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id="toc-U.S._Attorney_General,_1940–1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court,_1941–1954" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Supreme_Court,_1941–1954"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>U.S. Supreme Court, 1941–1954</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court,_1941–1954-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle U.S. Supreme Court, 1941–1954 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court,_1941–1954-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feud_with_Hugo_Black" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feud_with_Hugo_Black"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Feud with Hugo Black</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feud_with_Hugo_Black-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dennis_v._United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dennis_v._United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span><i>Dennis v. United States</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dennis_v._United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Clear_and_present_danger"_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Clear_and_present_danger"_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>"Clear and present danger" test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Clear_and_present_danger"_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jackson's_concurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jackson's_concurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Jackson's concurrence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jackson's_concurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>Conclusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conclusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korematsu_v._United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korematsu_v._United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span><i>Korematsu v. United States</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korematsu_v._United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jackson's_dissent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jackson's_dissent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Jackson's dissent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jackson's_dissent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown_v._Board_of_Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Procedural_due_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Procedural_due_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Procedural due process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Procedural_due_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal,_1945–1946" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Military_Tribunal,_1945–1946"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>International Military Tribunal, 1945–1946</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Military_Tribunal,_1945–1946-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Honors and awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portrayal_in_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portrayal_in_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Portrayal in popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portrayal_in_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert H. Jackson</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="روبرت جاكسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روبرت جاكسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="رابرت جکسن – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رابرت جکسن" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Роберт Джэксан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Роберт Джэксан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="رابرت جکسن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابرت جکسن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Jackson_(juriste)" title="Robert Jackson (juriste) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Robert Jackson (juriste)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BF_%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Ռոբերտ Ջեքսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռոբերտ Ջեքսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Houghwout_Jackson" title="Robert Houghwout Jackson – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Robert Houghwout Jackson" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%98_%D7%94._%D7%92%27%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="רוברט ה. ג'קסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רוברט ה. ג'קסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_(%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89)" title="روبرت جاكسون (محامى) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روبرت جاكسون (محامى)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Houghwout_Jackson" title="Robert Houghwout Jackson – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Robert Houghwout Jackson" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BD%E3%83%B3_(%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%AE%B6)" title="ロバート・ジャクソン (法律家) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロバート・ジャクソン (法律家)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Houghwout_Jackson" title="Robert Houghwout Jackson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Robert Houghwout Jackson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82" title="Джексон, Роберт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Джексон, Роберт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Robert H. Jackson" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Роберт Джексон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Роберт Джексон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7H%C2%B7%E6%9D%B0%E5%85%8B%E9%80%8A" title="罗伯特·H·杰克逊 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="罗伯特·H·杰克逊" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">US Supreme Court justice from 1941 to 1954</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the photographer, see <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson_(photographer)" title="Robert H. Jackson (photographer)">Robert H. Jackson (photographer)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Robert H. Jackson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Service-pnp-hec-21600-21656v_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait of Jackson</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />July 11, 1941 – October 9, 1954</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Nominated by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">57th <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />January 18, 1940 – August 25, 1941</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">24th <a href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />March 5, 1938 – January 18, 1940</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Forman Reed</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">United States Assistant Attorney General for the Antitrust Division</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />January 21, 1937 – March 4, 1938</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Lord_O%27Brian" title="John Lord O'Brian">John Lord O'Brian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thurman_Arnold" title="Thurman Arnold">Thurman Arnold</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">United States Assistant Attorney General for the Tax Division</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />February 26, 1936 – January 21, 1937</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Franklin D. Roosevelt</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Frank J. Wideman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">James W. Morris</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Assistant General Counsel for the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Bureau of Internal Revenue</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />February 1, 1934 – February 26, 1936</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Franklin D. Roosevelt</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/E._Barrett_Prettyman" title="E. Barrett Prettyman">E. Barrett Prettyman</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Morrison Shafroth</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Robert Houghwout Jackson</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1892-02-13</span>)</span>February 13, 1892<br /><a href="/wiki/Spring_Creek_Township,_Warren_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Spring Creek Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania">Spring Creek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">October 9, 1954<span style="display:none">(1954-10-09)</span> (aged 62)<br /><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Irene Gerhardt</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1916)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albany_Law_School" title="Albany Law School">Albany Law School</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Robert Houghwout Jackson</b> (February 13, 1892 – October 9, 1954) was an American lawyer, jurist, and politician who served as an <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court</a> from 1941 until his death in 1954. He had previously served as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a>, and is the only person to have held all three of those offices. Jackson was also notable for his work as Chief United States Prosecutor at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a> of Nazi war criminals following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Jackson developed a reputation as one of the best writers on the Supreme Court and one of the most committed to enforcing <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> as protection from overreaching federal agencies. </p><p>Jackson was the most recent <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> justice who did not earn a <a href="/wiki/Law_degree" title="Law degree">law degree </a>. He was <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">admitted to the bar</a> via the older tradition of an internship under an established lawyer ("<a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">reading law</a>") after studying at <a href="/wiki/Albany_Law_School" title="Albany Law School">Albany Law School</a> for a year.<sup id="cite_ref-DoJ_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DoJ-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson is recognized for his advice that, "Any lawyer worth his salt will tell the suspect, in no uncertain terms, to make no statement to the police under any circumstances",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for his <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorism</a> describing the Supreme Court, "We are not final because we are infallible, but we are infallible only because we are final."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was viewed as a moderate <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberal</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is known for his dissents in <i><a href="/wiki/Terminiello_v._City_of_Chicago" title="Terminiello v. City of Chicago">Terminiello v. City of Chicago</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Zorach_v._Clauson" title="Zorach v. Clauson">Zorach v. Clauson</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i>, as well as his majority opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i> and his concurring opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i>. Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>, who occupied the seat once held by Jackson, considered Jackson to be "the best legal stylist of the 20th century".<sup id="cite_ref-Garner_2018_p._5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garner_2018_p.-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jackson was born on his family's farm in <a href="/wiki/Spring_Creek_Township,_Warren_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Spring Creek Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania">Spring Creek Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania</a>, on February 13, 1892, and was raised in <a href="/wiki/Frewsburg,_New_York" title="Frewsburg, New York">Frewsburg, New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The son of William Eldred Jackson and Angelina Houghwout, he graduated from Frewsburg High School in 1909<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spent the next year as a post-graduate student attending <a href="/wiki/Jamestown_High_School_(New_York)" title="Jamestown High School (New York)">Jamestown High School</a>, where he worked to improve his writing skills.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson decided on a legal career; since attendance at college or law school was not a requirement if a student learned under the tutelage of an established attorney, at age 18 he began to <a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">read law</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_New_York" title="Jamestown, New York">Jamestown, New York</a>, firm in which his uncle, Frank Mott, was a partner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His uncle soon introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, who was then serving as a member of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Senate" title="New York State Senate">New York State Senate</a>. Jackson attended <a href="/wiki/Albany_Law_School" title="Albany Law School">Albany Law School</a> of <a href="/wiki/Union_University_(New_York)" title="Union University (New York)">Union University</a> from 1911 to 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, students at Albany Law School had three options: taking individual courses without receiving a degree, completing a two-year program and receiving an <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of law">LL.B.</a> degree, or demonstrating the knowledge required of a first-year student and then taking the second year of the two-year program, which produced a <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_completion" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of completion">certificate of completion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson chose the third option; he successfully completed the second-year courses, and received his certificate in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his year at Albany Law School, Jackson returned to Jamestown to complete his studies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attained <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">admission to the bar</a> in 1913 at age twenty-one,<sup id="cite_ref-DoJ_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DoJ-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then joined a law practice in Jamestown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1916, he married Irene Alice Gerhardt, in Albany.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1917, Jackson was recruited to work for Penney, Killeen & Nye, a leading <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a> firm, primarily defending the <a href="/wiki/International_Railway_(New_York%E2%80%93Ontario)" title="International Railway (New York–Ontario)">International Railway Company</a> in trials and appeals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1918, Jackson was recruited back to Jamestown to serve as the city's <a href="/wiki/Corporation_counsel" title="Corporation counsel">corporation counsel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the next 15 years, he built a successful practice, and became a leading lawyer in New York State; he also enhanced his reputation nationally, through leadership roles with bar associations and other legal organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, Jackson was elected to membership in the American Law Institute; in 1933, he was elected Chairman of the American Bar Association's Conference of Bar Association Delegates (a predecessor to today's ABA House of Delegates).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945''_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945''-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson became active in politics as a <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrat</a>; <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election_in_New_York" title="1916 United States presidential election in New York">in 1916</a>, he spearheaded Jamestown's local <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson for President</a> organization.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years during and after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, he was a member of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Democratic_Party" title="New York State Democratic Party">New York State Democratic Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also continued his association with Roosevelt; when Roosevelt served as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> from 1929 to 1933, he appointed Jackson to a commission which reviewed the state judicial system and proposed reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served on that commission from 1931 to 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson also turned down Roosevelt's offer to appoint him to the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Public_Service_Commission" title="New York Public Service Commission">New York Public Service Commission</a>, because he preferred to remain in private practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_Deal_Justice''_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Deal_Justice''-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federal_appointments,_1934–1938"><span id="Federal_appointments.2C_1934.E2.80.931938"></span>Federal appointments, 1934–1938</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Federal appointments, 1934–1938"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">In 1932</a>, Jackson was active in Franklin Roosevelt's presidential campaign as chairman of an organization called Democratic Lawyers for Roosevelt.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Another Robert H. Jackson was also active in the Roosevelt campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That Jackson (1880–1973) was Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">Democratic National Committee</a>, and was a resident of <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1934, Jackson agreed to join the Roosevelt administration; he served initially as Assistant General Counsel of the U.S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Internal Revenue (today's <a href="/wiki/U.S._Internal_Revenue_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a>), where he was in charge of 300 lawyers who tried cases before the Board of Tax Appeals.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936, Jackson became <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">Assistant Attorney General</a>, heading the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Tax_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Tax Division">Tax Division of the Department of Justice</a>, and in 1937, he became Assistant Attorney General, heading the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Antitrust_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division">Antitrust Division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson was a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>, litigating against corporations and utilities holding companies.<sup id="cite_ref-Forgotten344-349_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forgotten344-349-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He participated in the 1934 prosecution of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Insull" title="Samuel Insull">Samuel Insull</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 1935 income tax case against <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Andrew Mellon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 1937 anti-trust case against <a href="/wiki/Alcoa" title="Alcoa">Alcoa</a>, in which the Mellon family held an important interest.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Solicitor_General,_1938–1940"><span id="U.S._Solicitor_General.2C_1938.E2.80.931940"></span>U.S. Solicitor General, 1938–1940</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: U.S. Solicitor General, 1938–1940"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 1938, Jackson became <a href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</a>, succeeding <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Forman Reed</a>, who had been appointed to the Supreme Court. Jackson served as Solicitor General until January 1940, working as the government's chief advocate before the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his time in this post, he argued 44 cases to the Supreme Court on behalf of the federal government, and lost only six.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His record of accomplishment caused Justice <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a> to once remark that Jackson should be Solicitor General for life.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt regarded Jackson as a possible successor to the presidency in 1940, and worked with his staff on an effort to raise Jackson's public profile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their plan was to mention Jackson favorably in presidential remarks as often as possible, and to have Jackson take part frequently in Roosevelt's public appearances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt and his advisers next intended for Jackson to become the Democratic nominee for Governor of New York in 1938. They abandoned their effort to create a groundswell of support for Jackson's gubernatorial candidacy when they ran into resistance from state Democratic Party leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Roosevelt's decision to run for a third term in 1940 rendered moot the need to identify and promote a successor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of running for Governor or President, Jackson joined Roosevelt's cabinet when he was appointed as Attorney General.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Attorney_General,_1940–1941"><span id="U.S._Attorney_General.2C_1940.E2.80.931941"></span>U.S. Attorney General, 1940–1941</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: U.S. Attorney General, 1940–1941"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jackson was appointed as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a> by Roosevelt, on January 4, 1940, replacing <a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a>, whom Roosevelt had appointed to the Supreme Court. As Attorney General, Jackson supported a bill introduced by <a href="/wiki/Sam_Hobbs" title="Sam Hobbs">Sam Hobbs</a> that would have legalized <a href="/wiki/Wiretapping" title="Wiretapping">wiretapping</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>, or any other government agency, if it was suspected that a <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felony</a> was occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bill was opposed by <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) chairman <a href="/wiki/James_Lawrence_Fly" title="James Lawrence Fly">James Lawrence Fly</a>, and it did not pass.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in office, he also helped President Roosevelt organize the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> agreement, which allowed the United States to supply materials to help with the war effort to the Allied forces, before formally entering World War II. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Supreme_Court,_1941–1954"><span id="U.S._Supreme_Court.2C_1941.E2.80.931954"></span>U.S. Supreme Court, 1941–1954</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: U.S. Supreme Court, 1941–1954"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On June 12, 1941, Roosevelt nominated Jackson as an <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justice</a> of the U.S. Supreme Court, to fill the vacancy created when <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</a> replaced <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">chief justice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson was confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> on July 7, 1941,<sup id="cite_ref-RL33225_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RL33225-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and took the <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office#Federal_judiciary_oaths" title="Oath of office">judicial oath of office</a> on July 11, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the Court, he was known for his eloquent writing style and championing of individual liberties. </p><p>In 1943, Jackson wrote the majority opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i>, which overturned a public school regulation making it mandatory to <a href="/wiki/Flag_salute" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag salute">salute the flag</a>, and imposing penalties of expulsion and prosecution upon students who failed to comply. Jackson's stirring language in <i>Barnette</i> concerning individual rights is widely quoted. Jackson's concurring opinion in 1952's <i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i> (forbidding President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a>'s seizure of steel mills during the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> to avert a strike), in which Jackson formulated a three-tier test for evaluating claims of Presidential power, remains one of the most widely cited opinions in Supreme Court history.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feud_with_Hugo_Black">Feud with Hugo Black</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Feud with Hugo Black"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Justices Jackson and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> had profound professional and personal disagreements dating back to October 1941, the first term during which they served together on the Supreme Court. According to <a href="/wiki/Dennis_J._Hutchinson" title="Dennis J. Hutchinson">Dennis Hutchinson</a>, editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Supreme_Court_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Supreme Court Review">The Supreme Court Review</a></i>, Jackson objected to Black's practice of importing his personal preferences into his jurisprudence.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hutchinson quotes Jackson as having remarked, "With few exceptions, we all knew which side of a case Black would vote on when he read the names of the parties."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Hutchinson points out that Jackson objected to Black's style of jurisprudence in such cases as <i><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_Dist._v._Gobitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Minersville School Dist. v. Gobitis">Minersville v. Gobitis</a></i> (1940) and <i>United States v. Bethlehem Steel</i> (1942), Black's involvement in the <i>Jewell Ridge</i> case struck Jackson as especially injudicious. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Jewell_Ridge_Coal_Corp._v._Mine_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers">Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers</a></i> (1945), the Supreme Court faced the issue of whether to grant the coal company's petition for a rehearing, on the grounds that the victorious miners were, in a previous matter, represented by Crampton P. Harris, who was Justice Black's former law partner and personal lawyer. Despite this apparent conflict of interest, Black lobbied the Court for a <a href="/wiki/Per_curiam" class="mw-redirect" title="Per curiam">per curiam</a> denial of the petition. Justice Jackson objected, with the result that Jackson filed a concurrence disassociating himself from the ruling and, by implication, criticizing Black for not addressing the conflict of interest. Jackson also strongly objected to Black's judicial conduct in <i>Jewell Ridge</i> for another reason. As Jackson later alleged, while Justice Murphy was preparing his opinion, Black urged that the Court hand down its decision without waiting for the opinion and dissent. In Jackson's eyes, the "...only apparent reason behind this proposal was to announce the decision in time to influence the contract negotiations during the coal strike" between the coal company and the miners, which were taking place at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson probably regarded Black's conduct as unbecoming of a Supreme Court Justice in another related matter. On April 3, 1945, the Southern Conference for Human Welfare held a dinner, at which it honored Justice Black as the 1945 recipient of the Thomas Jefferson Award. <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> spoke at the dinner. While Jackson declined an invitation to the event, citing a conflict arising out of the fact that a number of leading sponsors of the dinner were then litigants before the Supreme Court, Black attended the dinner and received his award. Crampton Harris, counsel in two pending cases, <i>Jewell Ridge</i> and <i>CIO v. McAdory</i> (1945), was one of the sponsors.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson later took these grievances public in two cables from Nuremberg. Jackson had informally been promised the Chief Justiceship by Roosevelt; however, the seat came open while Jackson was in Germany, and Roosevelt was dead. President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> was faced with two factions, one recommending Jackson for the seat, and the other advocating for <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>. In an attempt to avoid controversy, Truman appointed Vinson. Jackson blamed machinations by Black for his being passed over for the seat, and publicly exposed some of Black's controversial behavior and feuding within the Court. The controversy was heavily covered in the press, casting the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> Court in a negative light, and had the effect of tarnishing Jackson's reputation in the years that followed. </p><p>On June 8, 1946, Jackson sent a cable to President Truman. Jackson's cable to Truman began with an insincere offer of congratulations to the President for his appointment of Vinson. However, the cable then quickly addressed the rumor, which Jackson had gotten wind of in Nuremberg, according to which Truman had appointed Fred Vinson, in part, to avert a resignation on the part of Justice Black. Rumors had been circulating in Washington that Black would resign in the event that Truman chose Jackson as <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> Stone's successor. "I would be loath to believe that you would concede to any man a veto over court appointments."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson closed his cable by stating that he could not continue his service as an Associate Justice under Vinson if an associate "had something on [him]", which would disqualify him from serving, or if he, Truman, regarded Jackson's opinion in the <i>Jewell Ridge</i> case as a "gratuitous insult" to Justice Black.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After receiving a response from Truman in which he denied having given consideration to, or having even heard of, the rumor of Black's threatened resignation, Jackson rashly fired off a second cable to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, on June 10. This cable stated Jackson's reasons for his belief that Justice Black faced a conflict of interest in <i>Jewell Ridge</i>, from which he wrongfully, at least, in Jackson's eyes, did not <a href="/wiki/Judicial_disqualification" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial disqualification">recuse himself</a>, and ended with Jackson's threat that if such a practice "is ever repeated while I am on the bench, I will make my <i>Jewell Ridge</i> opinion look like a letter of recommendation by comparison."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dennis_v._United_States"><i>Dennis v. United States</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dennis v. United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Clear_and_present_danger"_test"><span id=".22Clear_and_present_danger.22_test"></span>"Clear and present danger" test</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: "Clear and present danger" test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clear_and_present_danger" title="Clear and present danger">Clear and present danger</a></div> <p>In 1919, the Supreme Court decided <i><a href="/wiki/Schenck_v._United_States" title="Schenck v. United States">Schenck v. United States</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Schenck, the petitioners, members of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party</a>, were convicted of violating the <a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a> for printing and distributing <a href="/wiki/Flyer_(pamphlet)" title="Flyer (pamphlet)">circulars</a> asserting that American citizens had a right to oppose the draft during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> because, among other things, it violated the United States Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Schenck</i> decision promulgated the "clear and present danger test," which provided the standard for sustaining a conviction when speech is relied upon as evidence that an offense has been committed.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a>, writing for a unanimous court, affirmed the decision of the lower court positing: </p> <blockquote><p>We admit that, in many places and in ordinary times, the defendants, in saying all that was said in the circular, would have been within their constitutional rights. But the character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it is done ... The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances, and are of such a nature as to create a "clear and present danger" that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. It is a question of proximity and degree.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background">Background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1951, the Supreme Court decided <i><a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Dennis, the petitioners were zealous <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communists</a> who organized for the purpose of teaching the "Marxist-Leninist Doctrine."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principal texts used to teach the doctrine were: <i>History of the Communist Party of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></i>; <i>Foundations of Leninism</i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a>; and <i><a href="/wiki/State_and_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="State and Revolution">State and Revolution</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Petitioners were convicted for violating clause 2 and clause 3 of the Smith Act which, among other things, made it unlawful to conspire to organize a group which advocates the overthrow of the United States government by force or violence.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue before the Supreme Court was "[w]hether either §2 or §3 of the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>, inherently, or as construed and applied in the instant case, violates the First Amendment and other provisions of the Bill of Rights ..."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jackson's_concurrence"><span id="Jackson.27s_concurrence"></span>Jackson's concurrence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jackson's concurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Dennis</i>, Jackson concluded that the "clear and present danger test" should not be applied.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this end, Jackson analyzed: the effect Communism had outside the United States; the nature of Communists; and the problems with applying the test. Jackson's analysis can be summarized as follows: </p><p>On the effect that Communists historically had on foreign countries, Jackson analyzed their effect on <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Czechoslovakia, a Communist organization disguised as a competing political faction secretly established its roots in key control positions "of police and information services."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a period of national crisis, a clandestine Communist organization appeared and overthrew the Czechoslovakian government. Establishing control of mass communication and industry, the Communist organization's rule was one of "oppression and terror." Ironically, as Jackson points out, the Communist organization suppressed the very freedoms which made its conspiracy possible.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the nature of Communists, Jackson characterized them as an extraordinarily dedicated and highly selective group, disciplined and indoctrinated by Communist policy.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of Party members is to secretly infiltrate key positions of government, industry, and unions and to leverage their power once in such positions.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson goes on to say that, although "Communist[s] have no scruples against sabotage, terrorism, assassination, or mob disorder," they "advocate force only when prudent," which "may never be necessary, because infiltration and deception may be enough."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the problems with applying the clear and present danger test in <i>Dennis</i>, Jackson deemed significant that the test was authored "before the era of World War II revealed the subtlety and efficacy of modernized revolutionary technique used by totalitarian parties."<sup id="cite_ref-Id._at_568_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Id._at_568-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson believed that the application of the test should be limited to cases bearing strong enough likeness to those for which it was originally crafted – i.e., "...criminality of hot-headed speech on a street corner, or parading by some zealots behind a red flag, or refusal of a handful of Jehovah Witness school children to salute our flag."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expressing strong concern that the expansive construction the Court had recently given the test in <i>Bridges v. California,</i><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson asserted that the test provided Communists with "unprecedented immunities," while the "Government is captive in a judge-made verbal trap."<sup id="cite_ref-Id._at_568_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Id._at_568-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson goes on to describe the application of the test to Communists, when determining the constitutionality of the Smith Act facially, or as applied as one of "...apprais[ing] imponderables, including international and national phenomena, which baffle the best informed foreign offices and our most experienced politicians."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson concludes his First Amendment analysis in <i>Dennis</i> by asserting that: </p> <blockquote><p>The authors of the "clear and present danger test" never applied it to a case like this, nor would I. If applied as it is proposed here, it means that the Communist plotting is protected during its period of incubation; its preliminary stages of organization and preparation are immune from the law; the Government can move only after imminent action is manifest, when it would, of course, be too late.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conclusion">Conclusion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conclusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the end, the Court applied its own version of the "clear and present danger test" in <i>Dennis</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> essentially disregarding the analytical elements of probability and temporality which had previously appeared to be requirements of the doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson, however, as one commentator put it, expressed in <i>Dennis</i> (at least with regards to Communists) that, "when used as part of a conspiracy to act illegally, speech loses its First Amendment protection."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korematsu_v._United_States"><i>Korematsu v. United States</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Korematsu v. United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background_2">Background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, there was great suspicion surrounding Japanese-Americans, particularly those residing on the West Coast of the United States. Roosevelt issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a> on February 19, 1942, giving the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> permission to declare some zones "military zones" in which they could prohibit certain people from accessing prescribed areas. With this executive order, the War Department was able to declare that all United States citizens of Japanese ancestry were prohibited from areas in California that were deemed unsafe for Japanese-American habitation for national security purposes, and it forced them into internment camps. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fred_Korematsu" title="Fred Korematsu">Fred Korematsu</a>, born to Japanese parents on American soil, believed that this was an unconstitutional infringement on an individual's civil liberty. The question that came before the Supreme Court was whether the Executive and Legislative branches went beyond their war powers by depriving citizens of rights with no criminal basis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jackson's_dissent"><span id="Jackson.27s_dissent"></span>Jackson's dissent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Jackson's dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court decided that the President and Congress did not stretch their war powers too far by choosing national security over an individual's rights in a time of war. Justice Hugo Black wrote the majority opinion for this case, and Jackson wrote a dissenting opinion. The opening paragraph of Jackson's dissent illustrated his view of the case: </p> <blockquote><p>Korematsu was born on our soil, of parents born in Japan. The Constitution makes him a citizen of the United States by nativity, and a citizen of California by residence. No claim is made that he is not loyal to this country. There is no suggestion that apart from the matter involved here, he is not law-abiding and well- disposed. Korematsu, however, has been convicted of an act not commonly a crime. It consists merely of being present in the state whereof he is a citizen, near the place where he was born, and where all his life he has lived.<sup id="cite_ref-BanksSmolla2010_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BanksSmolla2010-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Jackson warned of the danger that this great allowance of executive power presented, through the War Department's ability to deprive individuals of their rights in favor of national security in time of war: </p> <blockquote><p>But if we cannot confine military expedients by the Constitution, neither would I distort the Constitution to approve all that the military may deem expedient. That is what the Court appears to be doing, whether consciously or not. I cannot say, from any evidence before me, that the orders of General DeWitt were not reasonably expedient military precautions, nor could I say that they were. But even if they were permissible military procedures, I deny that it follows that they are constitutional. If, as the Court holds, it does follow, then we may as well say that any military order will be constitutional, and have done with it.<sup id="cite_ref-BarnettKatz2014_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BarnettKatz2014-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Jackson was not concerned in evaluating the validity of DeWitt's claim that the internment of Japanese citizens on the West Coast was necessary for national security purposes, but whether this would set a precedent of war-time racial discrimination that would be used to strip individual liberties. </p> <blockquote><p>But once a judicial opinion rationalizes such an order to show that it conforms to the Constitution, or rather rationalizes the Constitution to show that the Constitution sanctions such an order, the Court for all time has validated the principles of racial discrimination in criminal procedure, and of transplanting American citizens. The principle then lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need. Every repetition imbeds that principle more deeply in our law and thinking, and expands it to new purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/220px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/330px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg/440px-Warren_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>Robert H. Jackson, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, in 1953: second from the left, in the back row. Also pictured are, from the left, in the bottom row: Felix Frankfurter; Hugo Black; Earl Warren (Chief Justice); Stanley Reed; William O. Douglas. In the back row, from left: Tom Clark; Robert H. Jackson; Harold Burton; Sherman Minton</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown_v._Board_of_Education"><i>Brown v. Board of Education</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brown v. Board of Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></div> <p>One of Jackson's <a href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">law clerks</a> during 1952 – 53, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Rehnquist">William H. Rehnquist</a>, was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1971, and became chief justice in 1986. In December 1971, after Rehnquist's nomination had been approved by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> and was pending before the full Senate, a 1952 <a href="/wiki/Bench_memorandum" title="Bench memorandum">memorandum</a> came to light that he had written as Jackson's law clerk in connection with the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> that argued in favor of affirming the separate-but-equal doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>. Rehnquist wrote a brief letter attributing the views to Jackson, and was confirmed. In his 1986 hearing, he was questioned about the matter. His explanation of the memorandum was disputed in both 1971 and 1986 by Jackson's former secretary, and scholars have questioned its plausibility. However, the papers of Justices Douglas and Frankfurter indicate that Jackson voted for <i>Brown</i> in 1954 only after changing his mind.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The views of Justice Jackson about <i>Brown</i> can be found in his 1954 unpublished draft concurrence.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Memorandum by Mr. Justice Jackson, March 15th, 1954", is available with Jackson's papers in the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, but did not become publicly available until after Rehnquist's 1986 hearing for chief justice. Jackson's draft concurrence in <i>Brown</i>, divided into four parts, shows how he struggled with how to write an effective opinion to strike down segregation. In Part 1 of Jackson's draft concurrence in <i>Brown</i>, he wrote that he went to school where "Negro pupils were very few" and that he was "predisposed to the conclusion that segregation elsewhere has outlived whatever justification it may have had." Despite his own opinions regarding desegregation, Jackson acknowledged the inability of the Court to "eradicate" the "fears, prides and prejudices" that made segregation an important social practice in the South. Jackson thus concluded that the Northerners on the Court should be sensitive to the conditions that brought segregation to the South. </p><p>In Part 2 of the draft <a href="/wiki/Bench_memorandum" title="Bench memorandum">memorandum</a>, Jackson described the legal framework for forbidding segregation in "Does Existing Law Condemn Segregation?". Jackson notes that it was difficult for the Court, which expected "not to make new law, but only to declare existing law," to overturn a decision of such longevity as <i>Plessy</i>. Looking at the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_intent" title="Original intent">original intent</a> with regard to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, Jackson found no evidence that segregation was prohibited, particularly since states that had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment had segregated schools at the time. Jackson concluded, "I simply cannot find in the conventional material of constitutional interpretation any justification for saying" that segregated schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment. </p><p>Part 3 of the draft memorandum, titled "Enforcement Power Limits", describes enforcement by Congress of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jackson addressed the possibility of leaving enforcement to Congress, particularly because the "courts have no power to enforce general declarations of law." Jackson noted that while segregation was already fading in some states, it would be difficult to overcome in those states where segregation was firmly established. While Jackson recognized the difficulties in the Supreme Court enforcing its judgment, he did not want the task to be left to the lower courts, as suggested by the Government. Jackson concluded that the Court must act because "our representative system has failed", and even though this "premise is not a sound basis for judicial action." </p><p>Finally, in Part 4 of the draft memorandum, "Changed Conditions", Jackson began by stating that prior to <i>Brown</i>, segregation was legal. According to Jackson, the premise for overruling <i>Plessy</i> was the now erroneous "factual assumption" that "there were differences between the Negro and the white races, viewed as a whole." The draft asserted that the "spectacular" progress of African-Americans, under adverse circumstances, "enabled [them] to outgrow the system and to overcome the presumptions on which it was based." Jackson emphasized that the changed conditions, along with the importance of a public education, required the Court to strike down the concept of "separate but equal" in public education. While Jackson could not justify the decision in <i>Brown</i> in law, he did so on the basis of a political and social imperative. It is unknown if Jackson ever intended to publish this concurrence. </p><p>Jackson was in the hospital from March 30 to May 17, 1954. It is reported that Chief Justice Warren visited Jackson in the hospital several times, and discussed both Jackson's draft opinion and Warren's drafts. One suggestion that Warren took from Jackson was adding the following sentence: "Negroes have achieved outstanding success in the arts and sciences, as well as in the business and professional world."<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This quote is tied to the arguments in Part 4 of Jackson's draft opinion. On May 17, 1954, Jackson went to the Court from the hospital, so that he could be there the day that the <i>Brown</i> decision was handed down. When the <i>Brown</i> decision was handed down, a full court was present, to emphasize the unanimity of the decision. Robert H. Jackson died on October 9, 1954, and so there was not enough time between <i>Brown</i> and the death of Jackson to fully explore his views on desegregation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Procedural_due_process">Procedural due process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Procedural due process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jackson was a staunch defender (along with <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Procedural_due_process" title="Procedural due process">procedural due process</a>, for the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> that protects members of the public from overreaching by government agencies. One of his hymns to due process is often quoted:<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Procedural fairness, if not all that originally was meant by due process of law, is at least what it most uncompromisingly requires. Procedural due process is more elemental and less flexible than substantive due process. It yields less to the times, varies less with conditions, and defers much less to legislative judgment. Insofar as it is technical law, it must be a specialized responsibility within the competence of the judiciary on which they do not bend before political branches of the Government, as they should on matters of policy which compromise substantive law. If it be conceded that in some way [the agency could take the action it did], does it matter what the procedure is? Only the untaught layman or the charlatan lawyer can answer that procedure matters not. Procedural fairness and regularity are of the indispensable essence of liberty. Severe substantive laws can be endured if they are fairly and impartially applied. Indeed, if put to the choice, one might well prefer to live under Soviet substantive law applied in good faith by our common-law procedures, than under our substantive law enforced by Soviet procedural practices. Let it not be overlooked that due process of law is not for the sole benefit of an accused. It is the best insurance for the Government itself against those blunders which leave lasting stains on a system of justice but which are bound to occur on <i>ex parte</i> consideration.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/220px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/330px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/440px-Prosecutor_Robert_Jackson_at_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1693" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Chief U.S. Prosecutor at the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, Germany, Robert H. Jackson,1945-46</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_Military_Tribunal,_1945–1946"><span id="International_Military_Tribunal.2C_1945.E2.80.931946"></span>International Military Tribunal, 1945–1946</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: International Military Tribunal, 1945–1946"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Opening_address_for_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Opening address for the United States">Opening address for the United States</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg/220px-Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg/330px-Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg/440px-Jackson_Nuremberg_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="978" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Robert H. Jackson, Chief U.S. Prosecutor at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, Germany, 1945–46</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1945, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> appointed Jackson (who took a leave of absence from the Supreme Court), as U.S. Chief of Counsel for the prosecution of Nazi war criminals. He helped draft the <a href="/wiki/London_Charter_of_the_International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="London Charter of the International Military Tribunal">London Charter of the International Military Tribunal</a>, which created the legal basis for the Nuremberg Trials. He then served in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg, Germany</a>, as United States Chief Prosecutor at the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson pursued his prosecutorial role with a great deal of vigor. His opening and closing arguments before the Nuremberg court were widely celebrated.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the words of defendant <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a>, the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Armaments_and_War_Production" title="Reich Ministry of Armaments and War Production">Minister of Armaments and War Production</a>, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The trial began with the grand, devastating opening address by the Chief American Prosecutor, Justice Robert H. Jackson. But I took comfort from one sentence in it which accused the defendants of guilt for the regime's crimes, but not the German people.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, some believe that his cross-examination skills were generally weak, and it was British prosecutor <a href="/wiki/David_Maxwell_Fyfe" class="mw-redirect" title="David Maxwell Fyfe">David Maxwell Fyfe</a> who got the better of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> in cross-examination, rather than Jackson, who was rebuked by the Tribunal for losing his temper and being repeatedly baited by Göring during the proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On March 30, 1954, Jackson suffered a massive <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>. He was confined to the hospital until May 17 when he returned to the Court for the announcement of the <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education"><i>Brown</i></a> decision. He remained functioning in his position as Justice until October 4, 1954. On Saturday, October 9, 1954, Jackson had another heart attack. At 11:45 a.m. he died at age 62.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Funeral services were held in Washington's National Cathedral<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later in Jamestown's St. Luke's Church. All eight of the other Supreme Court Justices traveled together to Jamestown, New York, to attend his funeral service; the last time, for security purposes, that the Supreme Court all traveled together. Other prominent guests included <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was interred near his boyhood home in <a href="/wiki/Frewsburg,_New_York" title="Frewsburg, New York">Frewsburg, New York</a>. His headstone reads "He kept the ancient landmarks and built the new."<sup id="cite_ref-HorvitzCatherwood2014_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HorvitzCatherwood2014-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson was the last justice to die while in active service to the Court until his former law clerk, now Chief Justice Rehnquist's passing on September 3, 2005, and the last Associate Justice to die while in active service until <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a>, who occupied the seat Jackson once held, on February 13, 2016. </p><p><a href="/wiki/The_Robert_H_Jackson_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="The Robert H Jackson Center">The Robert H. Jackson Center</a> in Jackson's hometown of Jamestown, New York, offers guided tours to visitors who can see exhibits on Jackson's life, collections of his writings, and photos from the International Military Tribunal.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An extensive collection of Jackson's personal and judicial papers is archived at the Manuscript Division of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> and is open for research. Smaller collections are available at several other repositories.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are statues dedicated to Jackson outside the Robert H. Jackson Center in Jamestown, New York, as well as the Robert H. Jackson field at the Chautauqua County-Jamestown Airport. The United States District Court for the Western District of New York main courthouse, which is located in Buffalo and opened in November 2011, is dedicated to Jackson and is named the <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson_United_States_Courthouse" title="Robert H. Jackson United States Courthouse">Robert H. Jackson United States Courthouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_awards">Honors and awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Honors and awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Awarded the Medal for Merit by President Harry Truman on February 7, 1947.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Portrayal_in_popular_culture">Portrayal in popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Portrayal in popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jackson has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television, and theater productions: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_%C5%81apicki" title="Andrzej Łapicki">Andrzej Łapicki</a>, in the 1970 Polish TV production <i><a href="/wiki/Epilog_norymberski" title="Epilog norymberski">Epilog norymberski</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Antczak" title="Jerzy Antczak">Jerzy Antczak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henderson_Forsythe" title="Henderson Forsythe">Henderson Forsythe</a>, in the 1991 telefilm <i><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_Equal_(film)" title="Separate but Equal (film)">Separate but Equal</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Baldwin" title="Alec Baldwin">Alec Baldwin</a>, in the 2000 Canadian/U.S. TV production <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_(2000_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg (2000 film)">Nuremberg</a></i></li> <li>Edmund Dehn, in the 2005 German TV miniseries <i><a href="/wiki/Speer_und_Er" title="Speer und Er">Speer und Er</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Stinton" title="Colin Stinton">Colin Stinton</a>, in the 2006 British television docudrama <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg:_Nazis_on_Trial" title="Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial">Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shannon" title="Michael Shannon">Michael Shannon</a>, in the 2024 U.S. film <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_(upcoming_film)" title="Nuremberg (upcoming film)">Nuremberg</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:_Robert_Houghwout_Jackson" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author: Robert Houghwout Jackson">Author: Robert Houghwout Jackson</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers under the United States Constitution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DoJ-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DoJ_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DoJ_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov/osg/bio/robert-h-jackson">"Solicitor General: Robert H. Jackson"</a>. <i>Department of Justice</i>. October 31, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Justice&rft.atitle=Solicitor+General%3A+Robert+H.+Jackson&rft.date=2014-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fosg%2Fbio%2Frobert-h-jackson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=338&invol=49">Watts v. Indiana</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150102114959/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=338&invol=49">Archived</a> January 2, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, 338 U.S. 49, 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Allen" title="Brown v. Allen">Brown v. Allen</a></i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14740856778685035617">344 U.S. 443</a>, 540 (1953).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson" class="citation web cs1">Gibson, Tobias. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1339/robert-jackson">"Robert Jackson"</a>. <i>The First Amendment Encyclopedia</i>. University of Minnesota<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+First+Amendment+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Robert+Jackson&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtsu.edu%2Ffirst-amendment%2Farticle%2F1339%2Frobert-jackson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garner_2018_p.-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garner_2018_p._5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2018" class="citation book cs1">Garner, Bryan A. (2018). <i>Nino and me : my unusual friendship with Justice Antonin Scalia</i>. New York, NY. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-8149-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-8149-8"><bdi>978-1-5011-8149-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/992743005">992743005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nino+and+me+%3A+my+unusual+friendship+with+Justice+Antonin+Scalia&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=101&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F992743005&rft.isbn=978-1-5011-8149-8&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Bryan+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistory_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People" class="citation book cs1">Downs, John Phillips (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA357"><i>History of Chautauqua County New York and its People</i></a>. Vol. III. Boston, MA: American Historical Society. p. 357. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9785872000877" title="Special:BookSources/9785872000877"><bdi>9785872000877</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819145014/https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Chautauqua+County+New+York+and+its+People&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=357&rft.pub=American+Historical+Society&rft.date=1921&rft.isbn=9785872000877&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=John+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmLQHAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180104073605/https://secureapps.libraries.psu.edu/PACFTB/bios/biography.cfm?AuthorID=1297">"Author biographies"</a>. <i>Pennsylvania Center For the Book</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secureapps.libraries.psu.edu/PACFTB/bios/biography.cfm?AuthorID=1297">the original</a> on January 4, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 2,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+Center+For+the+Book&rft.atitle=Author+biographies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecureapps.libraries.psu.edu%2FPACFTB%2Fbios%2Fbiography.cfm%3FAuthorID%3D1297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpern" class="citation news cs1">Halpern, Philip. "Robert H. Jackson, 1892-1954". <i>Stanford Law Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1226289">1226289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Robert+H.+Jackson%2C+1892-1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1226289%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''History_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People''_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHistory_of_Chautauqua_County_New_York_and_its_People"><i>History of Chautauqua County New York and its People</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"" class="citation book cs1">Shimsky, MaryJane (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EubRIpwGvnoC&pg=PA63"><i>"Hesitating Between Two Worlds": The Civil Rights Odyssey of Robert H. Jackson</i></a>. Vol. I. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest LLC. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780549262305" title="Special:BookSources/9780549262305"><bdi>9780549262305</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312125050/https://books.google.com/books?id=EubRIpwGvnoC&pg=PA63">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Hesitating+Between+Two+Worlds%22%3A+The+Civil+Rights+Odyssey+of+Robert+H.+Jackson&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=ProQuest+LLC&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780549262305&rft.aulast=Shimsky&rft.aufirst=MaryJane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEubRIpwGvnoC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds"''_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREF"Hesitating_Between_Two_Worlds""><i>"Hesitating Between Two Worlds"</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/28424332/">"Society Notes: Jackson-Gerhardt"</a></span>. <i>Kingston Daily Freeman</i>. Kingston, NY. April 24, 1916. p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055329/https://www.newspapers.com/image/28424332/">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kingston+Daily+Freeman&rft.atitle=Society+Notes%3A+Jackson-Gerhardt&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1916-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fimage%2F28424332%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945" class="citation book cs1">Raful, Lawrence (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5h_8dxXEIPsC&pg=PA129"><i>The Nuremberg Trials: International Criminal Law Since 1945</i></a>. Munich, Germany: K. G. Saur Verlag. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-598-11756-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-598-11756-5"><bdi>978-3-598-11756-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312130954/https://books.google.com/books?id=5h_8dxXEIPsC&pg=PA129">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+Trials%3A+International+Criminal+Law+Since+1945&rft.place=Munich%2C+Germany&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=K.+G.+Saur+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-598-11756-5&rft.aulast=Raful&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5h_8dxXEIPsC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945''-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945''_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThe_Nuremberg_Trials:_International_Criminal_Law_Since_1945"><i>The Nuremberg Trials: International Criminal Law Since 1945</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew_Deal_Justice" class="citation book cs1">Hockett, Jeffrey D. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8fxEZbKQqWcC&pg=PA224"><i>New Deal Justice: The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Hugo L. Black, Felix Frankfurter, and Robert H. Jackson</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 224, 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8211-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8211-9"><bdi>978-0-8476-8211-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312131932/https://books.google.com/books?id=8fxEZbKQqWcC&pg=PA224">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Deal+Justice%3A+The+Constitutional+Jurisprudence+of+Hugo+L.+Black%2C+Felix+Frankfurter%2C+and+Robert+H.+Jackson&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=224%2C+226&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-8211-9&rft.aulast=Hockett&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8fxEZbKQqWcC%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalcolm1918" class="citation book cs1">Malcolm, James (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CXJIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47"><i>The New York Red Book</i></a>. Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon Company. p. 47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312134923/https://books.google.com/books?id=CXJIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Red+Book&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=J.+B.+Lyon+Company&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Malcolm&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCXJIAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_E.Stack2006" class="citation book cs1">Thomas E., Baker; Stack, John F. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=svxzgTPwG1wC&pg=PA75"><i>At War with Civil Rights and Civil Liberties</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3598-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3598-5"><bdi>978-0-7425-3598-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312131536/https://books.google.com/books?id=svxzgTPwG1wC&pg=PA75">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+War+with+Civil+Rights+and+Civil+Liberties&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-3598-5&rft.aulast=Thomas+E.&rft.aufirst=Baker&rft.au=Stack%2C+John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsvxzgTPwG1wC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew_York1939" class="citation book cs1">New York, State Government of (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3147265&view=1up&seq=691&skin=2021"><i>Manual for the use of the Legislature of the State of New York</i></a>. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Company Printers. p. 661<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+for+the+use+of+the+Legislature+of+the+State+of+New+York&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=661&rft.pub=J.+B.+Lyon+Company+Printers&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=New+York&rft.aufirst=State+Government+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b3147265%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D691%26skin%3D2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew_York1931" class="citation book cs1">New York, State Government of (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112110805386&view=1up&seq=493&skin=2021"><i>Manual for the use of the Legislature of the State of New York</i></a>. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon Company Printers. p. 463<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+for+the+use+of+the+Legislature+of+the+State+of+New+York&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=463&rft.pub=J.+B.+Lyon+Company+Printers&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=New+York&rft.aufirst=State+Government+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duiug.30112110805386%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D493%26skin%3D2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Deal_Justice''-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''New_Deal_Justice''_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNew_Deal_Justice"><i>New Deal Justice</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/114103876/">"Democratic Lawyers Organization Formed"</a></span>. <i>Poughkeepsie Eagle-News</i>. Poughkeepsie, NY. October 25, 1932. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312062409/https://www.newspapers.com/image/114103876/">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Poughkeepsie+Eagle-News&rft.atitle=Democratic+Lawyers+Organization+Formed&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1932-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fimage%2F114103876%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThat_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Robert H. (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thatmaninsidersp00jack"><i>That Man: An Insider's Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thatmaninsidersp00jack/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516826-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516826-6"><bdi>978-0-19-516826-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Man%3A+An+Insider%27s+Portrait+of+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516826-6&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthatmaninsidersp00jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThat_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"><i>That Man: An Insider's Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supremecourthistory.org/timeline_robertjackson1941-1945.html">"Biography, Robert H. Jackson, 1941-1954"</a>. <i>Timeline of the Justices</i>. Washington, DC: Supreme Court Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312061856/http://supremecourthistory.org/timeline_robertjackson1941-1945.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Timeline+of+the+Justices&rft.atitle=Biography%2C+Robert+H.+Jackson%2C+1941-1954&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupremecourthistory.org%2Ftimeline_robertjackson1941-1945.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultz2005" class="citation book cs1">Shultz, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I_f6Oo9H3YsC&pg=PA232"><i>The Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court</i></a>. New York, NY: Facts on File, Inc. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5086-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5086-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-5086-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312132438/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_f6Oo9H3YsC&pg=PA232">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Facts+on+File%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5086-4&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI_f6Oo9H3YsC%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forgotten344-349-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Forgotten344-349_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaes2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes, Amity</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenmannewh00shla_259"><i>The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenmannewh00shla_259/page/n367">344</a>–349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621170-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621170-1"><bdi>978-0-06-621170-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Man%3A+A+New+History+of+the+Great+Depression&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=344-349&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-621170-1&rft.aulast=Shlaes&rft.aufirst=Amity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgottenmannewh00shla_259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaes2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes, Amity</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenmannewh00shla_259"><i>The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottenmannewh00shla_259/page/n196">189</a>–191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621170-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621170-1"><bdi>978-0-06-621170-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Man%3A+A+New+History+of+the+Great+Depression&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=189-191&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-621170-1&rft.aulast=Shlaes&rft.aufirst=Amity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgottenmannewh00shla_259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.">Schlesinger, Arthur Meier</a> (2003) [1959]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mj3VmJ38tHIC&q=mellon+jackson+%22income+tax%22&pg=PA569"><i>The Coming of the New Deal, 1933–1935</i></a>. Age of Roosevelt (1st Mariner Books ed.). Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. p. 569. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-34086-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-34086-6"><bdi>0-618-34086-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51978038">51978038</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108180827/https://books.google.com/books?id=mj3VmJ38tHIC&q=mellon+jackson+%22income+tax%22&pg=PA569">Archived</a> from the original on November 8, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+New+Deal%2C+1933%E2%80%931935&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Age+of+Roosevelt&rft.pages=569&rft.edition=1st+Mariner+Books&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51978038&rft.isbn=0-618-34086-6&rft.aulast=Schlesinger&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Meier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmj3VmJ38tHIC%26q%3Dmellon%2Bjackson%2B%2522income%2Btax%2522%26pg%3DPA569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlaes2006" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes, Amity</a> (October 2, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nysun.com/article/40682">"The Greenspan Of His Day, a book review of Mellon: An American Life (by David Cannadine)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Sun">New York Sun</a></i>. New York City. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506085125/http://www2.nysun.com/article/40682">Archived</a> from the original on May 6, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2008</span>. <q>Mellon's opponents never did win convictions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Sun&rft.atitle=The+Greenspan+Of+His+Day%2C+a+book+review+of+Mellon%3A+An+American+Life+%28by+David+Cannadine%29&rft.date=2006-10-02&rft.aulast=Shlaes&rft.aufirst=Amity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nysun.com%2Farticle%2F40682&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506085937/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,771717-2,00.html">"Self-Defense"</a>. <i>TIME</i>. April 15, 1935. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,771717-2,00.html">the original</a> on May 6, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TIME&rft.atitle=Self-Defense&rft.date=1935-04-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C771717-2%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506090854/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,848675,00.html">"Round for Mellon"</a>. <i>TIME</i>. May 24, 1937. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,848675,00.html">the original</a> on May 6, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TIME&rft.atitle=Round+for+Mellon&rft.date=1937-05-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C848675%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackOwens2012" class="citation book cs1">Black, Ryan C.; Owens, Ryan J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJlGrP60bJkC&pg=PA18"><i>The Solicitor General and the United States Supreme Court</i></a>. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01529-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01529-6"><bdi>978-1-107-01529-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312135638/https://books.google.com/books?id=HJlGrP60bJkC&pg=PA18">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Solicitor+General+and+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01529-6&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Ryan+C.&rft.au=Owens%2C+Ryan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJlGrP60bJkC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pFIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51">"Of the World: The Court Loses a Justice"</a>. <i>LIFE</i>. New York, NY: Time, Inc. October 18, 1954. p. 51. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312135334/https://books.google.com/books?id=pFIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=LIFE&rft.atitle=Of+the+World%3A+The+Court+Loses+a+Justice&rft.pages=51&rft.date=1954-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFIEAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushman2013" class="citation book cs1">Cushman, Clare (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=02IshbCXeHYC&pg=PA370"><i>The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press. p. 370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60871-832-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60871-832-0"><bdi>978-1-60871-832-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170312135159/https://books.google.com/books?id=02IshbCXeHYC&pg=PA370">Archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+Justices%3A+Illustrated+Biographies&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=Sage+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-60871-832-0&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D02IshbCXeHYC%26pg%3DPA370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''That_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt''xv–xvi_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThat_Man:_An_Insider's_Portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"><i>That Man: An Insider's Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt</i></a>, pp. xv–xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. House Subcommittee no. 1 of the Committee on the Judiciary, To Authorize Wire Tapping. Hearings on H.R. 2266, H.R. 3099, 77th Cong., 1st sess., 1941, 1, 257</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilds1941" class="citation news cs1">Childs, Marquis W. (March 18, 1941). "House Committee Approval Likely on Wire-Tapping". <i><a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Post-Dispatch" title="St. Louis Post-Dispatch">St. Louis Post-Dispatch</a></i>. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=St.+Louis+Post-Dispatch&rft.atitle=House+Committee+Approval+Likely+on+Wire-Tapping&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1941-03-18&rft.aulast=Childs&rft.aufirst=Marquis+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span> Section A.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/legislative/nominations/SupremeCourtNominations1789present.htm">"Supreme Court Nominations (1789-Present)"</a>. Washington, D.C.: United States Senate<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Nominations+%281789-Present%29&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Senate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Flegislative%2Fnominations%2FSupremeCourtNominations1789present.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RL33225-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RL33225_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillion2022" class="citation report cs1">McMillion, Barry J. (January 28, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL33225.pdf">Supreme Court Nominations, 1789 to 2020: Actions by the Senate, the Judiciary Committee, and the President</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Nominations%2C+1789+to+2020%3A+Actions+by+the+Senate%2C+the+Judiciary+Committee%2C+and+the+President&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2022-01-28&rft.aulast=McMillion&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsgp.fas.org%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FRL33225.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx">"Justices 1789 to Present"</a>. Washington, D.C.: Supreme Court of the United States<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justices+1789+to+Present&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fmembers_text.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hutchinson, Dennis J. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/scr.1988.3109625">"The Black-Jackson Feud"</a>. <i>The Supreme Court Review</i>. <b>1988</b>: <span class="nowrap">203–</span>243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fscr.1988.3109625">10.1086/scr.1988.3109625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-9557">0081-9557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=The+Black-Jackson+Feud&rft.volume=1988&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E203-%3C%2Fspan%3E243&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fscr.1988.3109625&rft.issn=0081-9557&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=Dennis+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2Fscr.1988.3109625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at 236–37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id. at 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schenck at 49–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i>, 341 U.S. 494, 505–507. see also, <i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i>, 395 U.S. 444, 447 (1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">249 U.S. 47, 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> p. 582 (Douglas, J. Dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 495; see also, 54 Stat. 671.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 495–496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> p. 570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 565–566.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 564.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 564–565.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Id._at_568-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Id._at_568_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Id._at_568_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 568.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 568 n.12 (1951) (distinguishing <i><a href="/wiki/Whitney_v._California" title="Whitney v. California">Whitney v. California</a></i> 274 U.S. 357, 376 (1927) from <i>Bridges v. California</i>, 314 U.S. 252, 263 (1941)).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dennis v. United States</i> at 510–511.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erwin Chemrensky, Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies, 961, 962 (Aspen 2ed. 2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin H. Redish, Unlawful Advocacy and Free Speech Theory: Rethinking the Lessons of The McCarthy Era, 73 UCINLR 9, 51 (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BanksSmolla2010-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BanksSmolla2010_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_C._BanksRodney_Smolla2010" class="citation book cs1">William C. Banks; Rodney Smolla (May 6, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KdQkk9J-P4oC&pg=PT463"><i>Constitutional Law: Structure and Rights in Our Federal System</i></a>. LexisNexis. pp. <span class="nowrap">462–</span>465. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-327-17509-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-327-17509-4"><bdi>978-0-327-17509-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819134621/https://books.google.com/books?id=KdQkk9J-P4oC&pg=PT463">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%3A+Structure+and+Rights+in+Our+Federal+System&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E462-%3C%2Fspan%3E465&rft.pub=LexisNexis&rft.date=2010-05-06&rft.isbn=978-0-327-17509-4&rft.au=William+C.+Banks&rft.au=Rodney+Smolla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKdQkk9J-P4oC%26pg%3DPT463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BarnettKatz2014-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BarnettKatz2014_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandy_E._BarnettHoward_E._Katz2014" class="citation book cs1">Randy E. Barnett; Howard E. Katz (December 9, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=06nfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT706"><i>Constitutional Law: Cases in Context</i></a>. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. pp. <span class="nowrap">705–</span>707. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4548-2920-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4548-2920-1"><bdi>978-1-4548-2920-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818162128/https://books.google.com/books?id=06nfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT706">Archived</a> from the original on August 18, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%3A+Cases+in+Context&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E705-%3C%2Fspan%3E707&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer+Law+%26+Business&rft.date=2014-12-09&rft.isbn=978-1-4548-2920-1&rft.au=Randy+E.+Barnett&rft.au=Howard+E.+Katz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D06nfDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JCjZWrQjA4C&pg=PA229"><i>Encyclopedia of Supreme Court Quotations</i></a>. M.E. Sharpe. 2000. pp. <span class="nowrap">227–</span>231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1825-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1825-2"><bdi>978-0-7656-1825-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818173504/https://books.google.com/books?id=3JCjZWrQjA4C&pg=PA229">Archived</a> from the original on August 18, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Supreme+Court+Quotations&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E231&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-1825-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3JCjZWrQjA4C%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> wrote: "In the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. Those four were Black, Burton, Minton, and myself." See Bernard Schwartz, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5cUCl4hSWUC&dq=%22May+17,+1954%22+and+%22memorandum+for+the+file%22&pg=PA96">Decision: How the Supreme Court Decides Cases</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160124231445/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5cUCl4hSWUC&pg=PA96&ots=5UtEFgR-B5&dq=%22May+17,+1954%22+and+%22memorandum+for+the+file%22&num=100&sig=JrgkG7MAPIwfCPRBYYtwY9XULP4">Archived</a> January 24, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, page 96 (Oxford 1996). Likewise, Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> wrote: "I have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters – Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark." Id.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1988" class="citation journal cs1">Schwartz, Bernard (1988). "Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice Jackson, and the "Brown" Case". <i>Supreme Court Review</i>. <b>1988</b> (1988): <span class="nowrap">245–</span>267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fscr.1988.3109626">10.1086/scr.1988.3109626</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3109626">3109626</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147205671">147205671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=Chief+Justice+Rehnquist%2C+Justice+Jackson%2C+and+the+%22Brown%22+Case&rft.volume=1988&rft.issue=1988&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147205671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3109626%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fscr.1988.3109626&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTushnetLezin1991" class="citation journal cs1">Tushnet, Mark; Lezin, Katya (1991). "What really happened in Brown v. Board of Education". <i>Columbia Law Review</i>. <b>91</b> (8). Columbia Law Review, Vol. 91, No. 8: <span class="nowrap">1867–</span>1930. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1123035">10.2307/1123035</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1123035">1123035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=What+really+happened+in+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1867-%3C%2Fspan%3E1930&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1123035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1123035%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tushnet&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Lezin%2C+Katya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1954" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Jackson, Robert (March 15, 1954). "Memorandum by Mr. Justice Jackson". Brown file, Robert H Jackson Papers. Library of Congress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Memorandum+by+Mr.+Justice+Jackson&rft.volume=Brown+file%2C+Robert+H+Jackson+Papers&rft.date=1954-03-15&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Shaughnessy v. United States ex rel Mezei</i>, 345 U.S. 206, 224–25 (1953) (Jackson, J., dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Nuremberg Roles of Justice Robert H. Jackson: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=law_globalstudies">https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=law_globalstudies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806191737/https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=law_globalstudies">Archived</a> August 6, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenand2017" class="citation magazine cs1">Menand, Louis (September 18, 2017). "Drop Your Weapons". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cond%C3%A9_Nast" title="Condé Nast">Condé Nast</a>. <q>The chief U.S. prosecutor, Robert Jackson, characterized German aggression in his celebrated opening statement ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Drop+Your+Weapons&rft.date=2017-09-18&rft.aulast=Menand&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Speer, Albert, <i>Inside the Third Reich</i>, page 513, Macmillan, New York 1970 (1982 reprint by Bonanza) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-38579-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-38579-1">0-517-38579-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Tusa and John Tusa, <i>The Nuremberg Trial</i> (London, Macmillan, 1983), pp 269–293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2010" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Noah (October 2010). <i>Scorpions: The Battles and Triumphs of FDR's Greatest Supreme Court Justices</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Hachette_Book_Group" title="Hachette Book Group">Hachette Book Group</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">403–</span>405.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scorpions%3A+The+Battles+and+Triumphs+of+FDR%27s+Greatest+Supreme+Court+Justices&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E403-%3C%2Fspan%3E405&rft.pub=Hachette+Book+Group&rft.date=2010-10&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Noah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180301063757/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1954/10/13/page/25A/article/1%2D000%2Dat%2Drites%2Dfor%2Djackson%2Din%2Dwashington">"1,000 AT RITES FOR JACKSON IN WASHINGTON (October 13, 1954)"</a>. <i>Chicago Tribune</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1954/10/13/page/25A/article/1-000-at-rites-for-jackson-in-washington">the original</a> on March 1, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=1%2C000+AT+RITES+FOR+JACKSON+IN+WASHINGTON+%28October+13%2C+1954%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.chicagotribune.com%2F1954%2F10%2F13%2Fpage%2F25A%2Farticle%2F1-000-at-rites-for-jackson-in-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2016" class="citation news cs1">Barrett, John Q. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thejacksonlist.com/wpcontent/uploads/2016/03/20160305-Jackson-List-Ike-RHJ-Funeral.pdf">"President Eisenhower and Justice Jackson's Funeral (1954)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Jackson List</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jackson+List&rft.atitle=President+Eisenhower+and+Justice+Jackson%27s+Funeral+%281954%29&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=John+Q.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthejacksonlist.com%2Fwpcontent%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F03%2F20160305-Jackson-List-Ike-RHJ-Funeral.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2018">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HorvitzCatherwood2014-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HorvitzCatherwood2014_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie_Alan_HorvitzChristopher_Catherwood2014" class="citation book cs1">Leslie Alan Horvitz; Christopher Catherwood (May 14, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AHpFp2nsGyUC&pg=PA251"><i>Encyclopedia of War Crimes and Genocide</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">250–</span>251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1029-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1029-5"><bdi>978-1-4381-1029-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818215819/https://books.google.com/books?id=AHpFp2nsGyUC&pg=PA251">Archived</a> from the original on August 18, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+War+Crimes+and+Genocide&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-1029-5&rft.au=Leslie+Alan+Horvitz&rft.au=Christopher+Catherwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAHpFp2nsGyUC%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roberthjackson.org/about/">"About"</a>. <i>Robert H Jackson Center</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170625103045/https://www.roberthjackson.org/about/">Archived</a> from the original on June 25, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Robert+H+Jackson+Center&rft.atitle=About&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.roberthjackson.org%2Fabout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">GSA, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsa.gov/buffalocourthouse"><i>Robert H. Jackson United States Courthouse, Buffalo, NY</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130626172414/http://www.gsa.gov/buffalocourthouse">Archived</a> June 26, 2013, at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>; Barry A. Muskat, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buffalospree.com/Buffalo-Spree/February-2012/Great-Buildings-Inside-the-fedetal-courthouse/"><i>Great Buildings: Inside the federal courthouse</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150511154457/http://www.buffalospree.com/Buffalo-Spree/February-2012/Great-Buildings-Inside-the-fedetal-courthouse/">Archived</a> May 11, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Buffalo Spree</span> (Feb. 2012).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abraham, Henry J., <i>Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court. 3d ed.</i> New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506557-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506557-3">0-19-506557-3</a>.</li> <li>Cushman, Clare, <i>The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995</i> (2nd ed.) (<a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Historical_Society" title="Supreme Court Historical Society">Supreme Court Historical Society</a>). <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</a> Books, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56802-126-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56802-126-7">1-56802-126-7</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3">978-1-56802-126-3</a>.</li> <li>Department of State. <i>Report of Robert H. Jackson, United States Representative, to the International Conference on Military Trials</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013.</li> <li>Frank, John P., <i>The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions</i> (Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, eds.). New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Chelsea_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelsea House">Chelsea House</a> Publishers, 1995 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7910-1377-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7910-1377-4">0-7910-1377-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-1377-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-1377-9">978-0-7910-1377-9</a>.</li> <li>Gerhart, Eugene. <i>Robert H. Jackson: Country Lawyer, Supreme Court Justice, America's Advocate</i>. Getzville, NY: William S. Hein & Co., 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1575887738" title="Special:BookSources/1575887738">1575887738</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1575887739" title="Special:BookSources/978-1575887739">978-1575887739</a>.</li> <li>Harris, Whitney. <i>Tyranny on Trial: The Trial of the Major German War Criminals at the End of World War II, at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945-46</i>. College Station, TX: <a href="/wiki/Texas_A_%26_M_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas A & M University Press">Texas A & M University Press</a>, 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870744364" title="Special:BookSources/0870744364">0870744364</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0870744365" title="Special:BookSources/978-0870744365">978-0870744365</a>.</li> <li>Hockett, Jeffrey D.. <i>New Deal Justice: The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Hugo L. Black, Felix Frankfurter, and Robert H. Jackson</i>. Lanham, MD: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a> Publishers, 1996 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8210-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-8210-2">0-8476-8210-2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780847682102" title="Special:BookSources/9780847682102">9780847682102</a>.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>The Case Against the Nazi War Criminals</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</a>, 1946.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin [Volume 9, No. 3, March, 1940]</i>. Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1940.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>General Welfare and Industrial Prosperity: Address prepared by Robert H. Jackson, Solicitor General of the United States, for Delivery at the Convention in Rockford, Illinois, on September 14th, 1938</i>. The Department of Justice, 1938.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roberthjackson.org/speech-and-writing/the-meaning-of-liberalism/"><i>The Meaning of Liberalism: An Address by Robert H. Jackson to the Liberal Voters' League of Montgomery Co., MD, Rockville, MD, November 22nd, 1938</i></a>. 1938.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>The Nurnberg Case, as Presented by Robert H. Jackson</i>. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>The Reminiscences of Robert H. Jackson</i>. Washington, D.C.: Supreme Court of United States, 1955.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>Struggle for Judicial Supremacy</i>. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Robert_H.1955" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Robert H. (1955). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supremecourtinam0000jack/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>The Supreme Court in the American System of Government</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+in+the+American+System+of+Government&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsupremecourtinam0000jack%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+H.+Jackson" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>Statement by Robert H. Jackson to the Judiciary Committee of the Senate</i>. The Department of Justice, 1937.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>That Man: An Insider's Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt</i>. John Q. Barrett, ed.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195168267" title="Special:BookSources/0195168267">0195168267</a>.</li> <li>Jackson, Robert H. <i>Trial of German War Criminals: Opening Address by Robert H. Jackson</i>. Literacy Licensing, LLC, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1258767759" title="Special:BookSources/1258767759">1258767759</a>.</li> <li>Jarrow, Gail. <i>New Deal Lawyer, Supreme Court Justice, Nuremberg Prosecutor</i>. Honesdale, PA: Calkins Creek, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1590785118" title="Special:BookSources/1590785118">1590785118</a>.</li> <li>Massa, Stephen J. <i>Justice Jackson and the Perpetrators: Robert H. Jackson, the Third Reich, WWII, Nuremberg, the Defendants</i>. Eagles Publishing, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0986012629" title="Special:BookSources/0986012629">0986012629</a></li> <li>Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., <i>The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography</i>. Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87187-554-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87187-554-3">0-87187-554-3</a>.</li> <li>Nielsen, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol6/iss3/4/"><i>Robert H. Jackson: The Middle Ground</i></a>. 6 La. L. Rev. / The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Louisiana_System" title="University of Louisiana System">University of Louisiana</a>, 1945.</li> <li>O'Brien, David M. <i>Justice Robert H. Jackson's Unpublished Opinion in Brown vs. Board: Conflict, Compromise, and Constitutional Interpretation</i>. Lawrence, KS: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kansas" title="University Press of Kansas">University Press of Kansas</a>, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700625186" title="Special:BookSources/0700625186">0700625186</a>.</li> <li>Shubert, Glendon. <i>Dispassionate Justice: A Synthesis of the Judicial Opinions of Robert H. Jackson</i>. Indianapolis, IN: <a href="/wiki/Bobbs-Merrill_Company" title="Bobbs-Merrill Company">Bobbs-Merrill Company</a>, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1299346685" title="Special:BookSources/1299346685">1299346685</a>.</li> <li>Tusa, Ann and Tusa, John, <i>The Nuremberg Trial</i>. London: Macmillan, 1983 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-27463-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-27463-6">0-333-27463-6</a>.</li> <li>United States of America. <i>Nomination of Robert H. Jackson to be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Hearings, Seventy-Seventh Congress, First</i> <i>Session.</i> 1941.</li> <li>Urofsky, Melvin I., <i>The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Garland_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Garland Publishing">Garland Publishing</a>, 1994. 590 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-1176-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-1176-1">0-8153-1176-1</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-1176-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-1176-8">978-0-8153-1176-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Jackson&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Robert_H._Jackson" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Robert H. 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Jackson Center's website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roberthjackson.org/article/international-humanitarian-law-dialogs-2/">The International Humanitarian Law Dialogs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thejacksonlist.com/">The Jackson List: Justice Jackson, the Supreme Court, Nuremberg, and related topics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.roberthjackson.org/nuremberg-timeline/">The Nuremberg Timeline (Timeline of the International Military Tribunal)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/jackson.asp">Jackson's Nuremberg Report</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070429000244/http://www.visualstatistics.net/East-West/Supreme%20Crime/Supreme%20Crime.htm">Discussion of the concept of supreme crime</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup> introduced by Justice Jackson, as Chief Prosecutor for the United States at the Nuremberg Trials, with applications to today</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roberthjackson.org/the-man/speeches-articles/speeches/speeches-by-robert-h-jackson/opening-statement-before-the-international-military-tribunal/">Nuremberg opening statement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roberthjackson.org/files/theman/speeches-articles/files/closing-arguments-for-conviction-of-nazi-war-criminals.pdf">Nuremberg closing statement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0413984/">Robert H. Jackson</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150628083521/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0062612/">Justice Robert H. Jackson (Character)</a> on <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H.%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jackson%2C%20R%2E%20H%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Robert%20H.%20Jackson%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Robert%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22R%2E%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Robert%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Robert%20H.%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Robert%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22R%2E%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22R%2E%20H.%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H.%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jackson%2C%20R%2E%20H%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jackson%2C%20R%2E%20H.%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Robert%20Jackson%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Robert%20H.%20Jackson%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Robert%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20title%3A%22R%2E%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Robert%20Jackson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Robert%20H.%20Jackson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Robert%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22R%2E%20H%2E%20Jackson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H.%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%20H%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Robert%20Jackson%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jackson%2C%20Robert%22%29%20OR%20%28%221892-1954%22%20AND%20Jackson%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Robert H. Jackson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/5699">Robert H. Jackson</a> at <a href="/wiki/Find_a_Grave" title="Find a Grave">Find a Grave</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DDCEF2;">Legal offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Reed</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</a> </b><br />1938–1940 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a> </b><br />1940–1941 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan Stone</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</a> </b><br />1941–1954 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Harlan II</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:USSolGen" title="Template:USSolGen"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:USSolGen" title="Template talk:USSolGen"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USSolGen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USSolGen"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_solicitors_general116" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">United States solicitors general</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bristow" title="Benjamin Bristow">Bristow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_F._Phillips" title="Samuel F. Phillips">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Goode_(Virginia_politician)" title="John Goode (Virginia politician)">Goode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_A._Jenks" title="George A. Jenks">Jenks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlow_W._Chapman" title="Orlow W. Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Aldrich" title="Charles H. Aldrich">Aldrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Maxwell_Jr." title="Lawrence Maxwell Jr.">Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmes_Conrad" title="Holmes Conrad">Conrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_K._Richards" title="John K. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Hoyt_(Solicitor_General)" title="Henry M. Hoyt (Solicitor General)">Hoyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Wheaton_Bowers" title="Lloyd Wheaton Bowers">Bowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Lehmann" title="Frederick William Lehmann">Lehmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Marshall_Bullitt" title="William Marshall Bullitt">Bullitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Campbell_King" title="Alexander Campbell King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Frierson" title="William L. Frierson">Frierson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Beck" title="James M. Beck">Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_D._Mitchell" title="William D. Mitchell">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes_Jr." title="Charles Evans Hughes Jr.">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_D._Thacher" title="Thomas D. Thacher">Thacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Crawford_Biggs" title="James Crawford Biggs">Biggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fahy" title="Charles Fahy">Fahy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_McGrath" title="J. Howard McGrath">McGrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Perlman" title="Philip Perlman">Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Cummings_Jr." title="Walter J. Cummings Jr.">Cummings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Sobeloff" title="Simon Sobeloff">Sobeloff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lee_Rankin" title="J. Lee Rankin">Rankin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Griswold" title="Erwin Griswold">Griswold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade_H._McCree" title="Wade H. McCree">McCree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_E._Lee" title="Rex E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fried" title="Charles Fried">Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Starr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drew_S._Days_III" title="Drew S. Days III">Days</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walter_Dellinger" title="Walter Dellinger">Dellinger</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_P._Waxman" title="Seth P. Waxman">Waxman</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Underwood" title="Barbara Underwood">Underwood</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Olson" title="Theodore Olson">Olson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Clement" title="Paul Clement">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_G._Garre" title="Gregory G. Garre">Garre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Kneedler" title="Edwin Kneedler">Kneedler</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neal_Katyal" title="Neal Katyal">Katyal</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_B._Verrilli_Jr." title="Donald B. Verrilli Jr.">Verrilli</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ian_Heath_Gershengorn" title="Ian Heath Gershengorn">Gershengorn</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Noel_Francisco" title="Noel Francisco">Francisco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Wall_(lawyer)" title="Jeff Wall (lawyer)">Wall</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Francisco" title="Noel Francisco">Francisco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Wall_(lawyer)" title="Jeff Wall (lawyer)">Wall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Prelogar" title="Elizabeth Prelogar">Prelogar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brian_Fletcher_(attorney)" title="Brian Fletcher (attorney)">Fletcher</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Prelogar" title="Elizabeth Prelogar">Prelogar</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarah_M._Harris" title="Sarah M. Harris">Harris</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the United States Department of Justice"><img alt="Seal of the United States Department of Justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Acting officeholders shown in <i>italics</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_attorneys_general66" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_attorneys_general" title="Template:United States attorneys general"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_attorneys_general" title="Template talk:United States attorneys general"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_attorneys_general" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States attorneys general"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_attorneys_general66" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States attorneys general</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_(Attorney_General)" title="William Bradford (Attorney General)">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lee_(Attorney_General)" title="Charles Lee (Attorney General)">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Sr." title="Levi Lincoln Sr.">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Breckinridge_(U.S._Attorney_General)" title="John Breckinridge (U.S. Attorney General)">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus_Rodney" title="Caesar Augustus Rodney">Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pinkney" title="William Pinkney">Pinkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wirt_(Attorney_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Wirt (Attorney General)">Wirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Berrien" title="John M. Berrien">Berrien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Taney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_(lawyer)" title="Benjamin Franklin Butler (lawyer)">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Grundy" title="Felix Grundy">Grundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_D._Gilpin" title="Henry D. Gilpin">Gilpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">Crittenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Legar%C3%A9" title="Hugh S. Legaré">Legaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nelson_(lawyer)" title="John Nelson (lawyer)">Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Y._Mason" title="John Y. Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Toucey" title="Isaac Toucey">Toucey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverdy_Johnson" title="Reverdy Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">Crittenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Cushing" title="Caleb Cushing">Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_S._Black" title="Jeremiah S. Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._Stanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bates" title="Edward Bates">Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Speed" title="James Speed">Speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stanbery" title="Henry Stanbery">Stanbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Evarts" title="William M. Evarts">Evarts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_R._Hoar" title="Ebenezer R. Hoar">Hoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman" title="Amos T. Akerman">Akerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Williams" title="George Henry Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_Pierrepont" title="Edwards Pierrepont">Pierrepont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonso_Taft" title="Alphonso Taft">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Devens" title="Charles Devens">Devens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_MacVeagh" title="Wayne MacVeagh">MacVeagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_H._Brewster" title="Benjamin H. Brewster">Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_H._Garland" title="Augustus H. Garland">A. Garland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._H._Miller" title="William H. H. Miller">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Olney" title="Richard Olney">Olney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judson_Harmon" title="Judson Harmon">Harmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Griggs" title="John W. Griggs">Griggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philander_C._Knox" title="Philander C. Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Charles Joseph Bonaparte">Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Wickersham" title="George W. Wickersham">Wickersham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Watt_Gregory" title="Thomas Watt Gregory">Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Mitchell_Palmer" title="A. Mitchell Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_M._Daugherty" title="Harry M. Daugherty">Daugherty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Sargent" title="John G. Sargent">Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_D._Mitchell" title="William D. Mitchell">W. D. Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Stille_Cummings" title="Homer Stille Cummings">Cummings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">T. C. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_McGrath" title="J. Howard McGrath">McGrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._McGranery" title="James P. McGranery">McGranery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Brownell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Rogers" title="William P. Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Katzenbach" title="Nicholas Katzenbach">Katzenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">R. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_N._Mitchell" title="John N. Mitchell">J. N. Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kleindienst" title="Richard Kleindienst">Kleindienst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Richardson" title="Elliot Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Saxbe" title="William B. Saxbe">Saxbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Levi" title="Edward H. Levi">Levi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griffin_Bell" title="Griffin Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Civiletti" title="Benjamin Civiletti">Civiletti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_French_Smith" title="William French Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Thornburgh" title="Dick Thornburgh">Thornburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Barr" title="William Barr">Barr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Reno" title="Janet Reno">Reno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ashcroft" title="John Ashcroft">Ashcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gonzales" title="Alberto Gonzales">Gonzales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Mukasey" title="Michael Mukasey">Mukasey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Holder" title="Eric Holder">Holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lynch" title="Loretta Lynch">Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sessions" title="Jeff Sessions">Sessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Barr" title="William Barr">Barr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">M. Garland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pam_Bondi" title="Pam Bondi">Bondi</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the United States Department of Justice"><img alt="Seal of the United States Department of Justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_Justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cabinet_of_President_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(1933–1945)776" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:FD_Roosevelt_cabinet" title="Template:FD Roosevelt cabinet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:FD_Roosevelt_cabinet" title="Template talk:FD Roosevelt cabinet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:FD_Roosevelt_cabinet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:FD Roosevelt cabinet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cabinet_of_President_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(1933–1945)776" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a> of <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1933–1945)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a> (1933–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FDR_in_1933.jpg/100px-FDR_in_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FDR_in_1933.jpg/150px-FDR_in_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FDR_in_1933.jpg/200px-FDR_in_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2488" data-file-height="2928" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> (1933–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Stettinius_Jr." title="Edward Stettinius Jr.">Edward Stettinius Jr.</a> (1944–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Woodin" title="William H. Woodin">William H. Woodin</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a> (1934–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Dern" title="George Dern">George Dern</a> (1933–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hines_Woodring" title="Harry Hines Woodring">Harry Hines Woodring</a> (1936–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a> (1940–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Stille_Cummings" title="Homer Stille Cummings">Homer Stille Cummings</a> (1933–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a> (1939–1940)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert H. Jackson</a> (1940–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a> (1941–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">James Farley</a> (1933–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Walker" title="Frank C. Walker">Frank C. Walker</a> (1940–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claude_A._Swanson" title="Claude A. Swanson">Claude A. Swanson</a> (1933–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edison" title="Charles Edison">Charles Edison</a> (1939–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Frank Knox</a> (1940–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forrestal" title="James Forrestal">James Forrestal</a> (1944–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold L. Ickes</a> (1933–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> (1933–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_R._Wickard" title="Claude R. Wickard">Claude R. Wickard</a> (1940–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper" title="Daniel C. Roper">Daniel C. Roper</a> (1933–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a> (1938–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_H._Jones" title="Jesse H. Jones">Jesse H. Jones</a> (1940–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a> (1933–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States189" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_justices" title="Template:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_justices" title="Template talk:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_justices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS justices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Justices of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Chief_justices189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">1789–1795</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">1795</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">1796–1800</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">1801–1835</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">1836–1864</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">1864–1873</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">1874–1888</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">1888–1910</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Court_(justices)" title="White Court (justices)">1910–1921</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">1921–1930</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">1930–1941</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">1941–1946</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">1946–1953</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">1953–1969</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">1969–1986</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">1986–2005</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">2005–present</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</a></i>)</li></ol> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Associate_justices189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol><li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">J. Rutledge</a>* (1790–1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a> (1790–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">Wilson</a> (1789–1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">Blair</a> (1790–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">Iredell</a> (1790–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(judge)" title="Thomas Johnson (judge)">T. Johnson</a> (1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">S. Chase</a> (1796–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a> (1798–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a> (1800–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">W. Johnson</a> (1804–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a> (1807–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a> (1807–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a> (1811–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a> (1812–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a> (1823–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a> (1826–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a> (1829–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a> (1830–1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a> (1835–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_P._Barbour" title="Philip P. Barbour">Barbour</a> (1836–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Catron" title="John Catron">Catron</a> (1837–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McKinley" title="John McKinley">McKinley</a> (1838–1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_V._Daniel" title="Peter V. Daniel">Daniel</a> (1842–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nelson" title="Samuel Nelson">Nelson</a> (1845–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a> (1845–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cooper_Grier" title="Robert Cooper Grier">Grier</a> (1846–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Robbins_Curtis" title="Benjamin Robbins Curtis">Curtis</a> (1851–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">Campbell</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a> (1858–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Haynes_Swayne" title="Noah Haynes Swayne">Swayne</a> (1862–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Miller</a> (1862–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Davis_(Supreme_Court_justice)" title="David Davis (Supreme Court justice)">Davis</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a> (1863–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Strong_(Pennsylvania_judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)">Strong</a> (1870–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Bradley</a> (1870–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Hunt" title="Ward Hunt">Hunt</a> (1873–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">J. M. Harlan</a> (1877–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">Woods</a> (1881–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> (1881–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Gray</a> (1882–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Blatchford</a> (1882–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">L. Lamar</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Brewer" title="David J. Brewer">Brewer</a> (1890–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Brown</a> (1891–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">Shiras</a> (1892–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_E._Jackson" title="Howell E. Jackson">H. Jackson</a> (1893–1895)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">E. White</a>* (1894–1910)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_W._Peckham" title="Rufus W. Peckham">Peckham</a> (1896–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a> (1898–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a> (1902–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Day" title="William R. Day">Day</a> (1903–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a> (1906–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Harmon_Lurton" title="Horace Harmon Lurton">Lurton</a> (1910–1914)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>* (1910–1916)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Van Devanter</a> (1911–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rucker_Lamar" title="Joseph Rucker Lamar">J. Lamar</a> (1911–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney" title="Mahlon Pitney">Pitney</a> (1912–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a> (1914–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a> (1916–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hessin_Clarke" title="John Hessin Clarke">Clarke</a> (1916–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a> (1922–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(judge)" title="Pierce Butler (judge)">Butler</a> (1923–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a> (1923–1930)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a>* (1925–1941)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">O. Roberts</a> (1930–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a> (1932–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a> (1937–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a> (1938–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a> (1939–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a> (1940–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">Byrnes</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">R. Jackson</a> (1941–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">W. Rutledge</a> (1943–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_H._Burton" title="Harold H. Burton">Burton</a> (1945–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Clark</a> (1949–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Minton</a> (1949–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">J. M. Harlan II</a> (1955–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a> (1956–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a> (1957–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Stewart</a> (1958–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">B. White</a> (1962–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Goldberg</a> (1962–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Fortas</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">T. Marshall</a> (1967–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a> (1970–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Powell</a> (1972–1987)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a>* (1972–1986)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> (1975–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> (1981–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> (1986–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1988–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> (1990–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> (1991–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> (1993–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> (1994–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a> (2006–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a> (2017–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">K. Jackson</a> (2022–present)</li></ol> </div> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;">*<i>Also served as chief justice of the United States</i></span></div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505450#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2595" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505450#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2595" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q505450#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110682859">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/66525309">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1898296/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJxRDjGCJVF9ppjRcVhfv3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119373939">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50027946">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122689500">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122689500">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00522912">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Jackson, Robert Houghwout <1892-1954>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MILV061219">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070583137">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=223143">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810565598305606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007263255905171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14124278">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA0085331X?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1057393">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/119373939.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/119373939">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/073258091">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10580321">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w68q6qvq">SNAC</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6t731jd">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> 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