it will be more than is done in any government on the continent; for I will venture to say that our government, and those of the other states, are, with respect to the execution of the laws, in many respects mere ciphers."<sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President George Washington interpreted this clause as imposing on him a unique duty to ensure the execution of federal law. Discussing <a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">a tax rebellion</a>, Washington observed, "it is my duty to see the Laws executed: to permit them to be trampled upon with impunity would be repugnant to [that duty]."<sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">United States Assistant Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_E._Dellinger_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter E. Dellinger III">Walter E. Dellinger III</a>, the Supreme Court and the Attorneys General have long interpreted the Take Care Clause to mean that the president has no inherent constitutional authority to suspend the enforcement of the laws, particularly of statutes.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Take Care Clause demands that the president obey the law, the Supreme Court said in <i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a></i>, and repudiates any notion that he may dispense with the law's execution.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Printz_v._United_States" title="Printz v. United States">Printz v. United States</a></i>, the Supreme Court explained how the president executes the law: "The Constitution does not leave to speculation who is to administer the laws enacted by Congress; the president, it says, "shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed," Art. II, §3, personally and through officers whom he appoints (save for such inferior officers as Congress may authorize to be appointed by the "Courts of Law" or by "the Heads of Departments" with other presidential appointees), Art. II, §2."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The president may not prevent a member of the executive branch from performing a ministerial duty lawfully imposed upon him by Congress. (See <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i> (1803); and <i>Kendall v. United States ex rel. Stokes</i> (1838).) Nor may the president take an action not authorized either by the Constitution or by a lawful statute. (See <i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i> (1952).) Finally, the president may not refuse to enforce a constitutional law, or "cancel" certain appropriations, for that would amount to an extra-constitutional veto or suspension power.<sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some presidents have claimed the authority under this clause to impound money appropriated by Congress. President Jefferson, for example, delayed the expenditure of money appropriated for the purchase of gunboats for over a year. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and his successors sometimes refused outright to expend appropriated money.<sup id="cite_ref-THF20121012_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THF20121012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court, however, has held that impoundments without Congressional authorization are unconstitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-Prakash_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prakash-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been asserted that the president's responsibility in the "faithful" execution of the laws entitles him to suspend the privilege of the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">writ of <i>habeas corpus</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article One provides that the privilege may not be suspended save during times of rebellion or invasion, but it does not specify who may suspend the privilege. The Supreme Court ruled that Congress may suspend the privilege if it deems it necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> suspended the privilege, but, owing to the vehement opposition he faced, obtained congressional authorization for the same.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the privilege of the writ has only been suspended upon the express authorization of Congress, except in the case of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Surratt" title="Mary Surratt">Mary Surratt</a>, whose writ was suspended by President Andrew Johnson regarding her alleged involvement in the assassination of President Lincoln. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_v._Johnson" title="Mississippi v. Johnson">Mississippi v. Johnson</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_71" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 71">71</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/71/475/">475</a> (1867), the Supreme Court ruled that the judiciary may not restrain the president in the execution of the laws. In that case the Supreme Court refused to entertain a request for an injunction preventing President Andrew Johnson from executing the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a>, which were claimed to be unconstitutional. The Court found that "[t]he Congress is the legislative department of the government; the president is the executive department. Neither can be restrained in its action by the judicial department; though the acts of both, when performed, are, in proper cases, subject to its cognizance."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the courts cannot bar the passage of a law by Congress, though it may later strike down such a law as unconstitutional. A similar construction applies to the executive branch. <span class="anchor" id="Section_3,_Clause_6"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_6:_Officers'_commissions"><span id="Clause_6:_Officers.27_commissions"></span>Clause 6: Officers' commissions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Clause 6: Officers' commissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The president commissions "all the Officers of the United States". These include officers in both military and foreign service. (Under Article I, Section 8, the States have authority for "the Appointment of the Officers ... of the [State] <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">Militia</a> ...") </p><p>The presidential authority to commission officers had a large impact on the 1803 case <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>, where outgoing Federalist President <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> feverishly signed many commissions to the judiciary on his final day in office, hoping to, as incoming Democratic-Republican President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> put it, "[retire] into the judiciary as a stronghold". However, in his haste, Adams' secretary of State neglected to have all the commissions delivered. Incoming President Jefferson was enraged with Adams, and ordered his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">secretary of State</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, to refrain from delivering the remaining commissions. <a href="/wiki/William_Marbury" title="William Marbury">William Marbury</a> took the matter to the Supreme Court, where it held that the commissions were valid, and the courts generally had the power to order them delivered and should have done so (a ruling that established the principle of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review in the United States</a>), but refused to issue the orders itself on the grounds that the law giving it original jurisdiction over such cases was unconstitutional. <span class="anchor" id="Section_4"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Section_4:_Removal_of_convicted_criminals_from_office">Section 4: Removal of convicted criminals from office</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Section 4: Removal of convicted criminals from office"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Federal impeachment in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_trial_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment trial in the United States">Federal impeachment trial in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treason_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Treason laws in the United States">Treason laws in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/High_crimes_and_misdemeanors" title="High crimes and misdemeanors">High crimes and misdemeanors</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Speaker_and_other_officers;_Impeachment" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One of the United States Constitution § Clause 5: Speaker and other officers; Impeachment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_6:_Trial_of_impeachment" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One of the United States Constitution § Clause 6: Trial of impeachment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_3:_Treason" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution § Section 3: Treason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/High_misdemeanor" title="High misdemeanor">High misdemeanor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg/310px-Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg/465px-Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg/620px-Andrew_Johnson_impeachment_trial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the impeachment trial of President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> in 1868, with <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase</a> presiding</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other <a href="/wiki/High_crimes_and_misdemeanors#United_States" title="High crimes and misdemeanors">high Crimes and Misdemeanors</a>.</p></blockquote> <p>The Constitution also allows for involuntary removal from office of the president, vice president, <a href="/wiki/White_House_Cabinet_Secretary" title="White House Cabinet Secretary">Cabinet secretaries</a>, and other executive officers, as well as judges, who may be <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeached</a> by the House of Representatives and tried in the Senate. </p><p>Any official convicted by the Senate is immediately removed from office, and to prevent the President's Article II appointment power from being used as a de facto pardon the Senate may also vote by a simple majority that the removed official be forever disqualified from holding any future <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Officer of the United States">office under the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:Hinds_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Hinds-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 71
Quotation: "Removal and disqualification are so associated together that they can not be separated. You cannot pronounce a judgment of removal without disqualifying; and you can not pronounce a judgment of disqualification without removal, because the judgment which the Constitution requires you to pronounce is a judgment of removal and disqualification—not removal or disqualification"" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">71</span> </sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constitutional law expert Senator <a href="/wiki/Matthew_H._Carpenter" title="Matthew H. Carpenter">Matthew Carpenter</a> reported that without the permanent disqualification clause impeachment would have no effect, because the President could simply reinstate his impeached officers "the next morning".<sup id="cite_ref-:Hinds_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Hinds-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 36
Quotation: "The disqualification clause of punishment was evidently put in for the purpose of making the power of removal by impeachment effectual ... You might impose it where you had removed an officer appointed by the President whom the President could reinstate. You could stop that by fixing disability upon the officer; and that I take to have been the sole purpose of this clause."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">36</span> </sup> </p><p>While no other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCongressional_Research_Service_Library_Of_Congress2017" class="citation web cs1">Congressional Research Service Library Of Congress (2017). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Boumediene+v.+Bush%2C+128+S.+Ct.+2229%2C+2237-2238+%282008%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_case%3Fcase%3D7239470899724667152%26q%3Dcoram%2Bnobis%26hl%3Den%26as&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArticle+Two+of+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellery1907" class="citation book cs1">Sellery, George Clarke (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lincolnssuspens00sellgoog"><i>Lincoln's Suspension of Habeas Corpus as Viewed by Congress</i></a>. University of Wisconsin. p. 52<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 7,</span> 2018</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln%27s+Suspension+of+Habeas+Corpus+as+Viewed+by+Congress&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Sellery&rft.aufirst=George+Clarke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flincolnssuspens00sellgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArticle+Two+of+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Johnson</i>, at 500</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Hinds-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Hinds_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Hinds_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3/html/GPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3-12.htm">"Hinds' Precedents, Volume 3 - Chapter 63 - Nature of Impeachment: Accused may be tried after resignation, § 2007"</a>. <i>www.govinfo.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210312223909/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3/html/GPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3-12.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.govinfo.gov&rft.atitle=Hinds%27+Precedents%2C+Volume+3+-+Chapter+63+-+Nature+of+Impeachment%3A+Accused+may+be+tried+after+resignation%2C+%C2%A7+2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FGPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3%2Fhtml%2FGPO-HPREC-HINDS-V3-12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArticle+Two+of+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Alcee_Hastings" title="Alcee Hastings">Alcee Hastings</a>, who was removed as a federal judge in 1989. Despite this, Hastings was not disqualified from serving in another federal office, and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1992, where he currently serves.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoley2019" class="citation news cs1">Foley, Edward B. (September 25, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/09/25/congress-should-remove-trump-from-office-but-let-him-run-again-228228">"Congress Should Remove Trump from Office, But Let Him Run Again in 2020"</a>. Politico.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Congress+Should+Remove+Trump+from+Office%2C+But+Let+Him+Run+Again+in+2020&rft.date=2019-09-25&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=Edward+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fmagazine%2Fstory%2F2019%2F09%2F25%2Fcongress-should-remove-trump-from-office-but-let-him-run-again-228228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArticle+Two+of+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-4/judgment-removal-and-disqualification">"Judgment—Removal and Disqualification"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cornell_Law_School" title="Cornell Law School">Cornell Law School</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Law+School&rft.atitle=Judgment%E2%80%94Removal+and+Disqualification&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fconstitution-conan%2Farticle-2%2Fsection-4%2Fjudgment-removal-and-disqualification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArticle+Two+of+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <i>Ritter v. United States</i>, 677 F.2d 957 (2d. Cir. 19) 84 Ct. Cl. 293, 300 (Ct. Cl. 1936) ("While the Senate in one sense acts as a court on the trial of an impeachment, it is essentially a political body and in its actions is influenced by the views of its members on the public welfare."); Staff of House Committee on the Judiciary, 93D Cong., Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment 24 (Comm. Print 1974) ("The purpose of impeachment is not personal punishment; its function is primarily to maintain constitutional government.") (citation omitted), reprinted in 3 Lewis Deschler, <i>Deschler's Precedents of the United States House of Representatives</i>, H.R. DOC. NO. 94‒661 ch. 14, app. at 2269 (1977).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America#Article_II" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America">Article Two of the United States Constitution</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211012558/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/browse.html">Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). <i>The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/art2toc_user.html">CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 2</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_pard.html">Mount, Steve. (2003). "Presidential Pardons."</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> 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