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Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%2219th-century+French+literature%22">"19th-century French literature"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%2219th-century+French+literature%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%2219th-century+French+literature%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%2219th-century+French+literature%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%2219th-century+French+literature%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%2219th-century+French+literature%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="padding:0.3em; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; background:#f8f8f8; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1em; background-color: #cccccc"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>French</b></span><br /> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">Language</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">Literature</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.5em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French-language_authors" title="List of French-language authors">Authors</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:French_literature" title="Category:French literature">Lit categories</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1em; background-color: #cccccc"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.5em"> <p>French literary history </p> <hr /> <p><a href="/wiki/Medieval_French_literature" title="Medieval French literature">Medieval</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_literature" title="French Renaissance literature">16th century</a> • <a href="/wiki/17th-century_French_literature" title="17th-century French literature">17th century</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/18th-century_French_literature" title="18th-century French literature">18th century</a> • <a class="mw-selflink selflink">19th century</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/20th-century_French_literature" title="20th-century French literature">20th century</a> • <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_French_literature" title="Contemporary French literature">Contemporary</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1em; background-color: #cccccc"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.5em"> <p>Literature by country </p> <hr /> <p><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of France">France</a> • <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Quebec">Quebec</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">Postcolonial</a> • <a href="/wiki/Haitian_literature" title="Haitian literature">Haiti</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Franco_American_literature" title="Franco American literature">Franco-American</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1em; background-color: #cccccc"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.5em"> <p>Portals </p> <hr /> <p><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France</a> • <a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature</a> <br /> <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:French_literature">French literature Wikisource</a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 0.3em; line-height: 1.5em"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_literature" title="Template:French literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_literature" title="Template talk:French literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Notable 19th-century French literary figures."><img alt="Notable 19th-century French literary figures." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg/250px-Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg/375px-Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Mosa%C3%AFque_portraits_-_litt%C3%A9rature_fran%C3%A7aise_19e_s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Notable 19th-century French literary figures.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>19th-century French literature</b> concerns the developments in <a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French literature</a> during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. The period covered spans the following political regimes: <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>'s <a href="/wiki/First_Consul" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul">Consulate</a> (1799–1804) and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Empire</a> (1804–1814), the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a> under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a> (1814–1830), the <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Philippe of France">Louis Philippe d'Orléans</a> (1830–1848), the <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a> (1848–1852), the <a href="/wiki/French_Second_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="French Second Empire">Second Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> (1852–1871), and the first decades of the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> (1871–1940). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>French literature enjoyed enormous international prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, until around the mid-century <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a> emerged, at least partly as a reaction. In the last half of the century, "<a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">naturalism</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Parnassianism" title="Parnassianism">parnassian</a>" poetry, and "<a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(movement)" title="Symbolism (movement)">symbolism</a>", among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name and a program or manifesto. In other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanticism"><span class="anchor" id="French_romanticism"></span>Romanticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Romanticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div> <p>French literature from the first half of the century was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, which is associated with such authors as <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_p%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Dumas, père">Alexandre Dumas, père</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">François-René de Chateaubriand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a>, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Gérard de Nerval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Charles Nodier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Alfred de Musset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Théophile Gautier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Alfred de Vigny</a>. Their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. The effect of the romantic movement would continue to be felt in the latter half of the century in diverse literary developments, such as "realism", "symbolism", and the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">fin de siècle</a> <a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">"decadent" movement</a>. </p><p>French romanticism used forms such as the <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novel</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a>, the "roman noir" or <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a>; subjects like traditional myths (including the myth of the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">romantic hero</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, the natural world (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegies</a> by lakes), and the common man; and the styles of lyricism, <a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)" title="Sentimentalism (literature)">sentimentalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">exoticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">orientalism</a>. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Gordon_Byron,_6th_Baron_Byron" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron">Byron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>. French Romanticism had ideals diametrically opposed to French classicism and the classical unities, but it could also express a profound loss for aspects of the pre-revolutionary world in a society now dominated by money and fame, rather than honor. </p><p>Key ideas from early French Romanticism:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>"Le vague des passions" (vagueness, uncertainty of sentiment and passion): Chateaubriand maintained that while the imagination was rich, the world was cold and empty, and civilization had only robbed men of their illusions; nevertheless, a notion of sentiment and passion continued to haunt men.</li> <li>"Le mal du siècle" (the pain of the century): a sense of loss, disillusion, and <a href="/wiki/Aporia" title="Aporia">aporia</a>, typified by <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">melancholy</a> and lassitude.</li></ul> <p>Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of "pre-romanticism" in the works of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> (among others) at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">François-René de Chateaubriand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Sta%C3%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>'s interpretation of Germany as the land of romantic ideals. It found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a>. </p><p>The major battles of romanticism in France were in the theater. The early years of the century were marked by a revival of classicism and classical-inspired tragedies, often with themes of national sacrifice or patriotic heroism in keeping with the spirit of the Revolution, but the production of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Hernani_(drama)" title="Hernani (drama)">Hernani</a></i> in 1830 marked the triumph of the romantic movement on the stage (a description of the turbulent opening night can be found in Théophile Gautier). The <a href="/wiki/Three_unities" class="mw-redirect" title="Three unities">dramatic unities</a> of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods (the <a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">French Renaissance</a>, the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIII of France">Louis XIII of France</a>) and doomed noble characters (rebel princes and outlaws) or misunderstood artists (Vigny's play based on the life of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chatterton" title="Thomas Chatterton">Thomas Chatterton</a>). </p><p>Victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction. Other writers associated with the movement were the austere and pessimistic <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Alfred de Vigny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Théophile Gautier</a> a devotee of beauty and creator of the "<a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a>" movement, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Alfred de Musset</a>, who best exemplifies romantic melancholy. All three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_p%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Dumas, père">Alexandre Dumas, père</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Musketeers" title="The Three Musketeers">The Three Musketeers</a></i> and other romantic novels in an historical setting. <a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Prosper Mérimée</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Charles Nodier</a> were masters of shorter fiction. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Augustin_Sainte-Beuve" title="Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve">Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve</a>, a literary critic, showed romantic expansiveness in his hospitality to all ideas and in his unfailing endeavour to understand and interpret authors rather than to judge them. </p><p>Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups: the Arsenal (formed around <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Charles Nodier</a> at the Arsenal Library in Paris from 1824-1844 where Nodier was administrator), the Cénacle (formed around Nodier, then Hugo from 1823–1828), the salon of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Charles_Delescluze" title="Louis Charles Delescluze">Louis Charles Delescluze</a>, the salon of Antoine (or <a href="/wiki/Antony_Deschamps" title="Antony Deschamps">Antony Deschamps</a>), the salon of <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Sta%C3%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>. </p><p>Romanticism in France defied political affiliation: one finds both "liberal" (like <a href="/wiki/Stendhal" title="Stendhal">Stendhal</a>), "conservative" (like <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a>) and socialist (<a href="/wiki/George_Sand" title="George Sand">George Sand</a>) strains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Realism">Realism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">Literary realism</a></div> <p>The expression "<a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a>", when being applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science (especially biology), history and the social sciences and to the growth of <a href="/wiki/Industrialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialism">industrialism</a> and commerce. The "realist" tendency is not necessarily anti-romantic; romanticism in France often affirmed the common man and the natural setting, as in the peasant stories of <a href="/wiki/George_Sand" title="George Sand">George Sand</a>, and concerned itself with historical forces and periods, as in the work of historian <a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Jules Michelet</a>. </p><p>The novels of <a href="/wiki/Stendhal" title="Stendhal">Stendhal</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/The_Red_and_the_Black" title="The Red and the Black">The Red and the Black</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Charterhouse_of_Parma" title="The Charterhouse of Parma">The Charterhouse of Parma</a></i>, address issues of their contemporary society while also using themes and characters derived from the romantic movement. <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a> is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His <i><a href="/wiki/La_Com%C3%A9die_humaine" title="La Comédie humaine">La Comédie humaine</a></i>, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a complete contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_fils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Dumas, fils">Alexandre Dumas, fils</a>. </p><p>Many of the novels in this period, including Balzac's, were published in newspapers in serial form, and the immensely popular realist "roman feuilleton" tended to specialize in portraying the hidden side of urban life (crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in the novels of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Sue" title="Eugène Sue">Eugène Sue</a>. Similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodramas</a> of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Guignol" title="Grand Guignol">Grand Guignol</a> at the end of the century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Gustave Flaubert</a>'s great novels <i><a href="/wiki/Madame_Bovary" title="Madame Bovary">Madame Bovary</a></i> (1857)—which reveals the tragic consequences of romanticism on the wife of a provincial doctor—and <i><a href="/wiki/Sentimental_Education" title="Sentimental Education">Sentimental Education</a></i> represent perhaps the highest stages in the development of French realism, while Flaubert's romanticism is apparent in his fantastic <i><a href="/wiki/The_Temptation_of_Saint_Anthony_(Flaubert)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Temptation of Saint Anthony (Flaubert)">The Temptation of Saint Anthony</a></i> and the baroque and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in <i><a href="/wiki/Salammb%C3%B4_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salammbô (novel)">Salammbô</a></i>. </p><p>In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Marin_Labiche" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugène Marin Labiche">Eugène Marin Labiche</a> and the moral dramas of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Augier" title="Émile Augier">Émile Augier</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naturalism">Naturalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary "<a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism</a>". The expression is imprecise, and was frequently used disparagingly to characterize authors whose chosen subject matter was taken from the working classes and who portrayed the misery and harsh conditions of real life. Many of the "naturalist" writers took a radical position against the excesses of romanticism and strove to use scientific and encyclopedic precision in their novels (Zola spent months visiting coal mines for his <i>Germinal</i>, and even the arch-realist Flaubert was famous for his years of research for historical details). <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a> supplied much of the philosophy of naturalism: he believed that every human being was determined by the forces of heredity and environment and by the time in which he lived. The influence of certain <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian</a> writers gave an added impulse to the naturalistic movement. </p><p>The novels and short stories of <a href="/wiki/Guy_de_Maupassant" title="Guy de Maupassant">Guy de Maupassant</a> are often tagged with the label "naturalist", although he clearly followed the realist model of his teacher and mentor, Flaubert. Maupassant used elements derived from the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">gothic novel</a> in stories like <i>Le Horla</i>. This tension between portrayal of the contemporary world in all its sordidness, detached irony and the use of romantic images and themes would also influence the symbolists (see below) and would continue to the 20th century. </p><p>Naturalism is most often associated with the novels of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a> in particular his <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Rougon-Macquart" title="Les Rougon-Macquart">Les Rougon-Macquart</a></i> novel cycle, which includes <i><a href="/wiki/Germinal_(novel)" title="Germinal (novel)">Germinal</a></i>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/L%27Assommoir" title="L'Assommoir">L'Assommoir</a></i></span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nana_(novel)" title="Nana (novel)">Nana</a></i>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Le_Ventre_de_Paris" title="Le Ventre de Paris">Le Ventre de Paris</a></i></span>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_B%C3%AAte_humaine" title="La Bête humaine">La Bête humaine</a></i></span>, and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/L%27%C5%92uvre" title="L'Œuvre">L'Œuvre</a></i></span> <i>(The Masterpiece)</i>, in which the social success or failure of two branches of a family is explained by physical, social and hereditary laws. Other writers who have been labeled naturalists include: <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Daudet" title="Alphonse Daudet">Alphonse Daudet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Vall%C3%A8s" title="Jules Vallès">Jules Vallès</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joris-Karl_Huysmans" title="Joris-Karl Huysmans">Joris-Karl Huysmans</a> (later a leading "decadent" and rebel against naturalism),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edmond_de_Goncourt" title="Edmond de Goncourt">Edmond de Goncourt</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Jules_de_Goncourt" title="Jules de Goncourt">Jules de Goncourt</a>, and (in a very different vein) <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bourget" title="Paul Bourget">Paul Bourget</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parnasse">Parnasse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Parnasse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parnassianism" title="Parnassianism">Parnassianism</a></div> <p>An attempt to be objective<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2011)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> was made in poetry by the group of writers known as the <a href="/wiki/Parnassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Parnassians">Parnassians</a>—which included <a href="/wiki/Leconte_de_Lisle" title="Leconte de Lisle">Leconte de Lisle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_de_Banville" title="Théodore de Banville">Théodore de Banville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catulle_Mend%C3%A8s" title="Catulle Mendès">Catulle Mendès</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sully-Prudhomme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sully-Prudhomme">Sully-Prudhomme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Copp%C3%A9e" title="François Coppée">François Coppée</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Heredia" class="mw-redirect" title="José María de Heredia">José María de Heredia</a> and (early in his career) <a href="/wiki/Paul_Verlaine" title="Paul Verlaine">Paul Verlaine</a>—who (using <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Théophile Gautier</a>'s notion of <a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">art for art's sake</a> and the pursuit of the beautiful) strove for exact and faultless workmanship, and selected exotic and classical subjects which they treated with a rigidity of form and an emotional detachment (elements of which echo the philosophical work of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer%27s_aesthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer's aesthetics">aesthetic theories</a> would also have an influence on the symbolists). </p><p>Modern science and geography were united with romantic adventure in the works of <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a> and other writers of popular serial adventure novels and early science-fiction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbolism_and_the_birth_of_the_Modern">Symbolism and the birth of the Modern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Symbolism and the birth of the Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism (arts)</a></div> <p>The naturalist tendency to see life without illusions and to dwell on its more depressing and sordid aspects appears in an intensified degree in the immensely influential poetry of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a>, but with profoundly romantic elements derived from the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byronic</a> myth of the anti-hero and the romantic poet, and the world-weariness of the "mal du siècle", etc. Similar elements occur in the novels of <a href="/wiki/Jules_Barbey_d%27Aurevilly" title="Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly">Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly</a>. </p><p>The poetry of Baudelaire and much of the literature in the latter half of the century (or "<a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">fin de siècle</a>") were often characterized as "<a href="/wiki/Decadent" class="mw-redirect" title="Decadent">decadent</a>" for their lurid content or moral vision. In a similar vein, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Verlaine" title="Paul Verlaine">Paul Verlaine</a> used the expression "<a href="/wiki/Po%C3%A8te_maudit" title="Poète maudit">poète maudit</a>" ("accursed poet") in 1884 to refer to a number of poets like <a href="/wiki/Tristan_Corbi%C3%A8re" title="Tristan Corbière">Tristan Corbière</a>, <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Stéphane Mallarmé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Arthur Rimbaud</a> who had fought against poetic conventions and suffered social rebuke or had been ignored by the critics. But with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Mor%C3%A9as" title="Jean Moréas">Jean Moréas</a> <i>Symbolist Manifesto</i> in 1886, it was the term <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">symbolism</a> which was most often applied to the new literary environment. </p><p>The writers <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Stéphane Mallarmé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Verlaine" title="Paul Verlaine">Paul Verlaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Paul Valéry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joris-Karl_Huysmans" title="Joris-Karl Huysmans">Joris-Karl Huysmans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Arthur Rimbaud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Laforgue" title="Jules Laforgue">Jules Laforgue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Mor%C3%A9as" title="Jean Moréas">Jean Moréas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Kahn" title="Gustave Kahn">Gustave Kahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Samain" title="Albert Samain">Albert Samain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lorrain" title="Jean Lorrain">Jean Lorrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_de_Gourmont" class="mw-redirect" title="Rémy de Gourmont">Rémy de Gourmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Lou%C3%BFs" title="Pierre Louÿs">Pierre Louÿs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tristan_Corbi%C3%A8re" title="Tristan Corbière">Tristan Corbière</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_R%C3%A9gnier" title="Henri de Régnier">Henri de Régnier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Villiers_de_l%27Isle-Adam" class="mw-redirect" title="Villiers de l'Isle-Adam">Villiers de l'Isle-Adam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Merrill" title="Stuart Merrill">Stuart Merrill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Ghil" title="René Ghil">René Ghil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Pol-Roux" title="Saint-Pol-Roux">Saint-Pol-Roux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Milosz" title="Oscar Milosz">Oscar-Vladislas de Milosz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Giraud" title="Albert Giraud">Albert Giraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emile_Verhaeren" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Verhaeren">Emile Verhaeren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Rodenbach" title="Georges Rodenbach">Georges Rodenbach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maurice Maeterlinck</a> and others have been called symbolists, although each author's personal literary project was unique. </p><p>The symbolists often share themes that parallel <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer%27s_aesthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer's aesthetics">Schopenhauer's aesthetics</a> and notions of will, fatality and unconscious forces. The symbolists often used themes of sex (often through the figure of the prostitute), the city, irrational phenomena (delirium, dreams, narcotics, alcohol), and sometimes a vaguely medieval setting. The tone of symbolism is highly variable, at times realistic, imaginative, ironic or detached, although on the whole the symbolists did not stress moral or ethical ideas. In poetry, the symbolist procedure—as typified by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Verlaine" title="Paul Verlaine">Paul Verlaine</a>—was to use subtle suggestion instead of precise statement (<a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> was banned) and to evoke moods and feelings by the magic of words and repeated sounds and the cadence of verse (musicality) and metrical innovation. Some symbolists explored the use of <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a>. The use of leitmotifs, medieval settings and the notion of the complete work of art (blending music, visuals and language) in the works of the German composer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a> also had a profound impact on these writers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Stéphane Mallarmé</a>'s profound interest in the limits of language as an attempt at describing the world, and his use of convoluted syntax, and in his last major poem <i><a href="/wiki/Un_Coup_de_D%C3%A9s_Jamais_N%27Abolira_Le_Hasard_(Mallarm%C3%A9)" class="mw-redirect" title="Un Coup de Dés Jamais N'Abolira Le Hasard (Mallarmé)">Un coup de dés</a></i>, the spacing, size and position of words on the page were important modern breakthroughs that continue to preoccupy contemporary poetry in France. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Arthur Rimbaud</a>'s prose poem collection <i><a href="/wiki/Illuminations_(poems)" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminations (poems)">Illuminations</a></i> are among the first <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free verse</a> poems in French; his biographically inspired poem <i><a href="/wiki/Une_Saison_en_Enfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Une Saison en Enfer">Une saison en enfer</a></i> <i>(A Season in Hell)</i> was championed by the <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealists</a> as a revolutionary modern literary act (the same work would play an important role in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> <a href="/wiki/Punk_scene" class="mw-redirect" title="Punk scene">punk scene</a> in the 1970s). The infernal images of the prose poem <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Chants_de_Maldoror" title="Les Chants de Maldoror">Les Chants de Maldoror</a></i> by Isidore Ducasse, <a href="/wiki/Comte_de_Lautr%C3%A9amont" title="Comte de Lautréamont">Comte de Lautréamont</a> would have a similar impact. </p><p>The crisis of language and meaning in Mallarmé and the radical vision of literature, life and the political world in Rimbaud are to some degree the cornerstones of the "modern" and the radical experiments of <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a> (to name a few) in the 20th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_French_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Read <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bonnejean" title="Bernard Bonnejean">Bernard Bonnejean</a> "Huysmans avant <i>À Rebours</i> : les fondements nécessaires d'une quête en devenir", in Le Mal dans l'imaginaire français (1850–1950), éd. David et L'Harmattan, 1998 (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7384-6198-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-7384-6198-0">2-7384-6198-0</a>) ; "Huysmans before <i>A Rebours</i>: The necessary foundation for a quest to become", The evil in the French imaginary (1850–1950), Ed. David and L'Harmattan, 1998 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7384-6198-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-7384-6198-0">2-7384-6198-0</a>)</span> </li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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