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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proterozoic_eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Proterozoic eon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proterozoic_eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaeozoic_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeozoic_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Palaeozoic era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeozoic_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cambrian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cambrian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Cambrian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cambrian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordovician_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordovician_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Ordovician period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordovician_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silurian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silurian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Silurian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silurian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devonian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devonian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Devonian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devonian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carboniferous_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carboniferous_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Carboniferous period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carboniferous_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Permian period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesozoic_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesozoic_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mesozoic era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesozoic_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Triassic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triassic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Triassic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triassic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurassic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurassic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Jurassic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurassic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cretaceous_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cretaceous_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Cretaceous period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cretaceous_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cenozoic_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cenozoic_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Cenozoic era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cenozoic_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palaeogene_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeogene_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Palaeogene period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeogene_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neogene_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neogene_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Neogene period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neogene_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Miocene_and_Pliocene_epochs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miocene_and_Pliocene_epochs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2.1</span> <span>Miocene and Pliocene epochs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miocene_and_Pliocene_epochs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quaternary_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaternary_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Quaternary period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaternary_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pleistocene_epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleistocene_epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3.1</span> <span>Pleistocene epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleistocene_epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holocene_epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holocene_epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3.2</span> <span>Holocene epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holocene_epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geological features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geological_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Geological resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geological_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Institutions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Institutions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government_agencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_agencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Government agencies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_agencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learned_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learned_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Learned societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learned_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pioneers_of_British_geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pioneers_of_British_geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Pioneers of British geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pioneers_of_British_geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22">"Geology of Great Britain"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Geology+of+Great+Britain%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>geology of Great Britain</b> is renowned for its diversity. As a result of its eventful geological history, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> shows a rich variety of <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscapes</a> across the constituent countries of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. Rocks of almost all geological ages are represented at <a href="/wiki/Outcrop" title="Outcrop">outcrop</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archaean</a> onwards. </p> <table class="infobox" bgcolor="#e0e0e0" style="margin-top:0; font-size:95%; width:610px; padding:2px, border:0px"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" align="center">Geology of Great Britain </th></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#ffffff"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rectangle20x40.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Rectangle20x40.png/10px-Rectangle20x40.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Rectangle20x40.png/15px-Rectangle20x40.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Rectangle20x40.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="40" /></a></span></td> <td width="240"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">Alluvium</a>)</td> <td rowspan="24"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg/360px-Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="600" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg/540px-Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg/720px-Geology_Map_Great_Britain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="910" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#fdc052"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#c5e547"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#41aa54"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Cretaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Cretaceous">Lower Cretaceous</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#b3e2e6"> </td> <td>middle/<a href="/wiki/Upper_Jurassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Jurassic">upper Jurassic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#00a0c6"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Jurassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Jurassic">lower Jurassic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#6b017d"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Upper_Triassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Triassic">upper Triassic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#983999"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Triassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Triassic">lower Triassic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#f09652"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Upper_Permian" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Permian">upper Permian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#ca3c40"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Permian" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Permian">lower Permian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#99c4b5"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_(stage)" title="Westphalian (stage)">upper Carboniferous</a> (Coal Measures) </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#67aba0"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Namurian" title="Namurian">middle Carboniferous</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#67946d"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Carboniferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Carboniferous">lower Carboniferous</a> (<a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#cb8c37"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#b3e2d0"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> / <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#009270"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#feb343"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#408521"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> (upper <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#f74373"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lewisian_complex" title="Lewisian complex">Lewisian</a> (lower <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#ff0000"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="10" bgcolor="#c81446"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> volcanics </td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismographic</a> research shows that the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> below <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> is from 27 to 35 km (17 to 22 miles) thick. The oldest surface rocks are found in northwest <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and are more than half as <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">old as the planet</a>. These rocks are thought to underlie much of Great Britain (although boreholes have only penetrated the first few kilometres), but next appear extensively at the surface in <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>. The youngest rocks are found in southeast <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bedrock_and_past_volcanism">Bedrock and past volcanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Bedrock and past volcanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> geology consists of a complex mix of generally older <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> rocks overlain by varying sequences of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a> rocks into both of which <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate tectonic">plate tectonic</a> processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its <a href="/wiki/Geological_structure_of_Great_Britain" title="Geological structure of Great Britain">geological structure</a> with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a> (mountain-building period), often associated with <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanic</a> activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. </p><p>Great Britain does not have any active volcanoes now, but has had an active volcanic past. The last active volcanoes stopped erupting about 60 million years ago and the islands are no longer located upon any <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plate_interactions" title="List of tectonic plate interactions">tectonic boundary</a> or active volcanic region, nor are there other geological phenomena in the island group able to give rise to active volcanism.<sup id="cite_ref-BGS_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on a geological timescale, a considerable degree of active and large-scale volcanism occurred in Great Britain, and many famous landmarks are formed of the <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">eroded</a> <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> rocks formed during these <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenies</a> (mountain-building periods).<sup id="cite_ref-BGS_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a> lists <a href="/wiki/Snowdonia" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Lake_District" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lake District">the Lake District</a> as having extremely large volcanic eruptions around 450 Ma (million years ago), Edinburgh Castle lying upon the remains of a volcano dating back 350 Ma, and some islands of western Scotland as being remnants of volcanoes from around 60 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-BGS_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Superficial_deposits">Superficial deposits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Superficial deposits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overlain on this <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> geology ("solid geology" in the terminology of maps) is a varied distribution of unconsolidated material of more recent origin. It includes material deposited by glaciers (<a href="/wiki/Boulder_clay" title="Boulder clay">boulder clay</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Glacial_landforms#Depositional_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial landforms">glacial drift</a> such as sand and gravel). "Drift" geology is often more important than "solid" geology when considering building works, drainage, siting water boreholes, sand and gravel resources and soil fertility. Although "drift" strictly refers to glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits, the term on geological maps has traditionally included other materials including alluvium, river terraces, etc. Recent maps use the terms "bedrock" and "superficial" in place of "solid" and "drift". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_history">Geological history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geological history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This description of the geological history of Great Britain is based on that of P. Toghill.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precambrian">Precambrian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Precambrian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archaean_eon">Archaean eon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Archaean eon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lewisian_gneiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewisian gneiss">Lewisian gneiss</a>, the oldest rocks in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, date from at least 2.7 billion years ago in the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archaean</a> eon, the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> itself being about 4.6 billion years old. They are found in the far north west of <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrides" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a>, with a few small outcrops elsewhere. Formed from rock originally deposited at the surface of the planet, the rocks were later buried deep in the Earth's crust and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphosed</a> into crystalline gneiss. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proterozoic_eon">Proterozoic eon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Proterozoic eon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>South of the gneisses are a complex mixture of rocks forming the North West <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grampian" title="Grampian">Grampian</a> Highlands in Scotland. These are essentially the remains of folded <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> that were originally 25 km thick, deposited over the gneiss on what was then the floor of the <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_Ocean" title="Iapetus Ocean">Iapetus Ocean</a>. The process started about 1,000 Ma, with a notable 7 km thick layer of <a href="/wiki/Torridon_Sandstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Torridon Sandstone">Torridon Sandstone</a> being deposited about 800 Ma, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">debris</a> deposited by an <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheet</a> 670 Ma. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Palaeomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeomagnetism">Palaeomagnetic</a> evidence indicates that 520 Ma, what is now Great Britain was split between two <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, separated by 7,000 km (4,300 mi) of ocean. The north of Scotland was located at about 20° south of the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> on the continent of <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>, while the rest of the country was at about 60° south on the continent of <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circle" title="Antarctic Circle">Antarctic Circle</a>. </p><p>In Gondwana, England and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> were near a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone. Both countries were largely submerged under a shallow sea studded with <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> islands. The remains of these islands underlie much of central England with small outcrops visible in many places. Around 600 Ma, the <a href="/wiki/Cadomian_Orogeny" title="Cadomian Orogeny">Cadomian Orogeny</a> (mountain building period) caused the English and Welsh landscape to be transformed into a mountainous region, along with much of north west <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaeozoic_era">Palaeozoic era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Palaeozoic era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cambrian_period">Cambrian period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cambrian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period, the volcanoes and mountains of England and Wales were eroded as the land became flooded by a rise in sea level, and new layers of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> were laid down. Much of central England formed a stable block of crust, which has remained largely undeformed ever since. <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstones</a> were deposited in the north of Scotland. The first animals with hard shells evolved at this time, consequently, <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> become much more common in rocks formed during this and later periods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ordovician_period">Ordovician period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ordovician period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Five hundred million years ago, in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period, southern Great Britain, the east coast of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and south-east <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a> broke away from Gondwana to form the continent of <a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a>, which by 440 Ma had drifted (by the mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>) to about 30° south. </p><p>During this period, north Wales was subject to <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanic</a> activity. The remains of these volcanoes are still visible, one example of which is <a href="/wiki/Rhobell_Fawr" title="Rhobell Fawr">Rhobell Fawr</a> dating from 510 Ma. Large quantities of volcanic <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> and ash known as the <a href="/wiki/Borrowdale_Volcanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Borrowdale Volcanics">Borrowdale Volcanics</a> covered the <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a> and this can still be seen in the form of mountains such as <a href="/wiki/Helvellyn" title="Helvellyn">Helvellyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scafell_Pike" title="Scafell Pike">Scafell Pike</a>. </p><p>The Ordovician also saw the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Skiddaw" title="Skiddaw">Skiddaw</a> <a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">slate</a> deposits around 500 Ma. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silurian_period">Silurian period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Silurian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deposition continued into the early part of the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> period, with mudstones and sandstones being laid down, notably in Wales. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a> had now joined with the continent of <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>, and the combined landmass collided with <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> at about 20° south between 425 and 400 Ma, joining the southern and northern halves of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> together. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Caledonian_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Caledonian Orogeny">Caledonian Orogeny</a> produced an <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alpine</a>-style mountain range in much of north and west Great Britain. The continental collision was probably at an oblique angle rather than a head-on collision, and this probably led to movement along <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)#Strike-slip_faults" title="Fault (geology)">strike-slip faults</a> trending north-east to south-west across Scotland, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Glen_Fault" title="Great Glen Fault">Great Glen Fault</a> being the best example (some of these fault zones may have been old lines of weakness from earlier earth movements). </p><p>Volcanic ashes and lavas deposited during the Silurian are still found in the <a href="/wiki/Mendip_Hills" title="Mendip Hills">Mendip Hills</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Devonian_period">Devonian period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Devonian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euramerica_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Euramerica_en.svg/300px-Euramerica_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Euramerica_en.svg/450px-Euramerica_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Euramerica_en.svg/600px-Euramerica_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>The Old Red Sandstone Continent in the Devonian</figcaption></figure> <p>The collision between continents continued during the <a href="/wiki/Devonian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Devonian period">Devonian period</a>, with continuing uplift, and more volcanic deposits such as those now forming <a href="/wiki/Ben_Nevis" title="Ben Nevis">Ben Nevis</a>. Sea levels varied considerably, with the coastline advancing and retreating from north to south across England. The uplifted region was gradually eroded down, resulting in the deposition of numerous sedimentary rock layers in lowlands and seas. The rocks of marine origin in the county of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> gave the period its name, though deposits of this age are found in many other places, such as the <a href="/wiki/Brecon_Beacons" title="Brecon Beacons">Brecon Beacons</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Lowlands" title="Central Lowlands">Midland Valley</a> of Scotland, and the <a href="/wiki/Orkney_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney Islands</a>. Most of these are of terrestrial origin and are informally known as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Caledonian_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Caledonian mountains">Caledonian mountains</a> had largely been <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">eroded</a> away by the end of the period during which the country would have experienced an arid <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> as it was located close to the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> at between 10° and 15° south. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carboniferous_period">Carboniferous period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Carboniferous period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 360 Ma, at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period, Great Britain was lying at the equator, covered by the warm shallow waters of the <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic Ocean</a>, during which time the Carboniferous Limestone was deposited, as found in the <a href="/wiki/Mendip_Hills" title="Mendip Hills">Mendip Hills</a>, north and south Wales, in the <a href="/wiki/Peak_District" title="Peak District">Peak District</a> of <a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a>, north <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>, the northern <a href="/wiki/Pennines" title="Pennines">Pennines</a> and southeast Scotland. <a href="/wiki/Cave#Solutional_cave" title="Cave">Caves</a> developed more recently in the limestone of some of these areas by the action of <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Organic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic acids">organic acids</a> in rainwater and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. </p><p>These were followed by dark marine <a href="/wiki/Shales" class="mw-redirect" title="Shales">shales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siltstones" class="mw-redirect" title="Siltstones">siltstones</a>, and coarse sandstones of the <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Grit" title="Millstone Grit">Millstone Grit</a>. Later, <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river deltas</a> formed and the sediments deposited were colonised by <a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">swamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rain_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rain forest">rain forest</a>. It was in this environment that the <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_sediments" title="Cyclic sediments">cyclic</a> <a href="/wiki/Coal_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal Measures">Coal Measures</a> were formed, the source of the majority of Great Britain's extensive <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> reserves that powered the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Coal can be found in many areas of Great Britain, as far north as the Midland Valley of <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, as far south as <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, although coal mining has largely been concentrated in the Scottish Midlands, <a href="/wiki/English_Midlands" class="mw-redirect" title="English Midlands">English Midlands</a>, northern England and Wales. </p><p>Throughout the period, southwest England in particular was affected by the collision of <a href="/wiki/Continental_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental plates">continental plates</a>. The mountain building period known as the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan orogeny</a>, which occurred around 280 Ma, caused major deformation in south west England. Towards the end of this period <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> was formed beneath the overlying rocks of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, now exposed at <a href="/wiki/Dartmoor" title="Dartmoor">Dartmoor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodmin_Moor" title="Bodmin Moor">Bodmin Moor</a>, giving rise to mineralised deposits of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>. The general region of Variscan folding was south of an east–west line roughly from south <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>. The main <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> pressure was from the south or south-east, and there developed <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)#Strike-slip_faults" title="Fault (geology)">dextral strike-slip</a> faulting. The <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>-<a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> massif may originally have been some distance further east, then to be moved westwards. Lesser Variscan folding took place as far north as <a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berwick-upon-Tweed" title="Berwick-upon-Tweed">Berwick-upon-Tweed</a>. </p><p>By the end of the Carboniferous period, the various continents of the Earth had fused to form the super-continent of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. Great Britain was located in the interior of Pangea, where it was again subject to a hot arid desert climate with frequent flash floods leaving deposits that formed beds of red <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a> rock, somewhat similar to the later, <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Red_Sandstone" title="New Red Sandstone">New Red Sandstone</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Permian_period">Permian period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Permian period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> was characterised for 30 million years by arid desert conditions and the erosion of the land that had uplifted in the Variscan Orogeny, southwest England and adjacent areas of the present-day English Channel. Later, much of Great Britain was submerged in shallow waters as the polar ice sheets melted and the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zechstein_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Zechstein Sea">Zechstein Sea</a> formed, depositing <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">marl</a>, before finally receding to leave a flat desert with <a href="/wiki/Dry_lake" title="Dry lake">salt pans</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesozoic_era">Mesozoic era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mesozoic era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Triassic_period">Triassic period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Triassic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As Pangaea drifted during the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, Great Britain moved away from the equator until it was between 20° and 30° north. Red beds, including <a href="/wiki/Sandstones" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandstones">sandstones</a> and red <a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">mudstones</a> form the main sediments of the <a href="/wiki/New_Red_Sandstone" title="New Red Sandstone">New Red Sandstone</a>. The remnants of the Variscan uplands in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> to the south were eroded down, resulting in layers of the New Red Sandstone being deposited across central England, and in faulted basins in <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a> and the Irish Sea. A basin developed in the <a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a> region around this time. <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">Rifting</a> occurred within and around Great Britain, prior to the breakup of the super-continent in the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period. </p><p>Rock fragments found near <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> appear to indicate that, in 214 Ma, Great Britain was showered with a fine layer of debris from an <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">asteroid impact</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Manicouagan_Impact_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicouagan Impact Crater">Manicouagan Impact Crater</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, although this is still being debated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jurassic_period">Jurassic period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Jurassic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toarcian_Europe_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Toarcian_Europe_map.png/220px-Toarcian_Europe_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Toarcian_Europe_map.png/330px-Toarcian_Europe_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Toarcian_Europe_map.png/440px-Toarcian_Europe_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="2042" /></a><figcaption>Map of Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Toarcian" title="Toarcian">Toarcian</a> age of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early Jurassic</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period began, <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> began to break up, sea levels rose and Great Britain drifted on the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a> to between 30° and 40° north. With much of Great Britain under water again, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> were deposited and can now be found outcropping across much of England from the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Hills" title="Cleveland Hills">Cleveland Hills</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Coast" title="Jurassic Coast">Jurassic Coast</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Dorset" title="Geology of Dorset">Dorset</a>. They also underlie younger strata to the east. In Southern England, the Jurassic rocks are subdivided upwards as the <a href="/wiki/Lias_Group" title="Lias Group">Lias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_Oolite" title="Inferior Oolite">Inferior Oolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Oolite_Group" title="Great Oolite Group">Great Oolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancholme_Group" title="Ancholme Group">Ancholme</a> (interfingering with <a href="/wiki/Corallian_Group" title="Corallian Group">Corallian</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Portland_Group_(geology)" title="Portland Group (geology)">Portland</a> groups. These rock units include <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greensand_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greensand (geology)">greensands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">oolitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cotswold_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotswold Hills">Cotswold Hills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corallian_limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Corallian limestone">corallian limestone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_White_Horse" title="Vale of White Horse">Vale of White Horse</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Portland_Limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Portland Limestone">Isle of Portland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cretaceous_period">Cretaceous period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cretaceous period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sedimentation would retreat from most of England beginning in the Cretaceous, with the deposition of the lagoonal <a href="/wiki/Purbeck_Group" title="Purbeck Group">Purbeck</a> and primarily freshwater <a href="/wiki/Wealden_Group" title="Wealden Group">Wealden</a> groups being largely confined to the <a href="/wiki/Wessex_Basin" title="Wessex Basin">Wessex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weald_Basin" title="Weald Basin">Weald</a> basins, with marine units, including the <a href="/wiki/Speeton_Clay_Formation" title="Speeton Clay Formation">Speeton Clay</a>, occurring in eastern England. The Aptian saw a <a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">marine transgression</a> that flooded most areas of southern England, into shallow seas, with the successive deposition of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Greensand_Group" title="Lower Greensand Group">Lower Greensand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gault" title="Gault">Gault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Greensand_Formation" title="Upper Greensand Formation">Upper Greensand</a> occurring in the Aptian-Albian. At the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, deposition changed to that of <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>, with the deposition of the <a href="/wiki/Chalk_Group" title="Chalk Group">Chalk Group</a> continuing until the end of the Cretaceous. Chalk was deposited over much of Great Britain, now notably exposed at the <a href="/wiki/White_Cliffs_of_Dover" title="White Cliffs of Dover">White Cliffs of Dover</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sisters,_Sussex" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sisters, Sussex">Seven Sisters</a>, and also forming <a href="/wiki/Salisbury_Plain" title="Salisbury Plain">Salisbury Plain</a>. The high sea levels left only small areas of land exposed, which accounts for the general lack of land-origin sand, mud or clay sediments found from around this time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cenozoic_era">Cenozoic era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cenozoic era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palaeogene_period">Palaeogene period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Palaeogene period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early <a href="/wiki/Palaeogene" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeogene">Palaeogene</a> period, between 63 and 52 Ma, the last volcanic rocks in Great Britain were formed. The major eruptions at this time produced the <a href="/wiki/County_Antrim" title="County Antrim">Antrim Plateau</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> columns of the <a href="/wiki/Giant%27s_Causeway" title="Giant's Causeway">Giant's Causeway</a> and the lavas and igneous <a href="/wiki/Intrusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion">intrusions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Hebrides" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a> of Scotland. </p><p>An early phase of the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpine Orogeny">Alpine Orogeny</a>, about 50 Ma, was responsible for the shaping of the <a href="/wiki/London_Basin" title="London Basin">London Basin</a> <a href="/wiki/Syncline" title="Syncline">syncline</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Weald-Artois_Anticline" class="mw-redirect" title="Weald-Artois Anticline">Weald-Artois Anticline</a> to the south, the North Downs, South Downs and Chiltern Hills. </p><p>During the period, the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> formed and Great Britain was <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplifted</a>. Some of this uplift was along old lines of weakness left from the Caledonian and Variscan Orogenies long before. The uplifted areas were then eroded, and further sediments, such as the <a href="/wiki/London_Clay" title="London Clay">London Clay</a>, were deposited over southern England, while the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> was characterised by <a href="/wiki/Mud_flat" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud flat">mud flats</a> and river-deposited <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sands</a>. Much of the midlands and north of England may have been covered by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits at the start of the Palaeogene, but these were lost through erosion. By 35 Ma, the landscape was colonised by trees such as <a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens" title="Sequoia sempervirens">redwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grasses</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neogene_period">Neogene period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Neogene period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Miocene_and_Pliocene_epochs">Miocene and Pliocene epochs</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Miocene and Pliocene epochs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> epochs of the <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>, further uplift and erosion occurred, particularly in Wales, the Pennines, and the Scottish Highlands. The only significant Miocene deposit in Great Britain is the <a href="/wiki/Brassington_Formation" title="Brassington Formation">Brassington Formation</a> in the Peak District. Evidence from the Brassington Formation suggests that, in the middle and late Miocene (12 to 7 million years ago) a diverse warm-temperate forest grew in the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest Neogene sediments have been reported from <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and include fossil pollen that shows a <a href="/wiki/Subtropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical">subtropical</a> mixed forest once grew on <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The climate of the UK cooled and became drier throughout the Neogene <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quaternary_period">Quaternary period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Quaternary period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pleistocene_epoch">Pleistocene epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pleistocene epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg/150px-The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg/225px-The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg/300px-The_Merton_Stone_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1954360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The Merton Stone, one of the largest glacial erratics in England</figcaption></figure> <p>The major changes during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> were brought about by several recent <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a>. The most severe was the <a href="/wiki/Anglian_Stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglian Stage">Anglian Glaciation</a>, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>. This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> onto its present course. </p><p>There is extensive evidence in the form of stone tools that southern England was colonised by <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> populations during the warm <a href="/wiki/Hoxnian_Stage" title="Hoxnian Stage">Hoxnian Stage</a> that followed the Anglian Glaciation. It is possible that the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> repeatedly opened and closed during this period, causing Great Britain to become an island from time to time. The oldest human <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> found to date in the British Isles, which include the skull of <a href="/wiki/Swanscombe_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Swanscombe Man">Swanscombe Man</a> from 400,000 years ago, and the earlier <a href="/wiki/Clactonian_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Clactonian Man">Clactonian Man</a>, also date from this period. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wolstonian_Stage" title="Wolstonian Stage">Wolstonian Glaciation</a>, between about 352,000 to 130,000 years ago, which is thought to have peaked around 150,000 years ago, was named after the village of <a href="/wiki/Wolston" title="Wolston">Wolston</a> southeast of <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a> which is thought to mark the southern limit of the ice. </p><p>The Wolstonian Stage was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Eemian_Stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Eemian Stage">Ipswichian Stage</a>, during which <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a> are known to have lived as far north as <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a>. </p><p>During the most recent <a href="/wiki/Devensian_glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Devensian glaciation">Devensian glaciation</a>, which is thought to have started around 115,000 years ago, peaked around 20,000 years ago and ended a mere 10,000 years ago, the <a href="/wiki/River_Usk" title="River Usk">Usk valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/River_Wye" title="River Wye">Wye valley</a> were eroded by <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, with the icesheet itself reaching south to <a href="/wiki/Wolverhampton" title="Wolverhampton">Wolverhampton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cardiff" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>. The oldest human remains in Great Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Lady_of_Paviland" title="Red Lady of Paviland">Red Lady of Paviland</a> (29,000 years old), date from this time. It is thought that the country was eventually abandoned as the ice sheet reached its peak, being recolonised as it retreated. By 5,000 years ago, it is thought that Great Britain was warmer than it is at present. </p><p>Among the features left behind by the ice are the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjords</a> of the west coast of Scotland, the <a href="/wiki/Glaciated_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciated valley">U-shaped valleys</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacial_erratic" title="Glacial erratic">erratics</a> (blocks of rock) that have been transported from the <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and deposited on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Holocene_epoch">Holocene epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Holocene epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The last twelve thousand years are known as the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> Epoch. Amongst the most significant geological features created during this period are the <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> deposits of Scotland, and of coastal and upland areas of England and Wales. Many of the lowland deposits, such as the <a href="/wiki/Somerset_Levels" title="Somerset Levels">Somerset Levels</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Fens" title="The Fens">The Fens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romney_Marsh" title="Romney Marsh">Romney Marsh</a> have recently been artificially drained. </p><p>Since humans began clearing the forest during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a>, most of the land has now been <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforested</a>, speeding the natural processes of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. Large quantities of stone, gravel and clay are extracted each year, and by 2000 11% of England was covered by <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a> or <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a>. </p><p>At the present time, Scotland is continuing to rise as a result of the weight of Devensian ice being lifted. Southern and eastern England is sinking, generally estimated at 1 mm (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span> inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing <a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">compaction</a> of the recent clay deposits. </p><p>In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate. </p><p>Great Britain continues to be subject to several very minor <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> each month, and more occasional light to moderate ones. During the 20th century, 25 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of 4.5 to 6.1 were felt,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many of them originating within the Isles themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_features">Geological features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Geological features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheddar_Gorge" title="Cheddar Gorge">Cheddar Gorge</a> – the largest gorge in Great Britain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Coast" title="Jurassic Coast">Jurassic Coast</a> – a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Glen_Fault" title="Great Glen Fault">Great Glen Fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Boundary_Fault" title="Highland Boundary Fault">Highland Boundary Fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Uplands_Fault" title="Southern Uplands Fault">Southern Uplands Fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Lowlands" title="Central Lowlands">Midland Valley of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingal%27s_Cave" title="Fingal's Cave">Fingal's Cave</a> – columnar Tertiary basaltic formation (similar to the <a href="/wiki/Giant%27s_Causeway" title="Giant's Causeway">Giant's Causeway</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salisbury_Plain" title="Salisbury Plain">Salisbury Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tees%E2%80%93Exe_line" title="Tees–Exe line">Tees–Exe line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whin_Sill" title="Whin Sill">Whin Sill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siccar_Point" title="Siccar Point">Siccar Point</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berwickshire" title="Berwickshire">Berwickshire</a> provided early proof of the immense age of the Earth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moine_Thrust_Belt" title="Moine Thrust Belt">Moine Thrust</a> – the first thrust belt to be recognised by geologists.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Basin" title="London Basin">London Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampshire_Basin" title="Hampshire Basin">Hampshire Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Downs" title="North Downs">North Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weald" title="Weald">Weald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Downs" title="South Downs">South Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London-Brabant_Massif" class="mw-redirect" title="London-Brabant Massif">London-Brabant Massif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornubian_batholith" title="Cornubian batholith">Cornubian batholith</a> – <a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Early Permian</a> intrusion in the South West of England, forming moors where exposed at the surface, such as <a href="/wiki/Dartmoor" title="Dartmoor">Dartmoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizard_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Lizard Complex">Lizard Complex</a> – a piece of obducted <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>, (i.e. an <a href="/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite">Ophiolite</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapetus_Suture" title="Iapetus Suture">Iapetus Suture</a> – line of closure of the Iapetus suture.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_resources">Geological resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Geological resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Great Britain's complex geology has provided it with a wide range of geological resources including abundant supplies of <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, the initial extraction of which powered the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. During the 20th century, the exploitation of <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a> and gas provided further energy supplies for the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">Geothermal energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Dorset#Coastline" title="Geology of Dorset">onshore oil</a> have also been exploited to a lesser extent. </p><p>A wide variety of <a href="/wiki/List_of_stone#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="List of stone">stone</a> has been worked for building and general construction needs (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom#Industrial_minerals" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">sand and gravel</a>) while other minerals have been mined or quarried for the chemical industry (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>), the production of metals (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Cornwall" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining in Cornwall">copper and tin</a>) or other uses (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">china clay</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Events">Events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storegga_Slide" title="Storegga Slide">Storegga Slides</a>, caused a tsunami c. 6100 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garth_tsunami" title="Garth tsunami">Garth tsunami</a> 5,500 years ago</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1607_Bristol_Channel_floods" title="1607 Bristol Channel floods">1607 Bristol Channel floods</a> were caused by either a tsunami or a storm surge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1580_Dover_Straits_earthquake" title="1580 Dover Straits earthquake">1580 Dover Straits earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a> caused a tsunami that hit <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Colchester_earthquake" title="1884 Colchester earthquake">1884 Colchester earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Market_Rasen_earthquake" title="2008 Market Rasen earthquake">2008 Market Rasen earthquake</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_agencies">Government agencies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Government agencies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learned_societies">Learned societies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Learned societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London" title="Geological Society of London">Geological Society of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Geological_Society" title="Edinburgh Geological Society">Edinburgh Geological Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Geological_Society_of_Cornwall" title="Royal Geological Society of Cornwall">Royal Geological Society of Cornwall</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pioneers_of_British_geology">Pioneers of British geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Pioneers of British geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a> 1799–1847</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_George_Bonney" title="Thomas George Bonney">Thomas George Bonney</a> 1833–1923</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a> 1784–1856</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Conybeare_(geologist)" title="William Conybeare (geologist)">William Conybeare</a> 1787–1857</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> 1726–1797 the "Father of modern geology"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lapworth" title="Charles Lapworth">Charles Lapworth</a> 1842–1920</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Sir Charles Lyell</a> 1797–1875</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" title="Gideon Mantell">Gideon Mantell</a> 1790–1852</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Murchison" title="Roderick Murchison">Sir Roderick Murchison</a> 1792–1871</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Phillips_(geologist)" title="John Phillips (geologist)">John Phillips</a> 1800–1874</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Adam Sedgwick</a> 1785–1873</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a> 1769–1839 the "Father of English geology"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_Medal" title="Wollaston Medal">Wollaston Medal</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg/400px-Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg/600px-Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg/800px-Geology_of_UK_-_Section_from_Snowdon_to_Harwich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Geology of the UK: Section from <a href="/wiki/Snowdon" title="Snowdon">Snowdon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Harwich" title="Harwich">Harwich</a> showing underlying <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a>.<br /> <hr /> This cross section shows what would be seen in a deep cutting nearly E. and W. across England and Wales. It shows also how, in consequence of the folding of the strata and the cutting off of the uplifted parts, old rocks which should be tens of thousands of feet down are found in borings in East Anglia only 1000 feet or so below the surface.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">Coastline of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_England" title="Geology of England">Geology of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Scotland" title="Geology of Scotland">Geology of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geology of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_anomalies_of_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Gravity anomalies of Britain and Ireland">Gravity anomalies of Britain and Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_British_Isles" title="List of earthquakes in the British Isles">List of earthquakes in the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom">List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rock_formations_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of rock formations in the United Kingdom">List of rock formations in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shear_zones_of_Great_Britain" title="List of shear zones of Great Britain">List of shear zones of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom">List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunamis_affecting_the_British_Isles" title="Tsunamis affecting the British Isles">Tsunamis affecting the British Isles</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-BGS-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BGS_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BGS_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BGS_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=774">"Why no volcanoes? – British Geological Survey"</a>. <i>Bgs.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bgs.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Why+no+volcanoes%3F+%E2%80%93+British+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgs.ac.uk%2Fdownloads%2Fstart.cfm%3Fid%3D774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toghill-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToghill2000" class="citation book cs1">Toghill, Peter (2000). <i>The Geology of Britain: An Introduction</i>. Shrewsbury: Swan Hill Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85310-890-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85310-890-1"><bdi>1-85310-890-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geology+of+Britain%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Shrewsbury&rft.pub=Swan+Hill+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85310-890-1&rft.aulast=Toghill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoundNuñez_OtañoRomeroLim2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pound, Matthew J.; Nuñez Otaño, Noelia B.; Romero, Ingrid C.; Lim, Michael; Riding, James B.; O’Keefe, Jennifer M. 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(2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/533021/1/fevo-10-947623.pdf">"The fungal ecology of the Brassington Formation (Middle Miocene) of Derbyshire, United Kingdom, and a new method for palaeoclimate reconstruction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>10</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2022.947623">10.3389/fevo.2022.947623</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-701X">2296-701X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+fungal+ecology+of+the+Brassington+Formation+%28Middle+Miocene%29+of+Derbyshire%2C+United+Kingdom%2C+and+a+new+method+for+palaeoclimate+reconstruction&rft.volume=10&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffevo.2022.947623&rft.issn=2296-701X&rft.aulast=Pound&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rft.au=Nu%C3%B1ez+Ota%C3%B1o%2C+Noelia+B.&rft.au=Romero%2C+Ingrid+C.&rft.au=Lim%2C+Michael&rft.au=Riding%2C+James+B.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Keefe%2C+Jennifer+M.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnora.nerc.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F533021%2F1%2Ffevo-10-947623.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoundO’KeefeNuñez_OtañoRiding2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pound, Matthew J.; O’Keefe, Jennifer M. K.; Nuñez Otaño, Noelia B.; Riding, James B. (5 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/37999/1/AuthorVersion.pdf">"Three new Miocene fungal palynomorphs from the Brassington Formation, Derbyshire, UK"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Palynology</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 596–607. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916122.2018.1473300">10.1080/01916122.2018.1473300</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134737967">134737967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palynology&rft.atitle=Three+new+Miocene+fungal+palynomorphs+from+the+Brassington+Formation%2C+Derbyshire%2C+UK&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=596-607&rft.date=2018-12-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01916122.2018.1473300&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134737967%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pound&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Keefe%2C+Jennifer+M.+K.&rft.au=Nu%C3%B1ez+Ota%C3%B1o%2C+Noelia+B.&rft.au=Riding%2C+James+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrl.northumbria.ac.uk%2F37999%2F1%2FAuthorVersion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoundRidingDondersDaskova2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pound, Matthew J.; Riding, James B.; Donders, Timme H.; Daskova, Jirina (June 2012). "The palynostratigraphy of the Brassington Formation (Upper Miocene) of the southern Pennines, central England". <i>Palynology</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 26–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916122.2011.643066">10.1080/01916122.2011.643066</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129857989">129857989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palynology&rft.atitle=The+palynostratigraphy+of+the+Brassington+Formation+%28Upper+Miocene%29+of+the+southern+Pennines%2C+central+England&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-37&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01916122.2011.643066&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129857989%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pound&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rft.au=Riding%2C+James+B.&rft.au=Donders%2C+Timme+H.&rft.au=Daskova%2C+Jirina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoundMcCoy2021" class="citation journal cs1">Pound, Matthew J.; McCoy, Jessica (15 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/45900/1/Manuscript_Palynology_author_accepted.pdf">"Palaeoclimate reconstruction and age assessment of the Miocene flora from the Trwyn y Parc solution pipe complex of Anglesey, Wales, UK"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Palynology</i>. <b>45</b> (4): 697–703. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916122.2021.1916636">10.1080/01916122.2021.1916636</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0191-6122">0191-6122</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234861204">234861204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palynology&rft.atitle=Palaeoclimate+reconstruction+and+age+assessment+of+the+Miocene+flora+from+the+Trwyn+y+Parc+solution+pipe+complex+of+Anglesey%2C+Wales%2C+UK&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=697-703&rft.date=2021-04-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234861204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0191-6122&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01916122.2021.1916636&rft.aulast=Pound&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rft.au=McCoy%2C+Jessica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrl.northumbria.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F45900%2F1%2FManuscript_Palynology_author_accepted.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibsonMcCoyO’KeefeOtaño2022" class="citation journal cs1">Gibson, M. E.; McCoy, J.; O’Keefe, J. M. K.; Otaño, N. B. Nuñez; Warny, S.; Pound, M. J. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2021PA004358">"Reconstructing Terrestrial Paleoclimates: A Comparison of the Co-Existence Approach, Bayesian and Probability Reconstruction Techniques Using the UK Neogene"</a>. <i>Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</i>. <b>37</b> (2): e2021PA004358. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PaPa...37.4358G">2022PaPa...37.4358G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2021PA004358">10.1029/2021PA004358</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245937316">245937316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleoceanography+and+Paleoclimatology&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+Terrestrial+Paleoclimates%3A+A+Comparison+of+the+Co-Existence+Approach%2C+Bayesian+and+Probability+Reconstruction+Techniques+Using+the+UK+Neogene&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e2021PA004358&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245937316%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2021PA004358&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022PaPa...37.4358G&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rft.au=McCoy%2C+J.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Keefe%2C+J.+M.+K.&rft.au=Ota%C3%B1o%2C+N.+B.+Nu%C3%B1ez&rft.au=Warny%2C+S.&rft.au=Pound%2C+M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2021PA004358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibsonPound" class="citation web cs1">Gibson, Martha; Pound, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/we-reconstructed-britain-of-millions-of-years-ago-to-see-what-climate-breakdown-will-involve-175949">"We reconstructed Britain of millions of years ago to see what climate breakdown will involve"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=We+reconstructed+Britain+of+millions+of+years+ago+to+see+what+climate+breakdown+will+involve&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Martha&rft.au=Pound%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fwe-reconstructed-britain-of-millions-of-years-ago-to-see-what-climate-breakdown-will-involve-175949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050407233620/http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/hazard/eqlst.htm">"British earthquakes"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/hazard/eqlst.htm">the original</a> on 2005-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2004-05-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+earthquakes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quakes.bgs.ac.uk%2Fhazard%2Feqlst.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepherd2015" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, Mike (2015). <i>Oil Strike North Sea: A first-hand history of North Sea oil</i>. Luath Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oil+Strike+North+Sea%3A+A+first-hand+history+of+North+Sea+oil.&rft.pub=Luath+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennisonWright1969" class="citation book cs1">Bennison, G.M.; Wright, A.E. (1969). <i>The Geological History of the British Isles</i>. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 406 + x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-2226-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7131-2226-9"><bdi>0-7131-2226-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geological+History+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=London&rft.pages=406+%2B+x&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-7131-2226-9&rft.aulast=Bennison&rft.aufirst=G.M.&rft.au=Wright%2C+A.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Richard_Owen" title="Thomas Richard Owen">Owen, T.R.</a> (1976). <i>The Geological Evolution of the British Isles</i>. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 161 + viii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-020461-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-020461-9"><bdi>0-08-020461-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geological+Evolution+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=161+%2B+viii&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-08-020461-9&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=T.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRayner1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Helen_Rayner" title="Dorothy Helen Rayner">Rayner, D.H.</a> (1967). <i>The Stratigraphy of the British Isles</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 459 + x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-06047-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-06047-8"><bdi>0-521-06047-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stratigraphy+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=London&rft.pages=459+%2B+x&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-521-06047-8&rft.aulast=Rayner&rft.aufirst=D.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodcock2002" class="citation book cs1">Woodcock, N.H. (2002). Strachan, R.A. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com"><i>Geological History of Britain and Ireland</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. viii+423. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-03656-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-632-03656-7"><bdi>0-632-03656-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geological+History+of+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=viii%2B423&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-632-03656-7&rft.aulast=Woodcock&rft.aufirst=N.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackwellpublishing.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Great+Britain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Great_Britain&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Countries of Europe">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Albania" title="Geology of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Andorra" title="Geology of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Armenia" title="Geology of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Austria" title="Geology of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Azerbaijan" title="Geology of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Belarus" title="Geology of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Belgium" title="Geology of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Geology of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Bulgaria" title="Geology of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Croatia" title="Geology of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Cyprus" title="Geology of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Geology of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Denmark" title="Geology of Denmark">Denmark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Geology of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Estonia" title="Geology of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Finland" title="Geology of Finland">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_%C3%85land" title="Geology of Åland">Åland Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_France" title="Geology of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Geology of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Greece" title="Geology of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Hungary" title="Geology of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Iceland" title="Geology of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Ireland" title="Geology of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Sicily" title="Geology of Sicily">Sicily</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Kazakhstan" title="Geology of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Kosovo" title="Geology of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Latvia" title="Geology of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Liechtenstein" title="Geology of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Lithuania" title="Geology of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Luxembourg" title="Geology of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Malta" title="Geology of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Moldova" title="Geology of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Monaco" title="Geology of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Montenegro" title="Geology of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Netherlands" title="Geology of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_North_Macedonia" title="Geology of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Norway" title="Geology of Norway">Norway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Jan_Mayen" title="Geology of Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Svalbard" title="Geology of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Romania" title="Geology of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Russia" title="Geology of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_San_Marino" title="Geology of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Serbia" title="Geology of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Slovakia" title="Geology of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Sweden" title="Geology of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Turkey" title="Geology of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Ukraine" title="Geology of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_England" title="Geology of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Scotland" title="Geology of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Alderney" title="Geology of Alderney">Alderney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Guernsey" title="Geology of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Jersey" title="Geology of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Geology of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_geological_map-en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Europe_geological_map-en.jpg/200px-Europe_geological_map-en.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Europe_geological_map-en.jpg/300px-Europe_geological_map-en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Europe_geological_map-en.jpg/400px-Europe_geological_map-en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5408" data-file-height="5504" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regional_geology" title="Regional geology">Geologic regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">Orogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_orogeny" title="Acadian orogeny">Acadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_orogeny" title="Alpine orogeny">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belomorian_Province" title="Belomorian Province">Belomorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadomian_Orogeny" title="Cadomian Orogeny">Cadomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonian_orogeny" title="Caledonian orogeny">Caledonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_orogeny" title="Alpine orogeny">Carpathian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalslandian_orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalslandian orogeny">Dalslandian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothian_orogeny" title="Gothian orogeny">Gothian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grampian_orogeny" title="Grampian orogeny">Grampian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallandian-Danopolonian_event" title="Hallandian-Danopolonian event">Hallandian-Danopolonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_orogeny" title="Hellenic orogeny">Hellenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laxfordian_orogeny" title="Laxfordian orogeny">Laxfordian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lopian_orogeny" title="Lopian orogeny">Lopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saamian_orogeny" title="Saamian orogeny">Saamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandian_orogeny" title="Scandian orogeny">Scandian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scourian_orogeny" title="Scourian orogeny">Scourian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timanide_Orogen" title="Timanide Orogen">Timanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svecofennian_orogeny" title="Svecofennian orogeny">Svecofennian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sveconorwegian_orogeny" title="Sveconorwegian orogeny">Sveconorwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralian_orogeny" title="Uralian orogeny">Uralian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">Mountain ranges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Alps" title="Geology of the Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains#Geology" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains#Geology" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps#Geology" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harz#Geology_and_pedology" title="Harz">Harz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massif_Central_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Massif Central (geology)">Massif Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore_Mountains#Geology" title="Ore Mountains">Ore Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Geology of the Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountains#Geology" title="Scandinavian Mountains">Scandinavian Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudetes#Geology" title="Sudetes">Sudetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains#Geology" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Western_Carpathians" title="Geology of the Western Carpathians">Western Carpathians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic basins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean#Geology_and_plate_tectonics" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean#Geology" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Bay_of_Biscay" title="Geology of the Bay of Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea#Geology_and_bathymetry" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea#Geology" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Norwegian_Sea" title="Geology of the Norwegian Sea">Norwegian Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_subsidence" title="Tectonic subsidence">Intracontinental<br />basins and grabens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquitaine_Basin" title="Aquitaine Basin">Aquitaine Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barents_Basin" title="Barents Basin">Barents Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Baltic_Sea" title="Geology of the Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Lowlands" title="Central Lowlands">Central Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnieper-Donets_Rift" title="Dnieper-Donets Rift">Dnieper–Donets Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebro_Basin" title="Ebro Basin">Ebro Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Cenozoic_Rift_System" title="European Cenozoic Rift System">European Cenozoic Rift System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Trench" title="Hellenic Trench">Hellenic Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limagne_Graben" title="Limagne Graben">Limagne Graben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezen_Basin" title="Mezen Basin">Mezen Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molasse_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Molasse Basin">Molasse Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Basin" title="Moscow Basin">Moscow Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_North_Sea" title="Geology of the North Sea">North Sea Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oslo_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="Oslo Rift">Oslo Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Pannonian Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Basin" title="Paris Basin">Paris Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Depression" title="Caspian Depression">Peri-Caspian Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timan-Pechora_Basin" title="Timan-Pechora Basin">Timan-Pechora Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Sea_Rift_System" title="White Sea Rift System">White Sea Rift System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">Tectonic plates</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Microcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcontinent">microcontinents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_plate" title="Adriatic plate">Adriatic plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_plate" title="Aegean Sea plate">Aegean Sea plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian plate">Anatolian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_plate" title="Eurasian plate">Eurasian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_plate" title="Iberian plate">Iberian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen_Microcontinent" title="Jan Mayen Microcontinent">Jan Mayen Microcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesian_plate" title="Moesian plate">Moesian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelso_plate" title="Pelso plate">Pelso plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tisza_plate" title="Tisza plate">Tisza plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">Terranes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorican_terrane" title="Armorican terrane">Armorican terrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_European_Craton" title="East European Craton">East European Craton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fennoscandia" title="Fennoscandia">Fennoscandian Craton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatian_Craton" title="Sarmatian Craton">Sarmatian Craton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volgo%E2%80%93Uralia" title="Volgo–Uralia">Volgo–Uralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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area">Jungfrau-Aletsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Coast" title="Jurassic Coast">Jurassic Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Komi_Forests" title="Virgin Komi Forests">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kvarken" title="Kvarken">Kvarken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laponian_area" title="Laponian area">Laponia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messel_pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Messel pit">Messel Pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteora" title="Meteora">Meteora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Perdido" title="Monte Perdido">Monte Perdido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_San_Giorgio" title="Monte San Giorgio">Monte San Giorgio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A6r%C3%B8yfjord" title="Nærøyfjord">Nærøyfjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirin_National_Park" title="Pirin National Park">Pirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plitvice_Lakes_National_Park" title="Plitvice Lakes National Park">Plitvice</a></li> <li><a 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Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707">Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar</a></li> <li>Second World War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">civilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">military</a></li></ul></li> <li>Postwar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">social</a></li></ul></li> <li>Since 1979 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic history of the United Kingdom">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Maritime history of the United Kingdom">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mass_surveillance_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of mass surveillance in the United Kingdom">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Military history of the United Kingdom">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">Women's history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Administrative geography of the United Kingdom">Administrative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Counties of the United Kingdom">Counties of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Countries of the United Kingdom">Countries of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">Overseas territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of towns in the United Kingdom">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_that_have_gained_independence_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom">Former colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geography of the United Kingdom">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_British_Isles" title="Terminology of the British Isles">terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate of the United Kingdom">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coastline of the United Kingdom">Coastline</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_and_lochs_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of lakes and lochs of the United Kingdom">Lakes and lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of rivers of the United Kingdom">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_resources_produced_and_traded_by_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom">Resources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Agriculture in the United Kingdom">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Energy in the United Kingdom">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiesel_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiesel in the United Kingdom">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom">hydraulic frac.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hydroelectricity in the United Kingdom">hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom#Ocean_power" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wind power in the United Kingdom">wind</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fishing <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_England" title="Fishing industry in England">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Wales" title="Fishing industry in Wales">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">Hunting</a></li> <li>Materials <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mining in the United Kingdom">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wildlife <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Great_Britain" title="Fauna of Great Britain">fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Flora of Great Britain and Ireland">flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Corruption in the United Kingdom">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devolution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Devolution in the United Kingdom">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Elections in the United Kingdom">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UK_parliamentary_by-elections" title="UK parliamentary by-elections">By-elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Foreign relations of the United Kingdom">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Human rights in the United Kingdom">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United Kingdom">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciaries_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Judiciaries of the United Kingdom">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law enforcement in the United Kingdom">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Local government in the United Kingdom">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political parties in the United Kingdom">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_leaders_of_British_political_parties" title="List of female leaders of British political parties">Female party leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_scandals_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of political scandals in the United Kingdom">Political scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Opposition_Shadow_Cabinet_(United_Kingdom)" title="Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)">Shadow Cabinet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_governments" title="List of British governments">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_the_Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunak_ministry" title="Sunak ministry">Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_government_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of government ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service" title="His Majesty's Naval Service">His Majesty's Naval Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economy of the United Kingdom">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of banks in the United Kingdom">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budget_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Budget of the United Kingdom">Budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Economic geography of the United Kingdom">Economic geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreements_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom">Free trade agreements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Income in the United Kingdom">Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Manufacturing in the United Kingdom">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stock_exchanges_in_the_United_Kingdom,_the_British_Crown_Dependencies_and_United_Kingdom_Overseas_Territories" title="List of stock exchanges in the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies and United Kingdom Overseas Territories">Stock exchanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Exchange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Taxation in the United Kingdom">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Tourism in the United Kingdom">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Transport in the United Kingdom">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Air transport in the United Kingdom">Air transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bus transport">Bus transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Driving in the United Kingdom">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in the United Kingdom">Rail transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Society of the United Kingdom">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cannabis in the United Kingdom">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crime in the United Kingdom">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Demographics of the United Kingdom">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Drug policy of the United Kingdom">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">Environmental inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental issues in the United Kingdom">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Health in the United Kingdom">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Homelessness in the United Kingdom">Homelessness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Scotland" title="Homelessness in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Housing in the United Kingdom">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunger in the United Kingdom">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Modern immigration to the United Kingdom">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Languages of the United Kingdom">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of British regions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mental health in the United Kingdom">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prostitution in the United Kingdom">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Public holidays in the United Kingdom">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_care_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social care in the United Kingdom">Social care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Suicide in the United Kingdom">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Universal basic income in the United Kingdom">Universal basic income (UBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Waste in the United Kingdom">Waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Culture of the United Kingdom">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Art of the United Kingdom">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_King" title="God Save the King">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cinema of the United Kingdom">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_cuisine" title="British cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wine_from_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wine from the United Kingdom">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_national_identity" title="British national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Mass media in the United Kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Music of the United Kingdom">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Sport in the United Kingdom">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_the_United_Kingdom,_the_Channel_Islands_and_the_Isle_of_Man" title="List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_the_British" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of the British">Stereotypes of the British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_England" title="Tourism in England">tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_England" title="Education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_England" title="Healthcare in England">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_England" title="Homelessness in England">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Geography_and_climate" title="Northern Ireland">Geography</a></li> 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href="/wiki/Health_and_Social_Care_(Northern_Ireland)" title="Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Culture of Northern Ireland">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland#Symbols" title="Northern Ireland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Scotland" title="Geography of Scotland">Geography</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></li> <li><a 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