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href="#Return_to_Geneva"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Return to Geneva</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_Geneva-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voltaire_and_Frederick_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voltaire_and_Frederick_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Voltaire and Frederick the Great</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voltaire_and_Frederick_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fugitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fugitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Fugitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fugitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Letter_of_Walpole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_of_Walpole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Letter of Walpole</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_of_Walpole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>In Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quarrel_with_Hume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quarrel_with_Hume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Quarrel with Hume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quarrel_with_Hume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Grenoble" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Grenoble"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>In Grenoble</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Grenoble-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Final years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Human nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Human development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Political theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Economic theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_child_rearing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_child_rearing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Education and child rearing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_child_rearing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Composer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_will" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_will"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>General will</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_will-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>French Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_the_American_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_the_American_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Effect on the American Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_the_American_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_of_Rousseau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_of_Rousseau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Criticisms of Rousseau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_of_Rousseau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appreciation_and_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appreciation_and_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Appreciation and influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appreciation_and_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Works subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Major works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Editions in English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes,_references_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes,_references_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes, references and sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes,_references_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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language. Available in 156 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-156" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">156 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A3%E1%8A%95-%E1%8B%A3%E1%8A%AD_%E1%88%A9%E1%88%A6" title="ዣን-ዣክ ሩሦ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዣን-ዣክ ሩሦ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="جان جاك روسو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جان جاك روسو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BA%D5%A1%D6%84_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D6%85" title="Ժան Ժաք Ռուսօ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ժան Ժաք Ռուսօ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jian_J%C3%A2que_Rousseau" title="Jian Jâque Rousseau – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Jian Jâque Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%81-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9B%E2%80%99" title="জঁ-জাক ৰুছ’ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জঁ-জাক ৰুছ’" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan-Jak_Russo" title="Jan-Jak Russo – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Jan-Jak Russo" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="ژان ژاک روسو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژان ژاک روسو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%81-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B" title="জঁ-জাক রুসো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জঁ-জাক রুসো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Русо – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жан-Жак Русо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Русо – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Жан-Жак Русо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Русо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жан-Жак Русо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%A0%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%9D%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B" title="བཞང་བཞའ་ཀོ་ཝོའུ་སོ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བཞང་བཞའ་ཀོ་ཝོའུ་སོ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%BD-%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%BA_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CF%83%CF%8E" title="Ζαν-Ζακ Ρουσσώ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζαν-Ζακ Ρουσσώ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан Жак Руссо – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Жан Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="ژان-ژاک روسو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژان-ژاک روسو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A8-%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8B" title="જિન-જાક રુસો – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જિન-જાક રુસો" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B" title="जाँ जॅक रुसो – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="जाँ जॅक रुसो" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5%EC%9E%90%ED%81%AC_%EB%A3%A8%EC%86%8C" title="장자크 루소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="장자크 루소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6-%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%B8" title="Ժան-Ժակ Ռուսո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ժան-Ժակ Ռուսո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B" title="रूसो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रूसो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%9F-%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%A7_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95" title="ז'אן-ז'אק רוסו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ז'אן-ז'אק רוסו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D-%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8B" title="ಜೀನ್-ಜಾಕ್ವೆಸ್ ರೂಸೋ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀನ್-ಜಾಕ್ವೆಸ್ ರೂಸೋ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D" title="ჟან-ჟაკ რუსო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჟან-ჟაკ რუსო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Руссо, Жан-Жак – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Руссо, Жан-Жак" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Iacobus_Russavius" title="Ioannes Iacobus Russavius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Iacobus Russavius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDans_%C5%BDaks_Ruso" title="Žans Žaks Ruso – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Žans Žaks Ruso" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Русо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жан-Жак Русо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B" title="റുസ്സോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റുസ്സോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B" title="ज्यां-जाक रूसो – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ज्यां-जाक रूसो" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D" title="ჟან-ჟაკ რუსო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჟან-ჟაკ რუსო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%83_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="چان-چاك روسو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="چان-چاك روسو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан Жак Руссо – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жан Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%9A%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8" title="ယန်း ယက် ရူးဆိုး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယန်း ယက် ရူးဆိုး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%81-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B" title="जँ-जाक रूसो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जँ-जाक रूसो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%EF%BC%9D%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BD%E3%83%BC" title="ジャン＝ジャック・ルソー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャン＝ジャック・ルソー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Руссо, Жан-Жак – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Руссо, Жан-Жак" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B" title="ਰੂਸੋ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੂਸੋ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="روسو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="روسو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="ژان ژاک روسو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژان ژاک روسو" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan-Jak_Russo" title="Jan-Jak Russo – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Jan-Jak Russo" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Руссо, Жан-Жак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Руссо, Жан-Жак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/San-ya-ke%E2%80%99.Lu-suo" title="San-ya-ke’.Lu-suo – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="San-ya-ke’.Lu-suo" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B8_%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%B3" title="ᱡᱮᱸ ᱡᱮᱸᱠ ᱨᱩᱥᱳ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱮᱸ ᱡᱮᱸᱠ ᱨᱩᱥᱳ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhan_Zhak_Ruso" title="Zhan Zhak Ruso – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Zhan Zhak Ruso" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%8A%DA%AA%D8%B3_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="جين جيڪس روسو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جين جيڪس روسو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaan_Jaak_Rosoo" title="Jaan Jaak Rosoo – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Jaan Jaak Rosoo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%DA%95%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%86" title="ژان ژاک ڕوسۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژان ژاک ڕوسۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан Жак Русо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жан Жак Русо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B" title="இழான் இழாக்கு உரூசோ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இழான் இழாக்கு உரூசோ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tarandíne</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan-Jak_Russo" title="Jan-Jak Russo – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Jan-Jak Russo" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8B" title="జాన్ జాక్విస్ రూసో – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జాన్ జాక్విస్ రూసో" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8C%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87-%E0%B8%8C%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B" title="ฌ็อง-ฌัก รูโซ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฌ็อง-ฌัก รูโซ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDan-%C5%BDak_Russo" title="Žan-Žak Russo – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Žan-Žak Russo" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE" title="Жан-Жак Руссо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жан-Жак Руссо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%BA_%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88" title="ژاں ژاک روسو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ژاں ژاک روسو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo_%C5%BDan-%C5%BDak" title="Russo Žan-Žak – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Russo Žan-Žak" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="让-雅克·卢梭" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%9F-%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A7_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%90" title="זשאן-זשאק רוסא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="זשאן-זשאק רוסא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8E%8A-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%9B%A7%E6%A2%AD" title="莊-雅克·盧梭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="莊-雅克·盧梭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDans_%C5%BDaks_Ruso" title="Žans Žaks Ruso – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Žans Žaks Ruso" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="让-雅克·卢梭" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-knc mw-list-item"><a href="https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Central Kanuri" lang="knc" hreflang="knc" data-title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau" data-language-autonym="Yerwa Kanuri" data-language-local-name="Central Kanuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yerwa Kanuri</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%8A%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8F_%E2%B5%8A%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BD_%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93" title="ⵊⴰⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⵔⵓⵙⵓ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵊⴰⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⵔⵓⵙⵓ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q6527#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> 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For the director, see <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(director)" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau (director)">Jean-Jacques Rousseau (director)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Rousseau" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Rousseau_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Rousseau (disambiguation)">Rousseau (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/220px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/330px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/440px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="2016" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Quentin_de_La_Tour" title="Maurice Quentin de La Tour">Maurice Quentin de La Tour</a>, 1753</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1712-06-28</span>)</span>28 June 1712<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Republic of Geneva</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">2 July 1778<span style="display:none">(1778-07-02)</span> (aged 66)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Ermenonville" title="Ermenonville">Ermenonville</a>, Picardy, Kingdom of France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Partner</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Levasseur" title="Thérèse Levasseur">Thérèse Levasseur</a> (1745–1778)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern philosophy</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">Enlightenment French philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)" title="Sentimentalism (literature)">Sentimentalism</a></li><li>precursor of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a>, music, education, literature</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">General will</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Amour_de_soi" title="Amour de soi">amour de soi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Amour-propre" title="Amour-propre">amour-propre</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">moral simplicity of humanity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child-centered_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Child-centered learning">child-centered learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_religion" title="Civil religion">civil religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">positive liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">public opinion</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><b>Writing career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Language</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">French</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genres</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">sentimental novel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">libretto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>)</li></ul></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(publishing)" title="Article (publishing)">article</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">epistle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Social change</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)" title="Sentimentalism (literature)">Sentimentalism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">From 1743</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, or the New Heloise</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable awards</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_Dijon" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie de Dijon">Académie de Dijon</a> (1750)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg/150px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg/225px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg/300px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="84" /></a></span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jean-Jacques Rousseau</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991" /><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991" /><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒɑ̃ʒak<span class="wrap"> </span>ʁuso]</a></span>; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Geneva">Genevan</a> philosopher (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophe</a></i>), writer, and composer. His <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> influenced the progress of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and the development of modern political, economic, and educational thought.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i>, which argues that <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> is the source of inequality, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i>, which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order, are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. Rousseau's <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">sentimental novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, or the New Heloise</a></i> (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a> in fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></i> (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society. Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions</a></i> (completed in 1770), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished <i><a href="/wiki/Reveries_of_the_Solitary_Walker" title="Reveries of the Solitary Walker">Reveries of the Solitary Walker</a></i> (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late 18th-century "<a href="/wiki/English_literature#Age_of_Sensibility_(1745–1798)" title="English literature">Age of Sensibility</a>", and featured an increased focus on <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a> and introspection that later characterized modern writing. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youth">Youth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Youth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau was born in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Geneva">Republic of Geneva</a>, which was at the time a <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> and a Protestant associate of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a> (now a <a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland" title="Cantons of Switzerland">canton</a> of <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>). Since 1536, Geneva had been a <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> republic and the seat of <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>. Five generations before Rousseau, his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva in 1549, where he became a wine merchant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20058_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20058-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG/170px-Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG/255px-Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG/340px-Rousseau_Geneve_House.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2129" data-file-height="2990" /></a><figcaption>The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue, Geneva</figcaption></figure> <p>Rousseau was proud that his family, of the <i>moyen</i> order (or middle-class), had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he generally signed his books "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Citizen of Geneva".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting <i>citizens</i>. The citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants (<i>inhabitants</i>) and their descendants (<i>natives</i>). In fact, rather than being run by vote of the citizens, the city was ruled by a small number of wealthy families that made up the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Two_Hundred" title="Council of Two Hundred">Council of Two Hundred</a>; they delegated their power to a 25-member executive group from among them called the "Small Council". </p><p>There was much political debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, of which the ruling class oligarchy was making a mockery. In 1707, democratic reformer <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fatio" title="Pierre Fatio">Pierre Fatio</a> protested this situation, saying "A sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200517_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200517-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was shot by order of the Small Council. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Rousseau" title="Isaac Rousseau">Isaac</a>, was not in the city then, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's father, Isaac Rousseau, followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the watchmaking business. He also taught dance for a short period. Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well-educated and a lover of music. Rousseau wrote that "A Genevan watchmaker is a man who can be introduced anywhere; a Parisian watchmaker is only fit to talk about watches".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, as Geneva was concerned with maintaining its ties to foreign powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher. He cared for Suzanne after her father, Jacques, who had run into trouble with the legal and religious authorities for fornication and having a mistress, died in his early 30s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theatre disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, whom she fancied despite his continuing marriage. After a hearing, she was ordered by the <a href="/wiki/Genevan_Consistory" title="Genevan Consistory">Genevan Consistory</a> to never interact with him again. She married Rousseau's father at the age of 31. Isaac's sister had married Suzanne's brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory. The child died at birth. The young Rousseau was told a fabricated story about the situation in which young love had been denied by a disapproving patriarch but later prevailed, resulting in two marriages uniting the families on the same day. Rousseau never learnt the truth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200510_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200510-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau was born on 28 June 1712, and he would later relate: "I was born almost dying, they had little hope of saving me". He was baptized on 4 July 1712, in the great cathedral. His mother died of <a href="/wiki/Puerperal_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerperal fever">puerperal fever</a> nine days after his birth, which he later described as "the first of my misfortunes".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20057_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20057-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He and his older brother François were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne. When Rousseau was five, his father sold the house the family had received from his mother's relatives. While the idea was that his sons would inherit the principal when grown up and he would live off the interest in the meantime, in the end, the father took most of the substantial proceeds. With the selling of the house, the Rousseau family moved out of the upper-class neighbourhood and into an apartment house in a neighbourhood of craftsmen—silversmiths, engravers, and other watchmakers. Growing up around craftsmen, Rousseau would later contrast them favourably to those who produced more aesthetic works, writing "those important persons who are called artists rather than artisans, work solely for the idle and rich, and put an arbitrary price on their baubles".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200514_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200514-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau was also exposed to class politics in this environment, as the artisans often agitated in a campaign of resistance against the privileged class running Geneva. </p><p>Rousseau had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was five or six his father encouraged his love of reading: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [adventure stories], which had been my mother's. My father's design was only to improve my reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until after a volume. Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art." (<i>Confessions</i>, Book 1)</p></blockquote><p> Rousseau's reading of escapist stories (such as <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Astr%C3%A9e" title="L'Astrée">L'Astrée</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_d%27Urf%C3%A9" title="Honoré d'Urfé">Honoré d'Urfé</a>) affected him; he later wrote that they "gave me bizarre and romantic notions of human life, which experience and reflection have never been able to cure me of".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After they had finished reading the novels, they began to read a collection of ancient and modern classics left by his mother's uncle. Of these, his favourite was <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans</a></i>, which he would read to his father while he made watches. Rousseau saw Plutarch's work as another kind of novel—the noble actions of heroes—and he would act out the deeds of the characters he was reading about. In his <a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)"><i>Confessions</i></a>, Rousseau stated that the reading of Plutarch's works and "the conversations between my father and myself to which it gave rise, formed in me the free and republican spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau179610_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau179610-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Witnessing the local townsfolk participate in <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militias</a> made a big impression on Rousseau. Throughout his life, he would recall one scene where, after the volunteer militia had finished its manoeuvres, they began to dance around a fountain and most of the people from neighbouring buildings came out to join them, including him and his father. Rousseau would always see militias as the embodiment of popular spirit in opposition to the armies of the rulers, whom he saw as disgraceful mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder199944,_56_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder199944,_56-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Rousseau was ten, his father, an avid hunter, got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands he had been caught trespassing. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him. He remarried, and from that point, Jean-Jacques saw little of him. Jean-Jacques was left with his maternal uncle, who packed him and his son, Abraham Bernard, away to board for two years with a Calvinist minister in a hamlet outside Geneva. Here, the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LesCharmettes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/LesCharmettes.jpg/220px-LesCharmettes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/LesCharmettes.jpg/330px-LesCharmettes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/LesCharmettes.jpg/440px-LesCharmettes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3018" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise-Louise_de_Warens" title="Françoise-Louise de Warens">Françoise-Louise de Warens</a> from 1735 to 1736, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau</figcaption></figure> <p>Virtually all our information about Rousseau's youth has come from his posthumously published <i>Confessions</i>, in which the chronology is somewhat confused, though recent scholars have combed the archives for confirming evidence to fill in the blanks. At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to a <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_notary" title="Civil law notary">notary</a> and then to an engraver who beat him. At 15, he ran away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728) after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew. </p><p>In adjoining <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a> he took shelter with a Roman Catholic priest, who introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise-Louise_de_Warens" title="Françoise-Louise de Warens">Françoise-Louise de Warens</a>, age 29. She was a noblewoman of a Protestant background who was separated from her husband. As a professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, the capital of Savoy (which included Piedmont, in what is now Italy), to complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism to regain it. </p><p>In converting to Catholicism, both de Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the <a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">total depravity</a> of man. Leo Damrosch writes: "An eighteenth-century Genevan liturgy still required believers to declare 'that we are miserable sinners, born in corruption, inclined to evil, incapable by ourselves of doing good<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005121_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005121-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De Warens, a <a href="/wiki/Deist" class="mw-redirect" title="Deist">deist</a> by inclination, was attracted to Catholicism's doctrine of forgiveness of sins. </p><p>Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy (Piedmont and Savoy) and France. Among his students was <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phanie_Louise_de_Bourbon-Conti" title="Stéphanie Louise de Bourbon-Conti">Stéphanie Louise de Bourbon-Conti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, he lived on and off with de Warens, whom he idolized. <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Cranston" title="Maurice Cranston">Maurice Cranston</a> notes, "Madame de Warens [...] took him into her household and mothered him; he called her 'maman' and she called him 'petit.'"<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flattered by his devotion, de Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_adulthood">Early adulthood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early adulthood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FrancoiseLouiseWarens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/FrancoiseLouiseWarens.jpg/170px-FrancoiseLouiseWarens.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/FrancoiseLouiseWarens.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Françoise-Louise de Warens</figcaption></figure> <p>When Rousseau reached 20, de Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house. The sexual aspect of their relationship (a <i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9nage_%C3%A0_trois" title="Ménage à trois">ménage à trois</a></i>) confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable, but he always considered de Warens the greatest love of his life. A rather profligate spender, she had a large library and loved to entertain and listen to music. She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy, introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas. Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his 20s, which were marked by long bouts of <a href="/wiki/Hypochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochondria">hypochondria</a>, he applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music. At 25, he came into a small inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay de Warens for her financial support of him. At 27, he took a job as a tutor in <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>. </p><p>In 1742, Rousseau moved to Paris to present the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des Sciences">Académie des Sciences</a> with a new system of <a href="/wiki/Numbered_musical_notation" title="Numbered musical notation">numbered musical notation</a> he believed would make his fortune. His system, intended to be compatible with <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typography</a>, is based on a single line, displaying numbers representing <a href="/wiki/Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">intervals</a> between notes and dots and commas indicating rhythmic values. Believing the system was impractical, the Academy rejected it, though they praised his mastery of the subject, and urged him to try again. He befriended <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> that year, connecting over the discussion of literary endeavors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1987_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1987-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_(Venice).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg/220px-Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg/330px-Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg/440px-Palazzo_Surian_Bellotto_%28Venice%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6803" data-file-height="4154" /></a><figcaption>Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1743 to 1744, Rousseau had an honorable but ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue, the French ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>. This awoke in him a lifelong love for Italian music, particularly opera: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> I had brought with me from Paris the prejudice of that city against Italian music; but I had also received from nature a sensibility and niceness of distinction which prejudice cannot withstand. I soon contracted that passion for Italian music with which it inspires all those who are capable of feeling its excellence. In listening to <a href="/wiki/Barcarole" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcarole">barcaroles</a>, I found I had not yet known what singing was... </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Confessions</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1903291_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1903291-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Rousseau's employer routinely received his stipend as much as a year late and paid his staff irregularly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005168_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005168-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 11 months, Rousseau quit, taking from the experience a profound distrust of government bureaucracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_Paris">Return to Paris</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Return to Paris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended and became the lover of <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Levasseur" title="Thérèse Levasseur">Thérèse Levasseur</a>, a seamstress who was the sole support of her mother and numerous ne'er-do-well siblings. At first, they did not live together, though later Rousseau took Thérèse and her mother in to live with him as his servants, and himself assumed the burden of supporting her large family. According to his <i>Confessions</i>, before she moved in with him, Thérèse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no independent verification for this number).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thérèse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake of her "honor". "Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she [Thérèse] allowed herself to be overcome" (<i>Confessions</i>). In his letter to Madame de Francueil in 1751, he first pretended that he was not rich enough to raise his children, but in Book IX of the <i>Confessions</i> he gave the true reasons of his choice: "I trembled at the thought of intrusting them to a family ill brought up, to be still worse educated. The risk of the education of the <a href="/wiki/Foundling_hospital" title="Foundling hospital">foundling hospital</a> was much less". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levasseur1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Levasseur1.jpg/170px-Levasseur1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Levasseur1.jpg/255px-Levasseur1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Levasseur1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Levasseur" title="Thérèse Levasseur">Thérèse Levasseur</a> from 1791</figcaption></figure> <p>Ten years later, Rousseau made inquiries about the fate of his son, but unfortunately no record could be found. When Rousseau subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by his critics, including <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, as the basis for arguments <i>ad hominem</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning with some articles on music in 1749,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau contributed numerous articles to <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">D'Alembert</a>'s great <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i>, the most famous of which was an article on political economy written in 1755. </p><p>Rousseau's ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases through conversations with Diderot. In 1749, Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot, who had been thrown into the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Vincennes" title="Vincennes">Vincennes</a> under a <i><a href="/wiki/Lettre_de_cachet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lettre de cachet">lettre de cachet</a></i> for opinions in his "<a href="/wiki/Lettre_sur_les_aveugles_%C3%A0_l%27usage_de_ceux_qui_voient" class="mw-redirect" title="Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient">Lettre sur les aveugles</a>", that hinted at <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, a belief in <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. According to science historian <a href="/wiki/Conway_Zirkle" title="Conway Zirkle">Conway Zirkle</a>, Rousseau saw the concept of natural selection "as an agent for improving the human species."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau had read about an essay competition sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_Dijon" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie de Dijon">Académie de Dijon</a> to be published in the <i>Mercure de France</i> on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial. He wrote that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature. Rousseau's 1750 <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</a></i> was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame. </p><p>Rousseau continued his interest in music. He wrote both the words and music of his opera <i><a href="/wiki/Le_devin_du_village" title="Le devin du village">Le devin du village</a></i> (<i>The Village Soothsayer</i>), which was performed for <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">King Louis XV</a> in 1752. The king was so pleased by the work that he offered Rousseau a lifelong pension. To the exasperation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor, bringing him notoriety as "the man who had refused a king's pension". He also turned down several other advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him problems. The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Pergolesi" title="Giovanni Battista Pergolesi">Giovanni Battista Pergolesi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/La_serva_padrona" title="La serva padrona">La serva padrona</a></i>, prompted the <a href="/wiki/Querelle_des_Bouffons" title="Querelle des Bouffons">Querelle des Bouffons</a>, which pitted protagonists of French music against supporters of the Italian style. Rousseau, as noted above, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians against <a href="/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau" title="Jean-Philippe Rameau">Jean-Philippe Rameau</a> and others, making an important contribution with his <i>Letter on French Music</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_Geneva">Return to Geneva</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Return to Geneva"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> and regained his official Genevan citizenship. In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the <i>Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men</i> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i>), which elaborated on the arguments of the <i>Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elisabeth_La_Live_de_Bellgarde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Elisabeth_La_Live_de_Bellgarde.jpg/170px-Elisabeth_La_Live_de_Bellgarde.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Elisabeth_La_Live_de_Bellgarde.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="177" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>A contemporary portrait of the Countess of Houdetot</figcaption></figure> <p>He also pursued an unconsummated romantic attachment with the 25-year-old <a href="/wiki/Sophie_d%27Houdetot" title="Sophie d'Houdetot">Sophie d'Houdetot</a>, which partly inspired his <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse</a></i> (also based on memories of his idyllic youthful relationship with Mme de Warens). Sophie was the cousin and houseguest of Rousseau's patroness and landlady <a href="/wiki/Louise_d%27%C3%89pinay" title="Louise d'Épinay">Madame d'Épinay</a>, whom he treated rather high-handedly. He resented being at Mme. d'Épinay's beck and call and detested what he viewed as the insincere conversation and shallow atheism of the <i>Encyclopédistes</i> whom he met at her table. Wounded feelings gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d'Épinay; her lover, the journalist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_Baron_von_Grimm" title="Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm">Grimm</a>; and their mutual friend, Diderot, who took their side against Rousseau. Diderot later described Rousseau as being "false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked... He sucked ideas from me, used them himself, and then affected to despise me".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005304_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005304-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg/170px-Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg/255px-Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg/340px-Louise_d%27Epinay_Liotard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Mme d'Épinay by <a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Liotard" title="Jean-Étienne Liotard">Jean-Étienne Liotard</a>, <i>ca</i> 1759 (Musée d'art et d'histoire, Geneva)</figcaption></figure> <p>Rousseau's break with the <i>Encyclopédistes</i> coincided with the composition of his three major works, in all of which he emphasized his fervent belief in a spiritual origin of man's soul and the universe, in contradistinction to the <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> of Diderot, <a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">D'Holbach</a>. During this period, Rousseau enjoyed the support and patronage of <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_Fran%C3%A7ois_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_de_Montmorency-Luxembourg" title="Charles II François Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg">Charles II François Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois_I_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Conti" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis François I de Bourbon, prince de Conti">Prince de Conti</a>, two of the richest and most powerful nobles in France. These men truly liked Rousseau and enjoyed his ability to converse on any subject, but they also used him as a way of getting back at <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV</a> and the political faction surrounding his mistress, <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour" title="Madame de Pompadour">Madame de Pompadour</a>. Even with them, however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized the practice of <a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a>, in which some of them engaged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005357_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005357-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's 800-page novel of <a href="/wiki/Sentimentality" title="Sentimentality">sentiment</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse</a></i>, was published in 1761 to immense success. The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth-century craze for Alpine scenery. In 1762, Rousseau published <i>Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique</i> (in English, literally <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right</a></i>) in April. Even his friend <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Jacques_Roustan" title="Antoine-Jacques Roustan">Antoine-Jacques Roustan</a> felt impelled to write a polite rebuttal of the chapter on Civil Religion in the <i>Social Contract</i>, which implied that the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian republic</a> was paradoxical since Christianity taught submission rather than participation in public affairs. Rousseau helped Roustan find a publisher for the rebuttal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenblatt1997264–265_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenblatt1997264–265-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau published <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></i> in May. A famous section of <i>Emile</i>, "The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar", was intended to be a defense of religious belief. Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time. The vicar's creed was that of <a href="/wiki/Socinianism" title="Socinianism">Socinianism</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a> as it is called today). Because it rejected original sin and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">divine revelation</a>, both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they have been brought up. This religious <a href="/wiki/Indifferentism" title="Indifferentism">indifferentism</a> caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva. He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his <a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">books were burned</a> and warrants were issued for his arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005358_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005358-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former friends such as <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Vernes" title="Jacob Vernes">Jacob Vernes</a> of Geneva could not accept his views and wrote violent rebuttals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackwood1842165_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwood1842165-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A sympathetic observer, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> "professed no surprise when he learned that Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and elsewhere". Rousseau, he wrote, "has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were in arms against him. The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country... as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGay197772_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGay197772-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voltaire_and_Frederick_the_Great">Voltaire and Frederick the Great</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Voltaire and Frederick the Great"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Rousseau's <a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education"><i>Emile</i></a> had outraged the French parliament, an arrest order was issued by parliament against him, causing him to flee to Switzerland. Subsequently, when the Swiss authorities also proved unsympathetic to him—condemning both <i>Emile</i>, and also <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i>—Voltaire issued an invitation to Rousseau to come and reside with him, commenting that: "I shall always love the author of the 'Vicaire savoyard' whatever he has done, and whatever he may do...Let him come here [to Ferney]! He must come! I shall receive him with open arms. He shall be master here more than I. I shall treat him like my own son."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190–191_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190–191-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(1712_-_1778)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Allan_Ramsay_-_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_%281712_-_1778%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2907" data-file-height="3551" /></a><figcaption>1766 portrait of Rousseau wearing an Armenian <a href="/wiki/Papakha" title="Papakha">papakha</a> and costume, <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(artist)" title="Allan Ramsay (artist)">Allan Ramsay</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Rousseau later expressed regret that he had not replied to Voltaire's invitation. In July 1762, after Rousseau was informed that he could not continue to reside in Bern, <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_D%27Alembert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean le Rond D'Alembert">D'Alembert</a> advised him to move to the <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Canton of Neuchâtel">Principality of Neuchâtel</a>, ruled by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of Prussia. Subsequently, Rousseau accepted an invitation to reside in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B4tiers" title="Môtiers">Môtiers</a>, fifteen miles from Neuchâtel. On 11 July 1762, Rousseau wrote to Frederick, describing how he had been driven from France, from Geneva, and from Bern; and seeking Frederick's protection. He also mentioned that he had criticized Frederick in the past and would continue to be critical of Frederick in the future, stating however: "Your Majesty may dispose of me as you like." Frederick, still in the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, then wrote to the local governor of Neuchâtel, <a href="/wiki/George_Keith,_10th_Earl_Marischal" title="George Keith, 10th Earl Marischal">Marischal Keith</a>, who was a mutual friend of theirs: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We must succor this poor unfortunate. His only offense is to have strange opinions which he thinks are good ones. I will send a hundred crowns, from which you will be kind enough to give him as much as he needs. I think he will accept them in kind more readily than in cash. If we were not at war, if we were not ruined, I would build him a hermitage with a garden, where he could live as I believe our first fathers did...I think poor Rousseau has missed his vocation; he was obviously born to be a famous anchorite, a desert father, celebrated for his austerities and flagellations...I conclude that the morals of your savage are as pure as his mind is illogical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Rousseau, touched by the help he received from Frederick, stated that from then onwards he took a keen interest in Frederick's activities. As the Seven Years' War was about to end, Rousseau wrote to Frederick again, thanking him for the help received and urging him to put an end to military activities and to endeavor to keep his subjects happy instead. Frederick made no known reply but commented to Keith that Rousseau had given him a "scolding".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967192_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967192-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fugitive">Fugitive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fugitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For more than two years (1762–1765) Rousseau lived at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B4tiers" title="Môtiers">Môtiers</a>, spending his time in reading and writing and meeting visitors such as <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a> (December 1764). (Boswell recorded his private discussions with Rousseau, in both direct quotation and dramatic dialog, over several pages of his 1764 journal.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) In the meantime, the local ministers had become aware of the apostasies in some of his writings and resolved not to let him stay in the vicinity. The Neuchâtel Consistory summoned Rousseau to answer a charge of blasphemy. He wrote back asking to be excused due to his inability to sit for a long time due to his ailment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005392–393_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005392–393-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, Rousseau's own pastor, Frédéric-Guillaume de Montmollin,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECranston2005113_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECranston2005113-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> started denouncing him publicly as an Antichrist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967205–206_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967205–206-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one inflammatory sermon, Montmollin quoted Proverbs 15:8: "The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is his delight"; this was interpreted by everyone to mean that Rousseau's taking communion was detested by the Lord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005394–395_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005394–395-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ecclesiastical attacks inflamed the parishioners, who proceeded to pelt Rousseau with stones when he would go out for walks. Around midnight of 6–7 September 1765, stones were thrown at the house Rousseau was staying in, and some glass windows were shattered. When a local official, Martinet, arrived at Rousseau's residence he saw so many stones on the balcony that he exclaimed "My God, it's a quarry!"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005395_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005395-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, Rousseau's friends in Môtiers advised him to leave the town. </p><p>Since he wanted to remain in Switzerland, Rousseau decided to accept an offer to move to a tiny island, the <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Island" title="St. Peter's Island">Île de St.-Pierre</a>, having a solitary house. Although it was within the <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Bern" title="Canton of Bern">Canton of Bern</a>, from where he had been expelled two years previously, he was informally assured that he could move into this island house without fear of arrest, and he did so (10 September 1765). Here, despite the remoteness of his retreat, visitors sought him out as a celebrity.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on 17 October 1765, the Senate of Bern ordered Rousseau to leave the island and all Bernese territory within fifteen days. He replied, requesting permission to extend his stay, and offered to be incarcerated in any place within their jurisdiction with only a few books in his possession and permission to walk occasionally in a garden while living at his own expense. The Senate's response was to direct Rousseau to leave the island, and all Bernese territory, within twenty-four hours. On 29 October 1765 he left the Île de St.-Pierre and moved to Strasbourg. At this point he received invitations from several parties in Europe, and soon decided to accept <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>'s invitation to go to England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207–207_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207–207-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 December 1765, having secured a passport from the French government, Rousseau left Strasbourg for Paris where he arrived a week later and lodged in a palace of his friend, the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois,_Prince_of_Conti" title="Louis François, Prince of Conti">Prince of Conti</a>. Here he met Hume, and also numerous friends and well-wishers, and became a conspicuous figure in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005404–405_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005404–405-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, Hume wrote: "It is impossible to express or imagine the enthusiasm of this nation in Rousseau's favor...No person ever so much enjoyed their attention...Voltaire and everybody else are quite eclipsed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a> at this time desired a reconciliation with Rousseau, both of them expected an initiative by the other, and the two did not meet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Letter_of_Walpole">Letter of Walpole</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Letter of Walpole"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 1 January 1766, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_Baron_von_Grimm" title="Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm">Grimm</a> included in his "Correspondance littéraire" a letter said to have been written by Frederick the Great to Rousseau. It had actually been composed by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a> as a playful hoax.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Walpole had never met Rousseau, but he was well acquainted with Diderot and Grimm. The letter soon found wide publicity;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hume is believed to have been present, and to have participated in its creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208–209_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208–209-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 February 1766, Hume wrote to the Marquise de Brabantane: "The only pleasantry I permitted myself in connection with the pretended letter of the King of Prussia was made by me at the dinner table of Lord Ossory." This letter was one of the reasons for the later rupture in Hume's relations with Rousseau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Britain">In Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 4 January 1766 Rousseau left Paris with Hume, the merchant De Luze (an old friend of Rousseau), and Rousseau's pet dog Sultan. After a four-day journey to <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>, where they stayed for two nights, the travelers embarked on a ship to <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a>. On 13 January 1766 they arrived in London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after their arrival, <a href="/wiki/David_Garrick" title="David Garrick">David Garrick</a> arranged a box at the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane" title="Theatre Royal, Drury Lane">Drury Lane Theatre</a> for Hume and Rousseau on a night when the <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">King</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Queen</a> also attended. Garrick was himself performing in a comedy by himself, and also in a tragedy by Voltaire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005408–409_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005408–409-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau became so excited during the performance that he leaned too far and almost fell out of the box; Hume observed that the King and Queen were looking at Rousseau more than at the performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, Garrick served supper for Rousseau, who commended Garrick's acting: "Sir, you have made me shed tears at your tragedy, and smile at your comedy, though I scarce understood a word of your language."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this time, Hume had a favorable opinion of Rousseau; in a letter to Madame de Brabantane, Hume wrote that after observing Rousseau carefully he had concluded that he had never met a more affable and virtuous person. According to Hume, Rousseau was "gentle, modest, affectionate, disinterested, of extreme sensitivity". Initially, Hume lodged Rousseau in the house of Madam Adams in London, but Rousseau began receiving so many visitors that he soon wanted to move to a quieter location. An offer came to lodge him in a Welsh monastery, and he was inclined to accept it, but Hume persuaded him to move to <a href="/wiki/Chiswick" title="Chiswick">Chiswick</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209–210_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209–210-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau now asked for Thérèse to rejoin him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005409_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005409-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a>, then in Paris, offered to escort Thérèse to Rousseau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Boswell had earlier met Rousseau and Thérèse at Motiers; he had subsequently also sent Thérèse a garnet necklace and had written to Rousseau seeking permission to communicate occasionally with her.) Hume foresaw what was going to happen: "I dread some event fatal to our friend's honor." Boswell and Thérèse were together for more than a week, and as per notes in Boswell's diary they consummated the relationship, having intercourse several times. On one occasion, Thérèse told Boswell: "Don't imagine you are a better lover than Rousseau."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Rousseau was keen to relocate to a more remote location, Richard Davenport—a wealthy and elderly widower who spoke French—offered to accommodate Thérèse and Rousseau at <a href="/wiki/Wootton,_Staffordshire" title="Wootton, Staffordshire">Wootton Hall</a> in Staffordshire. On 22 March 1766 Rousseau and Thérèse set forth for Wootton, against Hume's advice. Hume and Rousseau would never meet again. Initially Rousseau liked his new accommodation at Wootton Hall and wrote favorably about the natural beauty of the place, and how he was feeling reborn, forgetting past sorrows.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005411–412_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005411–412-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quarrel_with_Hume">Quarrel with Hume</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Quarrel with Hume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 3 April 1766 a daily newspaper published the letter constituting Horace Walpole's hoax on Rousseau—without mentioning Walpole as the actual author; that the editor of the publication was Hume's personal friend compounded Rousseau's grief. Gradually articles critical of Rousseau started appearing in the British press; Rousseau felt that Hume, as his host, ought to have defended him. Moreover, in Rousseau's estimate, some of the public criticism contained details to which only Hume was privy. Further, Rousseau was aggrieved to find that Hume had been lodging in London with François Tronchin, son of Rousseau's enemy in Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005419–421_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005419–421-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About this time, Voltaire anonymously (as always) published his <i>Letter to Dr. J.-J. Pansophe</i> in which he gave extracts from many of Rousseau's prior statements which were critical of life in England; the most damaging portions of Voltaire's writeup were reprinted in a London periodical. Rousseau now decided that there was a conspiracy afoot to defame him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005421_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005421-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further cause for Rousseau's displeasure was his concern that Hume might be tampering with his mail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005418–419_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005418–419-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The misunderstanding had arisen because Rousseau tired of receiving voluminous correspondence whose postage he had to pay.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hume offered to open Rousseau's mail himself and to forward the important letters to Rousseau; this offer was accepted. However, there is some evidence of Hume intercepting even Rousseau's outgoing mail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005431_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005431-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After some correspondence with Rousseau, which included an eighteen-page letter from Rousseau describing the reasons for his resentment, Hume concluded that Rousseau was losing his mental balance. On learning that Rousseau had denounced him to his Parisian friends, Hume sent a copy of Rousseau's long letter to <a href="/wiki/Marie_Fran%C3%A7oise_Catherine_de_Beauvau-Craon" title="Marie Françoise Catherine de Beauvau-Craon">Madame de Boufflers</a>. She replied stating that, in her estimate, Hume's alleged participation in the composition of Horace Walpole's <i>faux</i> letter was the reason for Rousseau's anger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Hume learnt that Rousseau was writing the <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions</a></i>, he assumed that the present dispute would feature in the book. Adam Smith, Turgot, Marischal Keith, Horace Walpole, and Mme de Boufflers advised Hume not to make his quarrel with Rousseau public; however, many members of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Holbach%27s_Coterie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Holbach's Coterie (page does not exist)">Holbach's coterie</a>—particularly <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_D%27Alembert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean le Rond D'Alembert">D'Alembert</a>—urged him to reveal his version of the events. In October 1766 Hume's version of the quarrel was translated into French and published in France; in November it was published in England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005426–427_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005426–427-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grimm included it in his <i>Correspondance littéraire</i>; ultimately: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...the quarrel resounded in Geneva, Amsterdam, Berlin, and St. Petersburg. A dozen pamphlets redoubled the <i>bruit</i>. Walpole printed his version of the dispute; Boswell attacked Walpole; Mme. de La Tour's <i>Precis sur M. Rousseau</i> called Hume a traitor; Voltaire sent him additional material on Rousseau's faults and crimes, on his frequentation of "places of ill fame", and on his seditious activities in Switzerland. <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> "followed the battle with intense curiosity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After the dispute became public, due in part to comments from notable publishers like <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Millar" title="Andrew Millar">Andrew Millar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Walpole told Hume that quarrels such as this only end up becoming a source of amusement for Europe. Diderot took a charitable view of the mess: "I knew these two philosophers well. I could write a play about them that would make you weep, and it would excuse them both."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005427_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005427-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amidst the controversy surrounding his quarrel with Hume, Rousseau maintained a public silence; but he resolved now to return to France. To encourage him to do so swiftly, Thérèse advised him that the servants at Wootton Hall sought to poison him. On 22 May 1767 Rousseau and Thérèse embarked from <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a> for <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Grenoble">In Grenoble</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In Grenoble"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 22 May 1767, Rousseau reentered France even though an arrest warrant against him was still in place. He had taken an assumed name, but was recognized, and a banquet in his honor was held by the city of <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a>. French nobles offered him a residence at this time. Initially, Rousseau decided to stay in an estate near Paris belonging to <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a>. Subsequently, on 21 June 1767, he moved to a chateau of the Prince of Conti in <a href="/wiki/Trie-Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Trie-Château">Trie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005447–448_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005447–448-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around this time, Rousseau started developing feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and of a conspiracy against him. Most of this was just his imagination at work, but on 29 January 1768, the theatre at Geneva was destroyed through burning, and Voltaire mendaciously accused Rousseau of being the culprit. In June 1768, Rousseau left Trie, leaving Thérèse behind, and went first to <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, and subsequently to <a href="/wiki/Bourgoin-Jallieu" title="Bourgoin-Jallieu">Bourgoin</a>. He now invited Thérèse to this place and <i>married</i> her,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under his alias "Renou" in a faux civil ceremony in Bourgoin on 30 August 1768.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005451–456_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005451–456-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1769, Rousseau and Thérèse went to live in a farmhouse near <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a>. Here he practiced botany and completed the <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions</a></i>. At this time he expressed regret for placing his children in an orphanage. On 10 April 1770, Rousseau and Thérèse left for Lyon where he befriended Horace Coignet, a fabric designer and amateur musician. At Rousseau's suggestion, Coignet composed musical interludes for Rousseau's prose poem <i>Pygmalion</i>; this was performed in Lyon together with Rousseau's romance <i>The Village Soothsayer</i> to public acclaim. On 8 June, Rousseau and Thérèse left Lyon for Paris; they reached Paris on 24 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005462–464_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005462–464-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Paris, Rousseau and Thérèse lodged in an unfashionable neighborhood of the city, the Rue Platrière—now called the Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He now supported himself financially by copying music, and continued his study of botany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005465_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005465-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time also, he wrote his <i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_Elements_of_Botany" title="Letters on the Elements of Botany">Letters on the Elements of Botany</a></i>. These consisted of a series of letters Rousseau wrote to Mme Delessert in Lyon to help her daughters learn the subject. These letters received widespread acclaim when they were eventually published posthumously. "It's a true pedagogical model, and it complements <i>Emile</i>," commented Goethe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005472_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005472-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In order to defend his reputation against hostile gossip, Rousseau had begun writing the <i>Confessions</i> in 1765. In November 1770, these were completed, and although he did not wish to publish them at this time, he began to offer group readings of certain portions of the book. Between December 1770, and May 1771, Rousseau made at least four group readings of his book with the final reading lasting seventeen hours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A witness to one of these sessions, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Joseph_Dorat" title="Claude Joseph Dorat">Claude Joseph Dorat</a>, wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I expected a session of seven or eight hours; it lasted fourteen or fifteen. ... The writing is truly a phenomenon of genius, of simplicity, candor, and courage. How many giants reduced to dwarves! How many obscure but virtuous men restored to their rights and avenged against the wicked by the sole testimony of an honest man!<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>After May 1771, there were no more group readings because Madame d'Épinay wrote to the chief of police, who was her friend, to put a stop to Rousseau's readings so as to safeguard her privacy. The police called on Rousseau, who agreed to stop the readings. His <i>Confessions</i> were finally published posthumously in 1782.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, resulting in the <i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_the_Government_of_Poland" title="Considerations on the Government of Poland">Considerations on the Government of Poland</a></i>, which was to be his last major political work.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in 1772, Rousseau began writing <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues:_Rousseau,_Judge_of_Jean-Jacques" title="Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques">Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques</a></i>, which was another attempt to reply to his critics. He completed writing it in 1776. The book is in the form of three dialogues between two characters; a "Frenchman" and "Rousseau", who argue about the merits and demerits of a third character—an author called <i>Jean-Jacques</i>. It has been described as his most unreadable work; in the foreword to the book, Rousseau admits that it may be repetitious and disorderly, but he begs the reader's indulgence on the grounds that he needs to defend his reputation from slander before he dies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476–480_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476–480-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years">Final years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Final years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1766, Rousseau had impressed Hume with his physical prowess by spending ten hours at night on the deck in severe weather during the journey by ship from Calais to Dover while Hume was confined to his bunk. "When all the seamen were almost frozen to death...he caught no harm...He is one of the most robust men I have ever known," Hume noted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Dysuria" title="Dysuria">urinary disease</a><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had also been greatly alleviated after he stopped listening to the advice of doctors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At that time, notes Damrosch, it was often better to let nature take its own course rather than subject oneself to medical procedures. His general health had also improved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005467_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005467-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on 24 October 1776, as he was walking on a narrow street in Paris, a nobleman's carriage came rushing by from the opposite direction; flanking the carriage was a galloping <a href="/wiki/Great_Dane" title="Great Dane">Great Dane</a> belonging to the nobleman. Rousseau was unable to dodge both the carriage and the dog and was knocked down by the Great Dane. He seems to have suffered a concussion and neurological damage. His health began to decline; Rousseau's friend Corancez described the appearance of certain symptoms which indicate that Rousseau started suffering from epileptic seizures after the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005485–487_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005485–487-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_(Lunon).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg/220px-Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg/330px-Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg/440px-Jean-Jacques_ROUSSEAU_au_Panth%C3%A9on_%28Lunon%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1051" data-file-height="701" /></a><figcaption>The tomb of Rousseau in the crypt of the <a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_(Paris)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthéon (Paris)">Panthéon</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1777, Rousseau received a royal visitor, when the Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> came to meet him. His free entry to the Opera had been renewed by this time and he would go there occasionally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967883_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967883-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time also (1777–1778), he composed one of his finest works, <i><a href="/wiki/Reveries_of_a_Solitary_Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Reveries of a Solitary Walker">Reveries of a Solitary Walker</a></i>, ultimately interrupted by his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005481_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005481-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the spring of 1778, the <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Girardin" title="René de Girardin">Marquis Girardin</a> invited Rousseau to live in a cottage in his château at <a href="/wiki/Ermenonville" title="Ermenonville">Ermenonville</a>. Rousseau and Thérèse went there on 20 May. Rousseau spent his time at the château in collecting botanical specimens, and teaching botany to Girardin's son.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005487–488_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005487–488-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ordered books from Paris on grasses, <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a> and made plans to complete his unfinished <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education#Émile_et_Sophie" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile and Sophie</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Daphnis_and_Chloe#Opera" title="Daphnis and Chloe">Daphnis and Chloe</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 July, a visitor commented that "men are wicked," to which Rousseau replied with "men are wicked, yes, but man is good"; in the evening there was a concert in the château in which Rousseau played on the piano his own composition of the Willow Song from <i><a href="/wiki/Othello" title="Othello">Othello</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this day also, he had a hearty meal with Girardin's family; the next morning, as he was about to go teach music to Girardin's daughter, he died of cerebral bleeding resulting in an apoplectic stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488–489_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488–489-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now believed that repeated falls, including the accident involving the Great Dane, may have contributed to Rousseau's stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005489_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005489-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following his death, Grimm, <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a> and others spread the false news that Rousseau had committed <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>; according to other gossip, Rousseau was insane when he died. All those who met him in his last days agree that he was in a serene frame of mind at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 4 July 1778, Rousseau was buried on the Île des Peupliers, a tiny, wooded island in a lake at <a href="/wiki/Ermenonville" title="Ermenonville">Ermenonville</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers. On 11 October 1794, his remains were moved to the <a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_(Paris)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthéon (Paris)">Panthéon</a>, where they were placed near those of <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences">Influences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau later noted, that when he read the question for the essay competition of the Academy of Dijon, which he would go on to win: "Has the rebirth of the arts and sciences contributed to the purification of the morals?", he felt that "the moment I read this announcement I saw another universe and became a different man".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200123_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200123-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The essay he wrote in response led to one of the central themes of Rousseau's thought, which was that perceived social and cultural progress had in fact led only to the moral degradation of humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200125_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200125-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His influences to this conclusion included <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">François Fénelon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200127_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200127-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau based his political philosophy on contract theory and his reading of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reacting to the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Samuel von Pufendorf</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> was also driving his thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All three thinkers had believed that humans living without central authority were facing uncertain conditions in a state of mutual competition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Rousseau believed that there was no explanation for why this would be the case, as there would have been no conflict or property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200149_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200149-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau especially criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the "state of nature... has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue". On the contrary, Rousseau holds that "uncorrupted morals" prevail in the "state of nature".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau175478_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau175478-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_nature">Human nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Human nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rousseau_Geneve.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rousseau_Geneve.JPG/170px-Rousseau_Geneve.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rousseau_Geneve.JPG/255px-Rousseau_Geneve.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Rousseau_Geneve.JPG/340px-Rousseau_Geneve.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2005" data-file-height="2445" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Rousseau on the Île Rousseau, Geneva</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said 'This is mine', and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1754">Rousseau 1754</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical "<a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>" as a normative guide. In the original condition, humans would have had "no moral relations with or determinate obligations to one another".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of their rare contact with each other, differences between individuals would have been of little significance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Living separately, there would have been no feelings of envy or distrust, and no existence of property or conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200149_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200149-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Rousseau, humans have two traits in common with other animals: the <i><a href="/wiki/Amour_de_soi" title="Amour de soi">amour de soi</a></i>, which describes the self-preservation instinct; and <i>pitié</i>, which is empathy for the rest of one's species, both of which precede reason and sociability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200154_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200154-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only humans who are morally deprived would care only about their relative status to others, leading to <i><a href="/wiki/Amour-propre" title="Amour-propre">amour-propre</a></i>, or vanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200155_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200155-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not believe humans to be innately superior to other species.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200154_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200154-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, human beings did have the unique ability to change their nature through free choice, instead of being confined to natural instincts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200156_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200156-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another aspect separating humans from other animals is the ability of <i>perfectability</i>, which allows humans to choose in a way that improves their condition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200157_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200157-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These improvements could be lasting, leading not only to individual, but also collective change for the better.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200157_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200157-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with human freedom, the ability to improve makes possible the historic evolution of humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200158_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200158-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is no guarantee that this evolution will be for the better.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200161–62_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200161–62-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_development">Human development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_and_noble_savage" class="extiw" title="q:Jean-Jacques Rousseau and noble savage">Jean-Jacques Rousseau and noble savage</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div><p> Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called "savages" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other. </p><blockquote><p>... nothing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a> of civil man.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Arthur Lovejoy</a> claimed misrepresents Rousseau's thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinaudi19685_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinaudi19685-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DOI_Rousseau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/DOI_Rousseau.jpg/220px-DOI_Rousseau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/DOI_Rousseau.jpg/330px-DOI_Rousseau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/DOI_Rousseau.jpg/440px-DOI_Rousseau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2">Rousseau (1755), <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality"><i>Discourse on Inequality</i></a>, Holland, frontispiece and title page</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discourse+on+Inequality&rft.place=Holland&rft.pages=frontispiece+and+title+page&rft.date=1755&rft.au=Rousseau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></figcaption></figure> <p>According to Rousseau, as savages had grown less dependent on nature, they had instead become dependent on each other, with society leading to the loss of freedom through the misapplication of perfectibility. When living together, humans would have gone from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one, leading to the invention of <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>. However, the resulting inequality was not a natural outcome, but rather the product of human choice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200162–64_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200162–64-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's ideas of human development were highly interconnected with forms of mediation or the processes that individual humans use to interact with themselves and others while using an alternate perspective or thought process. According to Rousseau, these were developed through the innate perfectibility of humanity. These include a sense of self, morality, pity, and imagination. Rousseau's writings are purposely ambiguous concerning the formation of these processes to the point that mediation is always intrinsically part of humanity's development. An example of this is the notion that an individual needs an alternative perspective to realize that he or she is a 'self'.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing. The development of agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, private property, and the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a> and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> and conflict. As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: they began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinions of others as essential to their <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As humans started to compare themselves with each other, they began to notice that some had qualities differentiating them from others. However, only when moral significance was attached to these qualities did they start to create esteem and envy, and thereby, social hierarchies. Rousseau noted that whereas "the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others". This then resulted in the corruption of humankind, "producing combinations fatal to innocence and happiness".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200164_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200164-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the attachment of importance to human difference, they would have started forming social institutions, according to Rousseau. Metallurgy and agriculture would have subsequently increased the inequalities between those with and without property. After all land had been converted into private properties, a <a href="/wiki/Zero-sum_game" title="Zero-sum game">zero-sum game</a> would have resulted in competition for it, leading to conflict. This would have led to the creation and perpetuation of the 'hoax' of the political system by the rich, which perpetuated their power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200165–66_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200165–66-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_theory">Political theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Political theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 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a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG/220px-Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG/330px-Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG/440px-Ile_Rousseau_Geneva_Switzerland.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2593" data-file-height="1595" /></a><figcaption>Île Rousseau, Geneva</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Rousseau, the original forms of government to emerge: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, were all products of the differing levels of inequality in their societies. However, they would always end up with ever worse levels of inequality, until a revolution would have overthrown it and new leaders would have emerged with further extremes of injustice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200167_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200167-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the human capacity for self-improvement remained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200169_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200169-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the problems of humanity were the product of political choice, they could also be improved by a better political system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200172_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200172-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of <a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">classical republicanism</a>. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article <i>Économie Politique</i> (<i>Discourse on Political Economy</i>), featured in Diderot's <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i>. In the book, Rousseau sketched the image of a new political system for regaining human freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200172_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200172-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. </p><p>According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> and abandoning their claims of <a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">natural right</a>, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the <a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a> of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. </p><p>Although Rousseau argues that <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The "sovereign" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a> in an assembly. </p><p>Rousseau opposed the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative assembly</a> (Book III, chapter XV). He approved the form of republican government of the city-state, for which Geneva provided a model—or would have done if renewed on Rousseau's principles. France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free: </p> <blockquote> <p>The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy. ... It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau's meaning. This is clear from the <i>Discourse on Political Economy</i>, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>A remarkable peculiarity of <i>Social Contract</i> is its logical rigor, which Rousseau had learned in his twenties from mathematics: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Rousseau develops his theory in an almost mathematical manner, deriving statements from the initial thesis that man must keep close to nature. The 'natural' state, with its original liberty and equality, is hindered by man's 'unnatural' involvement in collective activities resulting in inequality which, in turn, infringes on liberty. The purpose of this social contract, which is a kind of tacit agreement, is simply to guarantee equality and, consequently, liberty as the superior social values... A number of political statements, particularly about the organization of powers, are derived from the 'axioms' of equality among citizens and their subordination to the general will.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Andranik_Tangian" title="Andranik Tangian">Andranik Tangian</a> (2014) <i>Mathematical Theory of Democracy</i><sup id="cite_ref-Tangian2014_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tangian2014-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_theory">Economic theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau offers a wealth of economic thought in his writings, especially the <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i>, <i>Discourse on Political Economy</i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">Social Contract</a></i>, as well as his <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Project_for_Corsica" title="Constitutional Project for Corsica">constitutional projects for Corsica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_the_Government_of_Poland" title="Considerations on the Government of Poland">Poland</a>. Rousseau's economic theory has been criticised as sporadic and unrigorous by later economists such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has been praised by historians of economic thought for its nuanced view of finance and mature thought on development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars generally accept that Rousseau offers a critique of modern wealth and luxury. Moreover, Rousseau's economic thought is associated with agrarianism and <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">Autarkism</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Hont" title="István Hont">Istvan Hont</a> modifies this reading, however, by suggesting that Rousseau is both a critic and a thinker of commerce, leaving room for well-regulated commerce within a well-governed civil space.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political theorists Ryan Hanley and Hansong Li further argue that as a modern legislator, Rousseau seeks not to reject, but to tame utility, self-love, and even trade, finance, and luxury to serve the health of the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_child_rearing">Education and child rearing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Education and child rearing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg/170px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg/255px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_Romania1962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Jean-Jacques Rousseau on a Romanian stamp, 1962</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> The noblest work in education is to make a reasoning man, and we expect to train a young child by making him reason! This is beginning at the end; this is making an instrument of a result. If children understood how to reason they would not need to be educated. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Rousseau, <i>Émile</i>, p. 52<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Rousseau's philosophy of education concerns itself not with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil's character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. A hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences". Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences. </p><p>Rousseau became an early advocate of developmentally appropriate education; his description of the stages of <a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">child development</a> mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture. He divides childhood into stages: </p> <ol><li>The first to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses</li> <li>During the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop</li> <li>Finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adult</li></ol> <p>Rousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune (the most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> family on the antique Roman model. Sophie, the young woman Émile is destined to marry, as his representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile, as his representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing. This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations. The <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a>, as Rousseau imagines it, depends on the subordination of women for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should. Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a>, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education. </p><p>Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> in 1792,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the <a href="/wiki/Separate_spheres" title="Separate spheres">domestic sphere</a>. Unless women were <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a> and constrained by modesty and shame, he feared<sup id="cite_ref-Tuana_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuana-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "men would be tyrannized by women ... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's senses—men would finally be their victims ..."<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau also believed that Mothers were to breastfeed their children rather than use wet-nurses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005341–342_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005341–342-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Marmontel" title="Jean-François Marmontel">Marmontel</a> wrote that his wife often said, "We must pardon him something, who has taught us to be mothers" (meaning Rousseau).<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's ideas have influenced progressive "child-centered" education.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Darling's 1994 book <i>Child-Centered Education and its Critics</i> portrays the history of modern <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">educational theory</a> as a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad. The theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Pestalozzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phanie_F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_Ducrest_de_St-Albin,_comtesse_de_Genlis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stéphanie Félicité Ducrest de St-Albin, comtesse de Genlis">Mme. de Genlis</a> and, later, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Maria Montessori</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, which have directly influenced modern educational practices, have significant points in common with those of Rousseau.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Having converted to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> early in life and returned to the austere <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike many of the more agnostic Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion. His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism. </p><p>Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded in <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Émile</a></i>, was interpreted as advocating <a href="/wiki/Indifferentism" title="Indifferentism">indifferentism</a>, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> and Catholic Paris. Although he praised the Bible, he was disgusted by the Christianity of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau's assertion in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> that true followers of Christ would not make good citizens may have been another reason for his condemnation in Geneva. He also repudiated the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, which plays a large part in Calvinism. In his "Letter to Beaumont", Rousseau wrote, "there is no original perversity in the human heart."<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th century, many <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deists</a> viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, likened to a giant machine. Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its emotionality. He saw the presence of God in the creation as good, and separate from the harmful influence of society. Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> towards nature and religion. (Historians—notably <a href="/wiki/William_Everdell" title="William Everdell">William Everdell</a>, Graeme Garrard, and <a href="/wiki/Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">Darrin McMahon</a>—have additionally situated Rousseau within the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau was upset that his deism was so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic philosophers were ignored. He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his "Letter to <a href="/wiki/Christophe_de_Beaumont" title="Christophe de Beaumont">Mgr de Beaumont</a>, the Archbishop of Paris", "in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force."<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composer">Composer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Composer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau was a moderately successful composer of music, who wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and contributed to music theory. As a composer, his music was a blend of the late Baroque style and the emergent <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Classical</a> fashion, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Galant_music" title="Galant music">Galant</a>, and he belongs to the same generation of transitional composers as <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Christoph Willibald Gluck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach" title="Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach">C. P. E. Bach</a>. One of his better known works is the one-act opera <i><a href="/wiki/Le_devin_du_village" title="Le devin du village">The Village Soothsayer</a></i>. It contains the duet "Non, Colette n'est point trompeuse," which was later rearranged as a standalone song by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the gavotte in scene no. 8 is the source of the tune of the folk song "<a href="/wiki/Go_Tell_Aunt_Rhody" title="Go Tell Aunt Rhody">Go Tell Aunt Rhody</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also composed several noted <a href="/wiki/Motet" title="Motet">motets</a>, some of which were sung at the <a href="/wiki/Concert_Spirituel" title="Concert Spirituel">Concert Spirituel</a> in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau's Aunt Suzanne was passionate about music and heavily influenced Rousseau's interest in music. In his <i>Confessions</i>, Rousseau claims he is "indebted" to her for his passion of music. Rousseau took formal instruction in music at the house of Françoise-Louise de Warens. She housed Rousseau on and off for about 13 years, giving him jobs and responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1742, Rousseau developed a system of musical notation that was compatible with typography and numbered. He presented his invention to the Academie Des Sciences, but they rejected it, praising his efforts and pushing him to try again.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1743, Rousseau wrote his first opera, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Les_Muses_galantes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Les Muses galantes (page does not exist)">Les Muses galantes</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Muses_galantes" class="extiw" title="fr:Les Muses galantes">fr</a>]</span></i>, which was first performed in 1745. Rousseau also developed a style of "<a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedon</a>" notation which would have music read in alternating directions (right to left for a second staff, and then left to right for the next staff for example) in an effort to allow musicians to not have to "jump" staffs while reading.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau" title="Jean-Philippe Rameau">Jean-Philippe Rameau</a> argued over the superiority of Italian music over French.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau argued that Italian music was superior based on the principle that melody must have priority over harmony. Rameau argued that French music was superior based on the principle that harmony must have priority over melody. Rousseau's plea for melody introduced the idea that in art, the free expression of a creative person is more important than the strict adherence to traditional rules and procedures. This is known today as a characteristic of Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau argued for musical freedom and changed people's attitudes towards music. His works were acknowledged by composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>. After composing <i>The Village Soothsayer</i> in 1752, Rousseau felt he could not go on working for the theater because he was a moralist who had decided to break from worldly values. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avril_page2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Avril_page2.jpg/220px-Avril_page2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Avril_page2.jpg/330px-Avril_page2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Avril_page2.jpg/440px-Avril_page2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="831" /></a><figcaption><i>Avril</i>, p. 2</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Musical compositions</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Les_Muses_galantes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Les Muses galantes (page does not exist)">Les Muses galantes</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Muses_galantes" class="extiw" title="fr:Les Muses galantes">fr</a>]</span></i> (1743)</li> <li><i>Les Fetes de Remire</i> (1745)</li> <li><i>Symphonie à Cors de Chasse</i> (1751)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Devin_du_village" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Devin du village">Le Devin du village</a></i> (1752) – opera in 1 act</li> <li><i>Salve Regina</i> (1752) – antiphone</li> <li><i>Chansons de Bataille</i> (1753)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_(Rousseau)" title="Pygmalion (Rousseau)">Pygmalion</a></i> (1762/1770) – melodrama</li> <li><i>Avril</i> – aire a poesía de <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_Belleau" title="Rémy Belleau">Rémy Belleau</a></li> <li><i>Les Consolations des Misères de Ma Vie</i> (1781)</li> <li><i>Daphnis et Chloé</i></li> <li><i>Que le jour me dure!</i></li> <li><i>Le Printemps de Vivaldi</i> (1775)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau,_Geneva,_1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg/220px-Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg/330px-Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg/440px-Plaque_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau%2C_Geneva%2C_1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><i>Bicentenary of Rousseau's birth</i> (plaque), Geneva, 28 June 1912, <q>Jean-Jacques, aime ton pays [love your country]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bicentenary+of+Rousseau%27s+birth&rft.pub=Geneva&rft.date=1912-06-28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>, showing Rousseau's father gesturing towards the window. The scene is drawn from a footnote to the <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_M._D%27Alembert_on_Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles">Letter to d'Alembert</a> where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_will">General will</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: General will"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rousseau's idea of the <i>volonté générale</i> ("<a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>") was not original but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time. The phrase was used by <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a> and also by <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> (and by his teacher, the <a href="/wiki/Oratory_of_Jesus" title="Oratory of Jesus">Oratorian</a> friar <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>). It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time. It displayed a rather democratic ideology, as it declared that the citizens of a given nation should carry out whatever actions they deem necessary in their own sovereign assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertram2012_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertram2012-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau believed in a legislative process that necessitates the active involvement of every citizen in decision-making through discussion and voting. He coined this process as the “<a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>”, the collective will of a society as a whole, even if it may not necessarily coincide with the individual desires of each member.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> While Rousseau's notion of the progressive moral degeneration of mankind from the moment civil society established itself diverges markedly from Spinoza's claim that human nature is always and everywhere the same ... for both philosophers the pristine equality of the state of nature is our ultimate goal and criterion ... in shaping the "common good", <i>volonté générale</i>, or Spinoza's <i>mens una</i>, which alone can ensure stability and political salvation. Without the supreme criterion of equality, the general will would indeed be meaningless. ... When in the depths of the French Revolution the Jacobin clubs all over France regularly deployed Rousseau when demanding radical reforms. and especially anything—such as land redistribution—designed to enhance equality, they were at the same time, albeit unconsciously, invoking a radical tradition which reached back to the late seventeenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2002274_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2002274-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Revolution">French Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: French Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/220px-Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/330px-Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/440px-Nicolas-Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry_-_All%C3%A9gorie_r%C3%A9volutionnaire_-_P1345_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="4635" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">Allegory</a> of the French Revolution in honor of Rousseau, by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Henri_Jeaurat_de_Bertry" title="Nicolas Henri Jeaurat de Bertry">Nicolas Henri Jeaurat de Bertry</a> (1794). The final version of the painting was offered to the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robespierre" class="mw-redirect" title="Robespierre">Robespierre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Saint-Just</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>, regarded themselves to be principled egalitarian republicans, obliged to do away with superfluities and corruption; in this they were inspired most prominently by Rousseau.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Robespierre, the deficiencies in individuals were rectified by upholding the 'common good' which he conceptualized as the collective will of the people; this idea was derived from Rousseau's <i>General Will</i>. The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau to introduce Deism as the new official <a href="/wiki/Civil_religion" title="Civil religion">civil religion</a> of France: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Ceremonial and symbolic occurrences of the more radical phases of the Revolution invoked Rousseau and his core ideas. Thus the ceremony held at the site of the demolished Bastille, organized by the foremost artistic director of the Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a>, in August 1793 to mark the inauguration of the new republican constitution, an event coming shortly after the final abolition of all forms of feudal privilege, featured a cantata based on Rousseau's democratic pantheistic deism as expounded in the celebrated "Profession de foi d'un vicaire savoyard" in book four of <i>Émile</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsrael2002717_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsrael2002717-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Rousseau's influence on the French Revolution was noted by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, who critiqued Rousseau in <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i>, and this critique reverberated throughout Europe, leading <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> to ban his works.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This connection between Rousseau and the French Revolution (especially the Terror) persisted through the next century. As François Furet notes that "we can see that for the whole of the nineteenth century Rousseau was at the heart of the interpretation of the Revolution for both its admirers and its critics."<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_the_American_Revolution">Effect on the American Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Effect on the American Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of Rousseau's most important American followers was <a href="/wiki/Noah_Webster" title="Noah Webster">Noah Webster</a> (1758–1843). In 1785, two years before America's constitutional convention, Webster relied heavily on Rousseau's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">Social Contract</a></i> while writing <i>Sketches of American Policy</i>, one of the earliest, widely-published arguments for a strong central government in America. George Washington, James Madison, and likely other founders read it before the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Webster also wrote two "fan-fiction" sequels to Rousseau's <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></i> (1762) and included them in his 1785 Reader for schoolchildren. Webster's 1787 Reader, and later Readers, also contain an idealized word-portrait of Sophie, the girl in Rousseau's <i>Emile,</i> and Webster used Rousseau's theories in <i>Emile</i> to argue for the civic necessity of broad-based female education.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some scholars, Rousseau exercised minimal influence on the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>, despite similarities between their ideas. They shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that "all men are created equal," and the conviction that citizens of a republic be educated at public expense. A parallel can be drawn between the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>'s concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">general welfare</a>" and Rousseau's concept of the "<a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>". Further commonalities exist between <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian democracy</a> and Rousseau's praise of Switzerland and Corsica's economies of isolated and independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated civic militia, such as a navy for Corsica,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the militia of the Swiss cantons.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> However, <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Ariel Durant</a> have opined that Rousseau had a definite political influence on America. According to them: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first sign of [Rousseau's] political influence was in the wave of public sympathy that supported active French aid to the American Revolution. Jefferson derived the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> from Rousseau as well as from Locke and Montesquieu. As ambassador to France (1785–89) he absorbed much from both Voltaire and Rousseau...The success of the American Revolution raised the prestige of Rousseau's philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967890–891_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967890–891-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Rousseau's writings perhaps had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, whose works were important to the New England <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendentalist">transcendentalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>, as well as on Unitarians such as theologian <a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_the_Mohicans" title="The Last of the Mohicans">The Last of the Mohicans</a></i> and other American novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a> and in English Romantic <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticisms_of_Rousseau">Criticisms of Rousseau</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Criticisms of Rousseau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg/170px-Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg/255px-Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg/340px-Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2224" data-file-height="2801" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Rousseau in later life</figcaption></figure> <p>The first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">Philosophes</a></i>, above all, Voltaire. According to Jacques Barzun, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> was annoyed by the <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">first discourse</a> and outraged by the <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">second</a>. Voltaire's reading of the second discourse was that Rousseau would like the reader to "walk on all fours" befitting a savage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarzun2001384_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarzun2001384-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> told his biographer <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a>, "I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society, as he has been".<sup id="cite_ref-BoswellIngpen1791_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoswellIngpen1791-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Blanchard" title="Jean-Baptiste Blanchard">Jean-Baptiste Blanchard</a> was his leading Catholic opponent. Blanchard rejects Rousseau's negative education, in which one must wait until a child has grown to develop reason. The child would find more benefit from learning in his earliest years. He also disagreed with his ideas about female education, declaring that women are a dependent lot. So, removing them from their motherly path is unnatural, as it would lead to the unhappiness of both men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Historian <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a> states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist; for him:</p><blockquote><p>The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing. This was cause enough for the <i>philosophes'</i> hatred of their former friend. Rousseau's unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence. Voltaire had sung "The superfluous, that most necessary thing." For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant's. It was the country versus the city—an exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau's was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As early as 1788, <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a> published her <i>Letters on the works and character of J.-J. Rousseau</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimm1815353_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimm1815353-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1819, in his famous speech "On Ancient and Modern Liberty", the political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a>, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Abbé de Mably</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for allegedly believing that "everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power."<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> severely criticized Rousseau in several of his works, most notably in "The Law", in which, after analyzing Rousseau's own passages, he stated that: </p> <blockquote><p> And what part do persons play in all this? They are merely the machine that is set in motion. In fact, are they not merely considered to be the raw material of which the machine is made? Thus the same relationship exists between the legislator and the prince as exists between the agricultural expert and the farmer; and the relationship between the prince and his subjects is the same as that between the farmer and his land. How high above mankind, then, has this writer on public affairs been placed?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBastiat201035_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBastiat201035-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Bastiat believed that Rousseau wished to ignore forms of social order created by the people—viewing them as a <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">thoughtless mass</a> to be shaped by philosophers. Bastiat, who is considered by thinkers associated with the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School of Economics">Austrian School of Economics</a> to be one of the precursors of the "spontaneous order",<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presented his own vision of what he considered to be the "Natural Order" in a simple economic chain in which multiple parties might interact without necessarily even knowing each other, cooperating and fulfilling each other's needs in accordance with basic economic laws such as <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>. In such a chain, to produce clothing, multiple parties have to act independently—<i>e.g.,</i> farmers to fertilize and cultivate land to produce fodder for the sheep, people to shear them, transport the wool, turn it into cloth, and another to tailor and sell it. Those persons engage in economic exchange by nature, and don't need to be ordered to, nor do their efforts need to be centrally coordinated. Such chains are present in every branch of human activity, in which individuals produce or exchange goods and services, and together, naturally create a complex social order that does not require external inspiration, central coordination of efforts, or bureaucratic control to benefit society as a whole. </p><p>Bastiat also believed that Rousseau contradicted himself when presenting his views concerning human nature; if nature is "sufficiently invincible to regain its empire", why then would it need philosophers to direct it back to a natural state? Another point of criticism Bastiat raised was that living purely in nature would doom mankind to suffer unnecessary hardships.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Justine,_or_the_Misfortunes_of_Virtue" class="mw-redirect" title="Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue">Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue</a></i> (1791) partially parodied and used as inspiration Rousseau's sociological and political concepts in the <i>Discourse on Inequality</i> and <i>The Social Contract</i>. Concepts such as the state of nature, civilization being the catalyst for corruption and evil, and humans "signing" a contract to mutually give up freedoms for the protection of rights, particularly referenced. The Comte de Gernande in <i>Justine</i>, for instance, after Thérèse asks him how he justifies abusing and torturing women, states: </p><blockquote><p>The necessity mutually to render one another happy cannot legitimately exist save between two persons equally furnished with the capacity to do one another hurt and, consequently, between two persons of commensurate strength: such an association can never come into being unless a contract [<i>un pacte</i>] is immediately formed between these two persons, which obligates each to employ against each other no kind of force but what will not be injurious to either. . . [W]hat sort of a fool would the stronger have to be to subscribe to such an agreement?<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> formed an unfavorable impression of Rousseau when the latter visited England with Hume and later drew a connection between Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau "entertained no principle... but vanity. With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness".<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> said that Rousseau possessed "the face of what is called a Fanatic . . . his Ideas <i>possessed</i> him like demons". He continued:</p><blockquote><p>The fault and misery of Rousseau was what we easily name by a single word, <i><a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">Egoism</a></i> . . . He had not perfected himself into victory over mere Desire; a mean Hunger, in many sorts, was still the motive principle of him. I am afraid he was a very vain man; hungry for the praises of men. . . . His Books, like himself, are what I call unhealthy; not the good sort of Books. There is a sensuality in Rousseau. Combined with such an intellectual gift as his, it makes pictures of a certain gorgeous attractiveness: but they are not genuinely poetical. Not white sunlight: something <i>operatic</i>; a kind of rose-pink, artificial bedizenment.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dudley_Warner" title="Charles Dudley Warner">Charles Dudley Warner</a> wrote about Rousseau in his essay, <i>Equality</i>; "Rousseau borrowed from Hobbes as well as from Locke in his conception of popular sovereignty; but this was not his only lack of originality. His discourse on <a href="/wiki/Urgesellschaft" title="Urgesellschaft">primitive society</a>, his unscientific and unhistoric notions about the original condition of man, were those common in the middle of the eighteenth century."<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919, <a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Irving Babbitt</a>, founder of a movement called the "<a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New Humanism</a>", wrote a critique of what he called "sentimental humanitarianism", for which he blamed Rousseau.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">A.O. Lovejoy</a> in 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELovejoy1948_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy1948-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In France, conservative theorist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, founder of <i><a href="/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a></i>, "had no compunctions in laying the blame for both <i>Romantisme et Révolution</i> firmly on Rousseau in 1922."<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Cold War, Rousseau was criticized for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses, for example in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Jacob Leib Talmon (1952), <i>The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Totalitarian+Democracy&rft.date=1952&rft.au=Jacob+Leib+Talmon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This came to be known among scholars as the "<a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> thesis". Political scientist J.S. Maloy states that "the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed. ... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate." But he adds that "The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence."<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the "seeds of nationalism", insofar as they set forth the "politics of identification", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion. Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of "imagined communities" that transcend social and religious divisions within states.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On similar grounds, one of Rousseau's strongest critics during the second half of the 20th century was political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a>. Using Rousseau's thought as an example, Arendt identified the notion of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> with that of the general will. According to her, it was this desire to establish a single, unified will based on the stifling of opinion in favor of public passion that contributed to the excesses of the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appreciation_and_influence">Appreciation and influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Appreciation and influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Civilization#X._Rousseau_and_Revolution_(1967)" title="The Story of Civilization">Rousseau and Revolution</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Ariel Durant</a>, begins with the following words about Rousseau: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg/220px-Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg/330px-Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg/440px-Les_derni%C3%A8res_paroles_de_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1113" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>Les dernières paroles de Jean-Jacques Rousseau</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>How did it come about that a man born poor, losing his mother at birth and soon deserted by his father, afflicted with a painful and humiliating disease, left to wander for twelve years among alien cities and conflicting faiths, repudiated by society and civilization, repudiating <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Reason</a>, driven from place to place as a dangerous rebel, suspected of crime and insanity, and seeing, in his last months, the apotheosis of his greatest enemy—how did it come about that this man, after his death, triumphed over Voltaire, revived religion, transformed education, elevated the morals of France, inspired the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic movement</a> and the French Revolution, influenced the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, the plays of Schiller, the novels of Goethe, the poems of Wordsworth, Byron and Shelley, the socialism of Marx, the ethics of Tolstoy and, altogether, had more effect upon posterity than any other writer or thinker of that eighteenth century in which writers were more influential than they had ever been before?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant19673_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant19673-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The German writers <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a> have stated that Rousseau's writings inspired them. Herder regarded Rousseau to be his "guide", and Schiller compared Rousseau to Socrates. Goethe, in 1787, stated: "<i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile</a></i> and its sentiments had a universal influence on the cultivated mind."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967889_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967889-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elegance of Rousseau's writing is held to have inspired a significant transformation in French poetry and drama—freeing them from rigid literary norms. </p><p>Other writers who were influenced by Rousseau's writings included <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a> in Italy; <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a> in Russia; <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a> in England; and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a> in America. According to Tolstoy: "At sixteen I carried around my neck, instead of the usual cross, a medallion with Rousseau's portrait."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rousseau's <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</a></i>, emphasizing individualism and repudiating "civilization", was appreciated by, among others, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">William Godwin</a>, Shelley, Tolstoy, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rousseau's contemporary <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> appreciated the section in <i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile</a></i> titled <i>Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Despite his criticisms, Carlyle admired Rousseau's sincerity: "with all his drawbacks, and they are many, he has the first and chief characteristic of a Hero: he is heartily <i>in earnest</i>. In earnest, if ever man was; as none of these French Philosophers were." He also admired his repudiation of atheism:</p><blockquote><p>Strangely through all that defacement, degradation and almost madness, there is in the inmost heart of poor Rousseau a spark of real heavenly fire. Once more, out of the element of that withered mocking Philosophism, Scepticism and Persiflage, there has arisen in this man the ineradicable feeling and knowledge that this Life of ours is true: not a Scepticism, Theorem, or Persiflage, but a Fact, an awful Reality. Nature had made that revelation to him; had ordered him to speak it out. He got it spoken out; if not well and clearly, then ill and dimly,—as clearly as he could.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Modern admirers of Rousseau include <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Josephson_1983-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Josephson" title="Matthew Josephson">Matthew Josephson</a>, Rousseau has remained controversial for more than two centuries, and has continued to gain admirers and critics down to the present time. However, in their own way, both critics and admirers have served to underscore the significance of the man, while those who have evaluated him with fairness have agreed that he was the finest thinker of his time on the question of civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Josephson_1983-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_works">Major works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Major works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dissertation_sur_la_musique_moderne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dissertation sur la musique moderne (page does not exist)">Dissertation sur la musique moderne</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissertation_sur_la_musique_moderne" class="extiw" title="fr:Dissertation sur la musique moderne">fr</a>]</span></i>, 1743</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</a></i> (<i>Discours sur les sciences et les arts</i>), 1750</li> <li><i>Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy</i>, 1752</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Origin_and_Basis_of_Inequality_Among_Men" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men">Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men</a></i> (<i>Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes</i>), 1754</li> <li><i>Letter on French Music</i>, 1753 (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lettre_sur_la_musique_fran%C3%A7aise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lettre sur la musique française (page does not exist)">Lettre sur la musique française</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettre_sur_la_musique_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Lettre sur la musique française">fr</a>]</span></i>)</li> <li><i>Discourse on Political Economy</i>, 1755 (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discours_sur_l%27%C3%A9conomie_politique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discours sur l'économie politique (page does not exist)">Discours sur l'économie politique</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discours_sur_l%27%C3%A9conomie_politique" class="extiw" title="fr:Discours sur l'économie politique">fr</a>]</span></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letter_to_M._D%27Alembert_on_Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles">Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles</a></i>, 1758 (<i>Lettre à D'Alembert sur les spectacles</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julie;_or,_The_New_Heloise" title="Julie; or, The New Heloise">Julie; or, The New Heloise</a></i> (<i>Julie ou la nouvelle Héloïse</i>), 1761</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emile_or_On_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile or On Education">Emile or On Education</a></i> (<i>Émile ou de l'éducation</i>), 1762 (includes "The Creed of a Savoyard Priest")</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a>, or Principles of Political Right</i> (<i>Du contrat social</i>), 1762</li> <li><i>Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes</i>, 1762</li> <li><i>Letters Written from the Mountain</i>, 1764 (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lettres_%C3%A9crites_de_la_montagne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lettres écrites de la montagne (page does not exist)">Lettres écrites de la montagne</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettres_%C3%A9crites_de_la_montagne" class="extiw" title="fr:Lettres écrites de la montagne">fr</a>]</span></i>)</li> <li><i>Dictionary of Music</i>. 1767 (<i>Dictionnaire de la musique</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></i> (<i>Les Confessions</i>), 1770, published 1782</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Project_for_Corsica" title="Constitutional Project for Corsica">Constitutional Project for Corsica</a></i>, 1765, published 1768</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_the_Government_of_Poland" title="Considerations on the Government of Poland">Considerations on the Government of Poland</a></i>, 1772</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_Elements_of_Botany" title="Letters on the Elements of Botany">Letters on the Elements of Botany</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essay_on_the_Origin_of_Languages" title="Essay on the Origin of Languages">Essay on the Origin of Languages</a></i>, published 1781 (<i>Essai sur l'origine des langues</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues:_Rousseau,_Judge_of_Jean-Jacques" title="Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques">Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques</a></i>, published 1782 (<i>Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reveries_of_the_Solitary_Walker" title="Reveries of the Solitary Walker">Reveries of the Solitary Walker</a></i>, incomplete, published 1782 (<i>Rêveries du promeneur solitaire</i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Editions_in_English">Editions in English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Editions in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Basic Political Writings</i>, trans. Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987.</li> <li><i>Collected Writings</i>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Masters" title="Roger Masters">Roger Masters</a> and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 1990–2010, 13 vols.</li> <li><i>The Confessions</i>, trans. Angela Scholar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.</li> <li><i>Émile or On Education</i>, trans. with an introd. by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a>, New York: Basic Books, 1979.</li> <li>"On the Origin of Language", trans. John H. Moran. In <i>On the Origin of Language: Two Essays</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.</li> <li><i>Reveries of a Solitary Walker</i>, trans. Peter France. London: Penguin Books, 1980.</li> <li><i> 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings</i>, trans. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Gourevitch" title="Victor Gourevitch">Victor Gourevitch</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li><i> 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings</i>, trans. Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li><i> 'The Social Contract</i>, trans. Maurice Cranston. Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 1968–2007.</li> <li><i>The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i>, edited with introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962. (In French but the introduction and notes are in English).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rousseau_on_Women,_Love,_and_Family" title="Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family">Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family</a></i>, Christopher Kelly and Eve Grace (eds.), Dartmouth College Press, 2009.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/56px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Switzerland" title="Portal:Switzerland">Switzerland portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" 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#aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">Boustrophedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Chenonceau" title="Château de Chenonceau">Château de Chenonceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eat_the_rich" title="Eat the rich">Eat the rich</a>, a saying attributed to Rousseau</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_H%C3%A9bert" title="Georges Hébert">Georges Hébert</a>, a physical culturist influenced by Rousseau's teachings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Let_them_eat_cake" title="Let them eat cake">Let them eat cake</a>, a saying of Rousseau's</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionist_forerunners" title="List of abolitionist forerunners">List of abolitionist forerunners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_systems_in_France" title="List of political systems in France">List of political systems in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseau_Institute" title="Rousseau Institute">Rousseau Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education#Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Philosophy of education">Rousseau's educational philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutterij" title="Schutterij">Schutterij</a> – civil militia</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes,_references_and_sources"><span id="Notes.2C_references_and_sources"></span>Notes, references and sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes, references and sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"And indeed, a British visitor commented, 'Even the lower class of people [of Geneva] are exceedingly well informed, and there is perhaps no city in Europe where learning is more universally diffused'; another at mid-century noticed that Genevan workmen were fond of reading the works of Locke and Montesquieu." —Leo Damrosch<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some of Rousseau's contemporaries believed the babies were not his. George Sand has written an essay, "Les Charmettes" (1865. Printed in the same volume as "Laura" from the same year), in which she explains why Rousseau may have accused himself falsely. She quotes her grandmother, in whose family Rousseau had been a tutor, and who stated that Rousseau could not get children.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau in his musical articles in the <i>Encyclopédie</i> engaged in lively controversy with other musicians, e.g. with Rameau, as in his article on Temperament, for which see Encyclopédie: Tempérament (English translation), also <a href="/wiki/Temperament_Ordinaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperament Ordinaire">Temperament Ordinaire</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau's biographer Leo Damrosch believes that the authorities chose to condemn him on religious rather than political grounds for tactical reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"My present fame is owing to a very trifling composition, but which has made incredible noise. I was one evening at <a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Rodet_Geoffrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin">Mme Geoffrin's</a> joking on Rousseau's affectations and contradictions, and said some things that diverted them. When I came home I put them in a letter, and showed it next day to Helvetius and the Duc de Nivernois; who were so pleased with it that, after telling me some faults in the language, ... they encouraged me to let it be seen. As you know, I willingly laugh at mountebanks, political or literary, let their talents be ever so great; I was not averse. The copies have spread like wildfire, et <i>me voici à la mode</i> [and behold, I am in fashion] ... Here is the letter:<br /><i>The King of Prussia to M.Rousseau: My dear Jean Jacques:</i><br />'You have renounced Geneva, your fatherland; you have had yourself chased from Switzerland, a country so much praised in your writings; France has issued a warrant against you. Come, then, to me; I admire your talents; I am amused by your dreams, which (be it said in passing) occupy you too much and too long. You must at last be wise and happy. You have had yourself talked of enough for peculiarities hardly fitting to a truly great man. Show your enemies that you can sometimes have common sense; this will annoy them without doing you harm. My states offer you a peaceful retreat; I wish you well, and would like to help you if you can find it good. But if you continue to reject my aid, be assured that I shall tell no one. If you persist in racking your brains to find new misfortunes, choose such as you may desire; I am king, and can procure any to suit your wishes; and—what surely will never happen to you among your enemies—I shall cease to persecute you when you cease to find your glory in being persecuted.'<br /><i>Your good friend,</i><br /><i>Frederick</i><br />—Horace Walpole's letter to H. S. Conway, dated 12 January 1766<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In those days in Europe the recipient had to pay for the postage for any mail received.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rousseau's letter is atrocious; it is to the last degree extravagant and inexcusable ... But do not believe him capable of any falsehood or artifice; nor imagine that he is either an impostor or a scoundrel. His anger has no just cause, but it is sincere; of that I feel no doubt. Here is what I imagine to be the cause of it. I have heard it said, and he has perhaps been told, that one of the best phrases in Mr Walpole's letter was by you, and that you had said in jest, speaking in the name of the King of Prussia, 'If you wish for persecutions, I am a king, and can procure them for you of any sort you like,' and that Mr Walpole ... had said you were its author. If this be true, and Rousseau knows of it, do you wonder that, sensitive, hot-headed, melancholy, and proud, ... he has become enraged?"—Madame de Boufflers's letter to David Hume, written in 1766.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau and Thérèse le Vasseur were not legally married nor married in church. A faux marriage took place instead in Bourgoin in 1768. Rousseau himself writes in a Letter to Madame de Luxembourg (1761): "... je lui ai déclaré que je ne l'épouserais jamais; et même un mariage public nous eût été impossible à cause de la différence de religion ..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1856308_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1856308-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eyewitnesses have declared that he didn't even use his own name, but "Renou", which was his alias when he was on the run. He neither conformed to the official formalities of a legal marriage. There were two "witnesses" present: Mr. de Champagneux, mayor of Bourgoin, and a Mr. de Rozière; both were artillery officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusset-Pathay1821488_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusset-Pathay1821488-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"From that haven of neighborly peace their spirits rose to renew their war for the soul of the Revolution, of France, and of Western man." —Will and Ariel Durant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An early recorded use in French language of a specific expression explicitly associating the words 'savage' and 'noble' is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLescarbot1609" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lescarbot, Marc (1609), "Sauvages sont vrayement nobles", <i>Histoire de la Nouvelle France</i> [<i>History of the New France</i>] (in French), p. 786, <q>... revenons à notre Nouvelle-France, ou les hommes sont plus humains et ne vivent que de ce que Dieu a donné à l'homme, sans devorer leurs semblables. Aussi faut-il dire d'eux qu'ils sont vrayment Nobles ...'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sauvages+sont+vrayement+nobles&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+Nouvelle+France&rft.pages=786&rft.date=1609&rft.aulast=Lescarbot&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some writers still use the term "<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>" in describing race relations in New France, for example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarraway" class="citation cs2">Garraway, Doris, <i>The Libertine Colony</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Libertine+Colony&rft.aulast=Garraway&rft.aufirst=Doris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeabody" class="citation cs2">Peabody, Sue, <i>There are No Slaves in France</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+are+No+Slaves+in+France&rft.aulast=Peabody&rft.aufirst=Sue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDubois" class="citation cs2">Dubois, Laurent, <i>The Avengers of the New World</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Avengers+of+the+New+World&rft.aulast=Dubois&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller" class="citation cs2">Miller, Christopher, <i>The French Atlantic Triangle</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Atlantic+Triangle&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; for information about the representation of colonial populations in Europe and the influence of <a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentimentalism (philosophy)">sentimentality</a>, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFesta" class="citation cs2">Festa, Lynn, <i>Sentimental Figures of Empire</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sentimental+Figures+of+Empire&rft.aulast=Festa&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Cooper was a follower of Tom Paine, who in turn was an admirer of Rousseau. For the classical origins of American ideals of liberty, see also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020023831/http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2003suny-tamer.html"><i><span></span></i>Sibi Imperiosus<i>: Cooper's Horatian Ideal of Self-Governance in The Deerslayer</i></a>, Villa Julie College, July 2005, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/articles/suny/2003suny-tamer.html">the original</a> on 20 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sibi+Imperiosus%3A+Cooper%27s+Horatian+Ideal+of+Self-Governance+in+The+Deerslayer&rft.pub=Villa+Julie+College&rft.date=2005-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexternal.oneonta.edu%2Fcooper%2Farticles%2Fsuny%2F2003suny-tamer.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Talmon's thesis is rebutted by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeigh1963" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Leigh, Ralph A (1963), "Liberté et autorité dans le Contrat Social", <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau et son oeuvre</i> [<i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau & his work</i>] (in French), Paris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Libert%C3%A9+et+autorit%C3%A9+dans+le+Contrat+Social&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau+et+son+oeuvre&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Leigh&rft.aufirst=Ralph+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>. Another tenacious proponent of the totalitarian thesis was <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrocker1968" class="citation cs2">Crocker, Lester C (1968), <i>Rousseau's Social Contract, An interpretive Essay</i>, Cleveland: Case Western Reserve Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+Social+Contract%2C+An+interpretive+Essay&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Crocker&rft.aufirst=Lester+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>. Two reviews of the debate are: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapman1968" class="citation cs2">Chapman, J.W. (1968), <i>Rousseau: Totalitarian or Liberal?</i>, New York: AMS Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%3A+Totalitarian+or+Liberal%3F&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFralin1978" class="citation cs2">Fralin, Richard (1978), <i>Rousseau and Representation</i>, NY: Columbia University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+Representation&rft.place=NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Fralin&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"For more than two centuries since Rousseau's writings were first published, controversy over the man and his ideas has continued virtually unabated. In their diverse ways his admirers and his opponents both have affirmed his importance in world history: the supporting party has seen him as the Friend of Man, the prophet of the new democratic ages that were to come after him, and one of the fathers of the French Revolution; his antagonists have pronounced him as a dangerous heretic who scorned organized religion, and as the inspirer of romanticism in literature and an unbridled libertarianism in politics. Indeed, they have somehow attributed to him the origin of many of the alleged evils of modern times, ranging from the restiveness of 'hippie' youth to the rigors of totalitarian societies. However, those who have tried to judge Rousseau fairly have generally agreed that among the philosophical writers of his century he was the one who stated the problem of civilization with more clarity and force than any of his contemporaries ... His works as a moralist and political philosopher influenced and fascinated minds as different as those of Hume, Kant, <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>, Byron, <a href="/wiki/Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Schiller">Schiller</a>, and, in recent times, the American behaviorist philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. New opponents of conservative bias have continued to write against him in the present century, but he has also won new admirers, such as the great French anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>."—<a href="/wiki/Matthew_Josephson" title="Matthew Josephson">Matthew Josephson</a>, in his introduction to <i>The Essential Rousseau</i><sup id="cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Josephson_1983-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (2008). <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.). Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Roach, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jane_Setter" title="Jane Setter">Setter, Jane</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/English_Pronouncing_Dictionary" title="English Pronouncing Dictionary">Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary</a></i> (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6"><bdi>978-0-521-15255-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.edition=18th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-15255-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009547/2012-05-25/">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414153829/https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009547/2012-05-25/">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100406162246/http://www.enotes.com/literary-criticism/preromanticism">"Preromanticism Criticism"</a>. Enotes. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/literary-criticism/preromanticism">the original</a> on 6 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Preromanticism+Criticism&rft.pub=Enotes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fliterary-criticism%2Fpreromanticism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDarnton" class="citation cs2">Darnton, Robert, "6. Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity", <i>The Great Cat Massacre</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.+Readers+Respond+to+Rousseau%3A+The+Fabrication+of+Romantic+Sensitivity&rft.btitle=The+Great+Cat+Massacre&rft.aulast=Darnton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span> for some interesting examples of contemporary reactions to this novel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20058-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20058_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Damrosch" title="Leo Damrosch">Damrosch, Leo</a> (30 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/books/chapters/jeanjacques-rousseau.html">"Jean-Jacques Rousseau"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171008181832/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/books/chapters/jeanjacques-rousseau.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rft.date=2005-10-30&rft.aulast=Damrosch&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F10%2F30%2Fbooks%2Fchapters%2Fjeanjacques-rousseau.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200531_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200517-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200517_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20059_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200510-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200510_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20057-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch20057_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200514-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch200514_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau179610-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau179610_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1796">Rousseau 1796</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLang2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lang, Timothy (1 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/history_oapubs/2/">"Rousseau and the Paradox of the Nation-State"</a>. <i>History Open Access Publications</i>: 10, 14, 24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225061652/https://scholarworks.umass.edu/history_oapubs/2/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Open+Access+Publications&rft.atitle=Rousseau+and+the+Paradox+of+the+Nation-State&rft.pages=10%2C+14%2C+24&rft.date=2018-01-01&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Fhistory_oapubs%2F2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder199944,_56-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder199944,_56_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSnyder1999">Snyder 1999</a>, pp. 44, 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005121-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005121_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.e-enlightenment.com/person/bourbsteph024382/?srch_type=lives&per_name=bourbon-conti&r=4">"Electronic Enlightenment: Stéphanie Louise de Bourbon-Conti"</a>. <i>www.e-enlightenment.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.e-enlightenment.com&rft.atitle=Electronic+Enlightenment%3A+St%C3%A9phanie+Louise+de+Bourbon-Conti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-enlightenment.com%2Fperson%2Fbourbsteph024382%2F%3Fsrch_type%3Dlives%26per_name%3Dbourbon-conti%26r%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJean-Jacques_Rousseau1968" class="citation book cs1">Jean-Jacques Rousseau (30 June 1968). <i>The Social Contract</i>. Translated by Cranston, Maurice. Penguin Classics. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140442014" title="Special:BookSources/0140442014"><bdi>0140442014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Contract&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1968-06-30&rft.isbn=0140442014&rft.au=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1987-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1987_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1987">Rousseau 1987</a>, Book VII</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1903291-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1903291_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1903">Rousseau 1903</a>, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005168-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005168_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 168: the count was "a virtual parody of a parasitic aristocrat, incredibly stupid, irascible, and swollen with self importance". He spoke no Italian, a language in which Rousseau was fluent. Although Rousseau did most of the work of the embassy, he was treated like a valet.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBall1998" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Terence (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xnMPtxUdWcC&pg=PA113"><i>Rousseau's Ghost</i></a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3933-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3933-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-3933-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803172953/https://books.google.com/books?id=4xnMPtxUdWcC&pg=PA113">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+Ghost&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-3933-3&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4xnMPtxUdWcC%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZirkle1941" class="citation cs2">Zirkle, Conway (25 April 1941), "Natural Selection before the <i>Origin of Species</i>", <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>, <b>84</b> (1), Philadelphia: <span class="nowrap">71–</span>123, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/984852">984852</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Natural+Selection+before+the+Origin+of+Species&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E71-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=1941-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F984852%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zirkle&rft.aufirst=Conway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005304-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005304_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005357-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005357_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenblatt1997264–265-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenblatt1997264–265_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenblatt1997">Rosenblatt 1997</a>, pp. 264–265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005358-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005358_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwood1842165-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackwood1842165_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackwood1842">Blackwood 1842</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGay197772-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGay197772_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGay1977">Gay 1977</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190–191-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190–191_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967191_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967192-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967192_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell, James</a> (1953). Pottle, Frederick A. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boswellongrandto00bosw/page/221/mode/1up?view=theater"><i>Boswell on the grand tour : Germany and Switzerland, 1764</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a> editions of the private papers of James Boswell. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education" title="McGraw Hill Education">McGraw-Hill</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">221–</span>231. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/868987">868987</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boswell+on+the+grand+tour+%3A+Germany+and+Switzerland%2C+1764&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Yale+editions+of+the+private+papers+of+James+Boswell&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E231&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F868987&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboswellongrandto00bosw%2Fpage%2F221%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005392–393-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005392–393_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 392–393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECranston2005113-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECranston2005113_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCranston2005">Cranston 2005</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967205–206-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967205–206_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 205–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005394–395-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005394–395_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 394–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005395-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005395_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2017" class="citation web cs1">Watson, Nicola J. (7 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euromanticism.org/rousseaus-trapdoor/">"Rousseau's Trapdoor – European Romanticisms in Association"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200927154845/http://www.euromanticism.org/rousseaus-trapdoor/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+Trapdoor+%E2%80%93+European+Romanticisms+in+Association&rft.date=2017-07-07&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Nicola+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euromanticism.org%2Frousseaus-trapdoor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207–207-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207–207_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 207–207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005404–405-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005404–405_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 404–405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967207_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005420–421_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 420–421.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208–209-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967208–209_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005406–407_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 406–407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005408–409-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005408–409_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 408–409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209–210-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967209–210_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 209–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005409-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005409_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005410_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005411–412-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005411–412_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 411–412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005419–421-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005419–421_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 419–421.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005421-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005421_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 421.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005418–419-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005418–419_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 418–419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://janeaustensworld.com/2009/09/12/the-postal-service-in-18th-century-britain-post-roads-and-post-boys/">"The Postal Service in 18th Century Britain: Post Roads and Post-Boys"</a>. <i>Jane Austen's World</i>. 12 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jane+Austen%27s+World&rft.atitle=The+Postal+Service+in+18th+Century+Britain%3A+Post+Roads+and+Post-Boys&rft.date=2009-09-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjaneaustensworld.com%2F2009%2F09%2F12%2Fthe-postal-service-in-18th-century-britain-post-roads-and-post-boys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005431-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005431_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 431.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967213–214_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 213–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005426–427-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005426–427_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 426–427.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967214_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/manuscripts/html_output/1.html">"The manuscripts, Letter from Andrew Millar to Andrew Mitchell, 26 August 1766. Andrew Millar Project. University of Edinburgh"</a>. <i>www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161007144647/http://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/manuscripts/html_output/1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk&rft.atitle=The+manuscripts%2C+Letter+from+Andrew+Millar+to+Andrew+Mitchell%2C+26+August+1766.+Andrew+Millar+Project.+University+of+Edinburgh.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.millar-project.ed.ac.uk%2Fmanuscripts%2Fhtml_output%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005427-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005427_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 427.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005447–448-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005447–448_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 447–448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau1856308-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau1856308_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1856">Rousseau 1856</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusset-Pathay1821488-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusset-Pathay1821488_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMusset-Pathay1821">Musset-Pathay 1821</a>, p. 488.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005451–456-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005451–456_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 451–456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005462–464-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005462–464_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 462–464.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005465-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005465_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005472-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005472_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005474_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 474.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGourevitch1997" class="citation book cs1">Gourevitch, Victor, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcvseZCgQKMC"><i>Rousseau: 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42446-2"><bdi>978-0-521-42446-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170216213853/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcvseZCgQKMC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%3A+%27The+Social+Contract%27+and+Other+Later+Political+Writings&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42446-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkcvseZCgQKMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476–480-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005476–480_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 476–480.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBruce1908" class="citation book cs1">Bruce, Alexander, ed. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Review+of+Neurology+and+Psychiatry%2C+Volume+6&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=T.+N.+Foulis&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPRqgAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005467-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005467_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 467.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005485–487-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005485–487_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 485–487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967883-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967883_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 883.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005481-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005481_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005487–488-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005487–488_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 487–488.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 488.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488–489-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005488–489_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 488–489.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005489-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005489_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, p. 489.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967887_94-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 887.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chronicle of the French Revolution <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582051940" title="Special:BookSources/0582051940">0582051940</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200123-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200123_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200125-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200125_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200127-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200127_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerry" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Marvin. <i>Western Civilization: Ideas Politics and Society, Volume II: From 1600</i>. p. 430.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Ideas+Politics+and+Society%2C+Volume+II%3A+From+1600&rft.pages=430&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200147–48_101-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200149-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200149_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200149_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousseau175478-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousseau175478_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousseau1754">Rousseau 1754</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200154-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200154_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200154_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200155-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200155_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200156-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200156_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200157-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200157_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200157_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200158-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200158_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200161–62-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200161–62_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, pp. 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1754" class="citation cs2"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques</a> (1754), "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, part two", <i>The Basic Political Writings</i>, Hackett, p. 64</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Discourse+on+the+Origin+of+Inequality%2C+part+two&rft.btitle=The+Basic+Political+Writings&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1754&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinaudi19685-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinaudi19685_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEinaudi1968">Einaudi 1968</a>, p. 5: "Arthur Lovejoy's crucial role in dispelling the myth cultivated with such care by many eighteenth-century <i>philosophes</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a history of how the phrase became associated with Rousseau, see <a href="#CITEREFEllingson2001">Ellingson 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabbitt1991_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBabbitt1991">Babbitt 1991</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200162–64-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200162–64_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, pp. 62–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEinspahr2010" class="citation journal cs1">Einspahr, Jennifer (2010). "The Beginning that Never Was: Mediation and Freedom in Rousseau's Political Thought". <i>Review of Politics</i>. <b>72</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">437–</span>461. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0034670510000318">10.1017/S0034670510000318</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6705">0034-6705</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146668402">146668402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Beginning+that+Never+Was%3A+Mediation+and+Freedom+in+Rousseau%27s+Political+Thought&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E437-%3C%2Fspan%3E461&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146668402%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0034-6705&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0034670510000318&rft.aulast=Einspahr&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrwinTarcov1997" class="citation book cs1">Orwin, Clifford; Tarcov, Nathan (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nW-TzyoEaj4C&pg=PA97"><i>The Legacy of Rousseau</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-63856-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-63856-0"><bdi>978-0-226-63856-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803151726/https://books.google.com/books?id=nW-TzyoEaj4C&pg=PA97">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Rousseau&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-63856-0&rft.aulast=Orwin&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft.au=Tarcov%2C+Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnW-TzyoEaj4C%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200164-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200164_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200165–66-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200165–66_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200167-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200167_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200169-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200169_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWokler200172-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200172_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWokler200172_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWokler2001">Wokler 2001</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Entry, "Rousseau" in the <i>Routelege Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, Edward Craig, editor, Volume Eight, p. 371</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tangian2014-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tangian2014_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTangian2014" class="citation book cs1">Tangian, Andranik (2014). <i>Mathematical theory of democracy</i>. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 106, 110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-38724-1">10.1007/978-3-642-38724-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-38723-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-38723-4"><bdi>978-3-642-38723-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+theory+of+democracy&rft.place=Berlin%3B+Heidelberg&rft.series=Studies+in+Choice+and+Welfare&rft.pages=106%2C+110&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-38724-1&rft.isbn=978-3-642-38723-4&rft.aulast=Tangian&rft.aufirst=Andranik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter1954" class="citation book cs1">Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). <i>History of Economic Analysis</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Economic+Analysis.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Schumpeter&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHont2015" class="citation book cs1">Hont, István (2015). <i>Politics in Commercial Society</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+in+Commercial+Society.&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hont&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanley2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hanley, Ryan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5907.2008.00309.x">"Enlightened Nation Building: The 'Science of the Legislator' in Adam Smith and Rousseau"</a>. <i>American Journal of Political Science</i>. <b>52</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">219–</span>234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5907.2008.00309.x">10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00309.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Enlightened+Nation+Building%3A+The+%27Science+of+the+Legislator%27+in+Adam+Smith+and+Rousseau&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E234&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-5907.2008.00309.x&rft.aulast=Hanley&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1540-5907.2008.00309.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJean-Jacques_Rousseau1889" class="citation book cs1">Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brittlebooks.library.illinois.edu/brittlebooks_open/Books2009-08/rousje0001emile/rousje0001emile.pdf"><i>Emile, or Concerning Education</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (extracts). Translated by Eleanor Worthington. Boston: <a href="/wiki/D._C._Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="D. C. Heath">D. C. Heath</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923215306/https://brittlebooks.library.illinois.edu/brittlebooks_open/Books2009-08/rousje0001emile/rousje0001emile.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 23 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emile%2C+or+Concerning+Education&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=D.+C.+Heath&rft.date=1889&rft.au=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrittlebooks.library.illinois.edu%2Fbrittlebooks_open%2FBooks2009-08%2Frousje0001emile%2Frousje0001emile.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJordan" class="citation web cs1">Jordan, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100825161255/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/72616">"Famous Locksmiths"</a>. <i>American Chronicle</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/72616">the original</a> on 25 August 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Famous+Locksmiths&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanchronicle.com%2Farticles%2Fview%2F72616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWollstonecraft2004" class="citation book cs1">Wollstonecraft, Mary (2004) [1792]. "V". In Brody, Miriam (ed.). <i>A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-144125-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-144125-2"><bdi>978-0-14-144125-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V&rft.btitle=A+Vindication+of+the+Rights+of+Woman&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-144125-2&rft.aulast=Wollstonecraft&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuana-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tuana_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTuana1993" class="citation book cs1">Tuana, Nancy (1993). <i>The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious and Philosophical Conceptions of Women's Nature</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-36098-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-36098-4"><bdi>978-0-253-36098-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Less+Noble+Sex%3A+Scientific%2C+Religious+and+Philosophical+Conceptions+of+Women%27s+Nature&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-253-36098-4&rft.aulast=Tuana&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau" class="citation cs2">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, "Book V", <i>Emile</i>, p. 359</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+V&rft.btitle=Emile&rft.pages=359&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. Edition? Publisher? (January 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005341–342-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDamrosch2005341–342_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDamrosch2005">Damrosch 2005</a>, pp. 341–342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarmontel1826" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Marmontel" title="Jean-François Marmontel">Marmontel, Jean-François</a> (1826). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SiQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA125"><i>Memoirs of Marmontel, written by himself: containing his literary and political life, and anecdotes of the principal characters of the eighteenth century</i></a>. London: Hunt and Clarke. pp. <span class="nowrap">125–</span>126. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151004194946/https://books.google.com/books?id=SiQoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA125">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Marmontel%2C+written+by+himself%3A+containing+his+literary+and+political+life%2C+and+anecdotes+of+the+principal+characters+of+the+eighteenth+century&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E126&rft.pub=Hunt+and+Clarke&rft.date=1826&rft.aulast=Marmontel&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSiQoAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDarling1986" class="citation journal cs1">Darling, John (January 1986). "Child-centred, Gender-centred: a criticism of progressive curriculum theory from Rousseau to Plowden". <i>Oxford Review of Education</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">31–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0305498860120103">10.1080/0305498860120103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Review+of+Education&rft.atitle=Child-centred%2C+Gender-centred%3A+a+criticism+of+progressive+curriculum+theory+from+Rousseau+to+Plowden&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1986-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0305498860120103&rft.aulast=Darling&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurren2003" class="citation book cs1">Curren, Randall R. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontophilo00curr_984"><i>A companion to the philosophy of education</i></a></span>. Blackwell. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontophilo00curr_984/page/n253">235</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4051-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4051-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-4051-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53333817">53333817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+philosophy+of+education&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53333817&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4051-5&rft.aulast=Curren&rft.aufirst=Randall+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompaniontophilo00curr_984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510932/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau/23965/Major-works-of-political-philosophy">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090531212145/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510932/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau/23965/Major-works-of-political-philosophy">Archived</a> 31 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"There remains therefore the religion of man or Christianity—not the Christianity of to-day, but that of the Gospel, which is entirely different. By means of this holy, sublime, and real religion all men, being children of one God, recognise one another as brothers, and the society that unites them is not dissolved even at death. Book IV, Chapter 8: Civil Religion</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau2007" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cwINIt5H8i4C&pg=PA170"><i>Rousseau on Philosophy, Morality, and Religion</i></a>. Dartmouth College Press. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-664-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-664-7"><bdi>978-1-58465-664-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316072446/https://books.google.com/books?id=cwINIt5H8i4C&pg=PA170">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+on+Philosophy%2C+Morality%2C+and+Religion&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Dartmouth+College+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58465-664-7&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcwINIt5H8i4C%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2002" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, Darrin M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ix1N2AKYVhMC"><i>Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534793-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534793-7"><bdi>978-0-19-534793-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316072522/https://books.google.com/books?id=ix1N2AKYVhMC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemies+of+the+Enlightenment%3A+The+French+Counter-Enlightenment+and+the+Making+of+Modernity&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534793-7&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Darrin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dix1N2AKYVhMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEverdell1987" class="citation book cs1">Everdell, William R. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n4BHtQEACAAJ&q=William+everdell+christian+apologetics"><i>Christian Apologetics in France: 1730–1790: the Roots of Romantic Religion</i></a>. Mellen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88946-976-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88946-976-1"><bdi>978-0-88946-976-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316072449/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4BHtQEACAAJ&q=William+everdell+christian+apologetics">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Apologetics+in+France%3A+1730%E2%80%931790%3A+the+Roots+of+Romantic+Religion&rft.pub=Mellen&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88946-976-1&rft.aulast=Everdell&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn4BHtQEACAAJ%26q%3DWilliam%2Beverdell%2Bchristian%2Bapologetics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The full text of the letter is available online only in the French original: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704072055/http://alain-leger.mageos.com/docs/Rousseau.pdf">"Lettre à Mgr De Beaumont Archevêque de Paris (1762)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alain-leger.mageos.com/docs/Rousseau.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 July 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lettre+%C3%A0+Mgr+De+Beaumont+Archev%C3%AAque+de+Paris+%281762%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falain-leger.mageos.com%2Fdocs%2FRousseau.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreen2007" class="citation cs2">Green, Edward (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edgreenmusic.org/Articles/greenRousseau.pdf?v=0hrAbctwA3g">"Reconsidering Rousseau's 'Le devin du village': An Opera of Surprising and Valuable Paradox"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Ars Lyrica</i>, <b>16</b>: 132, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140725171115/http://www.edgreenmusic.org/Articles/greenRousseau.pdf?v=0hrAbctwA3g">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Lyrica&rft.atitle=Reconsidering+Rousseau%27s+%27Le+devin+du+village%27%3A+An+Opera+of+Surprising+and+Valuable+Paradox&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=132&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edgreenmusic.org%2FArticles%2FgreenRousseau.pdf%3Fv%3D0hrAbctwA3g&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatteson2012" class="citation book cs1">Matteson, Richard L. Jr. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=11vTdsx_zZIC&pg=PA23"><i>Acoustic Music Source Book</i></a>. Mel Bay Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61911-099-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61911-099-1"><bdi>978-1-61911-099-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210123192202/https://books.google.com/books?id=11vTdsx_zZIC&pg=PA23">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acoustic+Music+Source+Book&rft.pub=Mel+Bay+Publications&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61911-099-1&rft.aulast=Matteson&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D11vTdsx_zZIC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Motets, edited by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_C._Montagnier" title="Jean-Paul C. Montagnier">Jean-Paul C. Montagnier</a> (Zürich : Société Suisse de musicologie, Édition Kunzelmann, 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.famouscomposers.net/jean-jacques-rousseau">"Jean Jacques Rousseau – Composer Biography, Facts and Music Compositions"</a>. <i>Famous Composers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316072527/https://www.famouscomposers.net/jean-jacques-rousseau">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Famous+Composers&rft.atitle=Jean+Jacques+Rousseau+%E2%80%93+Composer+Biography%2C+Facts+and+Music+Compositions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.famouscomposers.net%2Fjean-jacques-rousseau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1861" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TyVbAAAAQAAJ"><i>The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i></a>. Reeves and Turner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331101209/https://books.google.com/books?id=TyVbAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confessions+of+Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rft.pub=Reeves+and+Turner&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTyVbAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://artsandculture.google.com/story/rousseau-happy-at-chenonceau/MAUBBPZLl7ggKg">"Rousseau, Happy at Chenonceau"</a>. <i>Google Arts & Culture</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Arts+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=Rousseau%2C+Happy+at+Chenonceau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fartsandculture.google.com%2Fstory%2Frousseau-happy-at-chenonceau%2FMAUBBPZLl7ggKg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau">"Jean-Jacques Rousseau | Biography, philosophy, Books, & Facts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190603094950/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarris2024" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Micah (1 September 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/732277">"Noah Webster and the Influence of Rousseau on Education in America, 1785–1835"</a>. <i>American Political Thought</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F732277">10.1086/732277</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2161-1580">2161-1580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Thought&rft.atitle=Noah+Webster+and+the+Influence+of+Rousseau+on+Education+in+America%2C+1785%E2%80%931835&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=508&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F732277&rft.issn=2161-1580&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Micah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F732277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarris2024" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Micah (1 September 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/732277">"Noah Webster and the Influence of 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Thought&rft.atitle=Noah+Webster+and+the+Influence+of+Rousseau+on+Education+in+America%2C+1785%E2%80%931835&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E508-%3C%2Fspan%3E509&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F732277&rft.issn=2161-1580&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Micah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F732277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchachner1957" class="citation cs2">Schachner, Nathan (1957), <i>Thomas Jefferson: A Biography</i>, p. 47</cite><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+Jean-Baptiste+Blanchard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F02592c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacques Barzun, <i>From Dawn to Decadence</i> (2001) p. 384</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimm1815353-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimm1815353_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrimm1815">Grimm 1815</a>, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBertholet2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bertholet, Auguste (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html">"Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne"</a>. <i>Annales Benjamin Constant</i>. <b>46</b>: <span class="nowrap">65–</span>76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Benjamin+Constant&rft.atitle=Constant%2C+Sismondi+et+la+Pologne&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bertholet&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slatkine.com%2Ffr%2Feditions-slatkine%2F75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConstant1874" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Constant, Benjamin (1874). <i>Œuvres politiques</i> (in French). Paris: Charpentiers et Cie, Libraires-éditeurs. p. 274. <q>Ils crurent que tout devait encore céder devant la volonté collective, et que toutes les restrictions aux droits individuels seraient amplement compensées par la participation au pouvoir social.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%92uvres+politiques&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Charpentiers+et+Cie%2C+Libraires-%C3%A9diteurs&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Constant&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBastiat201035-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBastiat201035_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBastiat2010">Bastiat 2010</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Barry, The Tradition of Spontaneous Order</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">F. Bastiat</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Harmonies_of_Political_Economy" title="Harmonies of Political Economy">Harmonies of Political Economy</a></i>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade, Marquis de</a>, (1990) [1791], <i><a href="/wiki/Justine_(de_Sade_novel)" title="Justine (de Sade novel)">Justine</a>, Philosophy in the Bedroom, & Other Writings</i>, Grove Press, p. 645.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurke1791" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund (1791), <i>A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Letter+to+a+Member+of+the+National+Assembly&rft.date=1791&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_177-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_177-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1841" class="citation book cs1">Carlyle, Thomas (1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1091/1091-h/1091-h.htm#link2H_4_0006">"Lecture V. The Hero as Man of Letters. Johnson, Rousseau, Burns."</a>. <i>On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lecture+V.+The+Hero+as+Man+of+Letters.+Johnson%2C+Rousseau%2C+Burns.&rft.btitle=On+Heroes%2C+Hero-Worship%2C+%26+the+Heroic+in+History&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F1091%2F1091-h%2F1091-h.htm%23link2H_4_0006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3118">Equality</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190121135600/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3118">Archived</a> 21 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Charles Dudley Warner</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy1948-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELovejoy1948_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLovejoy1948">Lovejoy 1948</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1980" class="citation cs2">Harvey, R Simon (1980), <i>Reappraisals of Rousseau: studies in honor of R. A. Leigh</i>, Manchester University press, <q>and mere concern for the facts has not inhibited others from doing likewise. Irving Babbitt's <i>Rousseau & Romanticism</i> still remains the only general work on this subject though printed as long ago as 1919, but it is grossly inaccurate, discursive and biased</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+Rousseau%3A+studies+in+honor+of+R.+A.+Leigh&rft.pub=Manchester+University+press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=R+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaloy2005" class="citation cs2">Maloy, J.S. (2005), "The Very Order of Things: Rousseau's Tutorial Republicanism", <i>Polity</i>, <b>37</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">235–</span>261, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.polity.2300011">10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300011</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144110376">144110376</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polity&rft.atitle=The+Very+Order+of+Things%3A+Rousseau%27s+Tutorial+Republicanism&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E235-%3C%2Fspan%3E261&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fpalgrave.polity.2300011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144110376%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maloy&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMelzer2000" class="citation cs2">Melzer, Arthur (2000), "Rousseau, Nationalism, and the Politics of Sympathetic Identification", in Kristol, Mark; Blitz, William (eds.), <i>Educating the Prince: Essays in Honor of Harvey C. Mansfield</i>, Rowman & Littlefield</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rousseau%2C+Nationalism%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Sympathetic+Identification&rft.btitle=Educating+the+Prince%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Harvey+C.+Mansfield&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Melzer&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEngel2005" class="citation cs2">Engel, Steven T (Summer 2005), "Rousseau and Imagined Communities", <i>The Review of Politics</i>, <b>67</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">515–</span>537, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034670500034690">10.1017/s0034670500034690</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143580289">143580289</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=Rousseau+and+Imagined+Communities&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E515-%3C%2Fspan%3E537&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0034670500034690&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143580289%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=Steven+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArendt1990" class="citation cs2">Arendt, Hannah (1990), <i>On revolution</i>, p. 76</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+revolution&rft.pages=76&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Arendt&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant19673-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant19673_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967889-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967889_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 889.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967891_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967190_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Josephson_1983-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Josephson_1983_190-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_Josephson1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Josephson" title="Matthew Josephson">Matthew Josephson</a> (1983). "Introduction". <i>The Essential Rousseau</i>. Translated by Lowell Bair. Meridian. pp. vii, xvi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Rousseau&rft.pages=vii%2C+xvi&rft.pub=Meridian&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Matthew+Josephson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBabbitt1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt, Irving</a> (1991) [1919], <i>Rousseau and Romanticism</i>, Library of Conservative Thought, Edison, New Jersey: Transaction</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+Romanticism&rft.place=Edison%2C+New+Jersey&rft.series=Library+of+Conservative+Thought&rft.pub=Transaction&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Babbitt&rft.aufirst=Irving&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarzun2001" class="citation book cs1">Barzun, Jacques (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PRYCGQAACAAJ"><i>From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life: 1500 to the Present</i></a>. London: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711382-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711382-8"><bdi>978-0-00-711382-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=PRYCGQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Dawn+to+Decadence%3A+500+Years+of+Western+Cultural+Life%3A+1500+to+the+Present&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-00-711382-8&rft.aulast=Barzun&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPRYCGQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBastiat2010" class="citation book cs1">Bastiat, Frédéric (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8hb2TvrBS8wC"><i>The Law</i></a>. New York: Cosimo Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-377-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-377-5"><bdi>978-1-61640-377-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021530/https://books.google.com/books?id=8hb2TvrBS8wC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cosimo+Classics&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61640-377-5&rft.aulast=Bastiat&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8hb2TvrBS8wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBertram2012" class="citation book cs1">Bertram, Christopher (2012). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/rousseau/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a> (Winter 2012 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190318080504/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/rousseau/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2012&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Bertram&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2012%2Fentries%2Frousseau%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlackwood1842" class="citation journal cs1">Blackwood, William (1842). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f7ECAAAAIAAJ">"Protestantism in Geneva"</a>. <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>. <b>51</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021529/https://books.google.com/books?id=f7ECAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Blackwood%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=Protestantism+in+Geneva&rft.volume=51&rft.date=1842&rft.aulast=Blackwood&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df7ECAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCranston2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Cranston" title="Maurice Cranston">Cranston, Maurice</a> (2005), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Solitary_Self" class="mw-redirect" title="The Solitary Self">The Solitary Self</a></i>, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Solitary+Self&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cranston&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDamrosch2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Damrosch" title="Leo Damrosch">Damrosch, Leo</a> (2005). <i><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau:_Restless_Genius" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius">Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jeanjacquesrouss00leod/page/566">566</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-44696-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-44696-4"><bdi>978-0-618-44696-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau%3A+Restless+Genius&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=566&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-618-44696-4&rft.aulast=Damrosch&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqsYAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and revolution; a history of civilization in France, England, and Germany from 1756, and in the remainder of Europe from 1715 to 1789</i></a>. Vol. 10. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 1091. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21988-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-21988-8"><bdi>978-0-671-21988-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803150255/https://books.google.com/books?id=fqsYAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Rousseau+and+revolution%3B+a+history+of+civilization+in+France%2C+England%2C+and+Germany+from+1756%2C+and+in+the+remainder+of+Europe+from+1715+to+1789&rft.pages=1091&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-671-21988-8&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqsYAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEinaudi1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Einaudi" title="Mario Einaudi">Einaudi, Mario</a> (1968). <i>Early Rousseau</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Rousseau&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Einaudi&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllingson2001" class="citation book cs1">Ellingson, Ter (2001). <i>The Myth of the Noble Savage</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Noble+Savage&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ellingson&rft.aufirst=Ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGay1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nGLHzQEACAAJ"><i>The Enlightenment: An Interpretation</i></a>. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00870-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00870-3"><bdi>0-393-00870-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nGLHzQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enlightenment%3A+An+Interpretation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-393-00870-3&rft.aulast=Gay&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnGLHzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrimm1815" class="citation book cs1">Grimm, Friedrich Melchior Freiherr von (1815). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LgUaAQAAMAAJ"><i>Historical & Literary Memoirs and Anecdotes, Selected from the Correspondence of Baron de Grimm and Diderot with the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, and Many Other Distinguished Persons, Between the Years of 1753 and 1790</i></a>. Vol. 4. Translated by Bland, Robert; Plumptre, Anne. London: Henry Colburn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021534/https://books.google.com/books?id=LgUaAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+%26+Literary+Memoirs+and+Anecdotes%2C+Selected+from+the+Correspondence+of+Baron+de+Grimm+and+Diderot+with+the+Duke+of+Saxe-Gotha%2C+and+Many+Other+Distinguished+Persons%2C+Between+the+Years+of+1753+and+1790&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Henry+Colburn&rft.date=1815&rft.aulast=Grimm&rft.aufirst=Friedrich+Melchior+Freiherr+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLgUaAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel, Jonathan I.</a> (2002). <i>Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Enlightenment%3A+Philosophy+and+the+Making+of+Modernity&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Hansong (2020). "Timing the Laws: Rousseau's Theory of Development in Corsica". <i>European Journal of the History of Economic Thought</i>. <b>29</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">648–</span>679. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09672567.2022.2063357">10.1080/09672567.2022.2063357</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251137139">251137139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+the+History+of+Economic+Thought&rft.atitle=Timing+the+Laws%3A+Rousseau%27s+Theory+of+Development+in+Corsica&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E648-%3C%2Fspan%3E679&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09672567.2022.2063357&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251137139%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hansong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Arthur O.</a> (1948) [1923]. "The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau's 'Discourse on Inequality'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Philology" title="Modern Philology">Modern Philology</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">165–</span>186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Philology&rft.atitle=The+Supposed+Primitivism+of+Rousseau%27s+%27Discourse+on+Inequality%27&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Arthur+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>. Reprinted in <i>Essays in the History of Ideas</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press). "A classic treatment of the <i>Second Discourse</i>" – <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Dent" title="Nicholas Dent">Nicholas Dent</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMusset-Pathay1821" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Musset-Pathay, Victor Donatien de (1821). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B-HJyWs6q78C"><i>Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de J.-J. Rousseau</i></a> (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Pélicier. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021528/https://books.google.com/books?id=B-HJyWs6q78C">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+vie+et+des+ouvrages+de+J.-J.+Rousseau&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=P%C3%A9licier&rft.date=1821&rft.aulast=Musset-Pathay&rft.aufirst=Victor+Donatien+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB-HJyWs6q78C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosenblatt1997" class="citation book cs1">Rosenblatt, Helena (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uF4jJAGGrI0C"><i>Rousseau and Geneva: From the First Discourse to The Social Contract, 1749–1762</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57004-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57004-6"><bdi>978-0-521-57004-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021533/https://books.google.com/books?id=uF4jJAGGrI0C">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+Geneva%3A+From+the+First+Discourse+to+The+Social+Contract%2C+1749%E2%80%931762&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57004-6&rft.aulast=Rosenblatt&rft.aufirst=Helena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuF4jJAGGrI0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1796" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1796) [1782]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mppJAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Confessions of J.J. Rousseau, Citizen of Geneva: Part the First. To which are Added, The Reveries of a Solitary Walker</i></a>. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). London: G.G. and J. Robinson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=mppJAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confessions+of+J.J.+Rousseau%2C+Citizen+of+Geneva%3A+Part+the+First.+To+which+are+Added%2C+The+Reveries+of+a+Solitary+Walker&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=G.G.+and+J.+Robinson&rft.date=1796&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmppJAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1856" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ma8dcrVW-oC"><i>Oeuvres complètes de J.J. Rousseau: avec des notes historiques</i></a> [<i>Complete works of J.J. Rousseau: with historical notes</i>] (in French). Vol. 11. Frankfurt on the Main: Heinrich Hirsch Bechhold. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021529/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ma8dcrVW-oC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oeuvres+compl%C3%A8tes+de+J.J.+Rousseau%3A+avec+des+notes+historiques&rft.place=Frankfurt+on+the+Main&rft.pub=Heinrich+Hirsch+Bechhold&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ma8dcrVW-oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1903" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Mq50bG5T8cC"><i>The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau: Now First Completely Translated into English</i></a>. Vol. 1. London: Aldus Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021528/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Mq50bG5T8cC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confessions+of+Jean+Jacques+Rousseau%3A+Now+First+Completely+Translated+into+English&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Aldus+Society&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Mq50bG5T8cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1987" class="citation cs2">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1987), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521328036"><i>Confessions</i></a></span>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31500-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31500-5"><bdi>978-0-521-31500-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confessions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31500-5&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780521328036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1999" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, R. Claire (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S7R_Mvwlp_AC"><i>Citizen-Soldiers and Manly Warriors: Military Service and Gender in the Civic Republican Tradition</i></a>. Vol. 1. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-7353-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-7353-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-7353-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021531/https://books.google.com/books?id=S7R_Mvwlp_AC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizen-Soldiers+and+Manly+Warriors%3A+Military+Service+and+Gender+in+the+Civic+Republican+Tradition&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-7353-6&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=R.+Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS7R_Mvwlp_AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWokler2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wokler" title="Robert Wokler">Wokler, Robert</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6XcRDAAAQBAJ&q=rousseau+very+short+introduction"><i>Rousseau: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280198-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280198-2"><bdi>978-0-19-280198-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814071211/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XcRDAAAQBAJ&q=rousseau+very+short+introduction">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280198-2&rft.aulast=Wokler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6XcRDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Drousseau%2Bvery%2Bshort%2Bintroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 45em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Abizadeh, Arash (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Banishing-the-Particular-Rousseau-on-Rhetoric-Patrie-and-the-Passions/c22zv/558b7d920cf20d45521d3cc5">"Banishing the Particular: Rousseau on Rhetoric, <i>Patrie</i>, and the Passions"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Theory">Political Theory</a></i>, <b>29</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">556–</span>582, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591701029004005">10.1177/0090591701029004005</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154733748">154733748</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Banishing-the-Particular-Rousseau-on-Rhetoric-Patrie-and-the-Passions/c22zv/558b7d920cf20d45521d3cc5">archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=Banishing+the+Particular%3A+Rousseau+on+Rhetoric%2C+Patrie%2C+and+the+Passions&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E556-%3C%2Fspan%3E582&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0090591701029004005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154733748%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Abizadeh&rft.aufirst=Arash&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabizadeh.wix.com%2Farash%23%21Article-Banishing-the-Particular-Rousseau-on-Rhetoric-Patrie-and-the-Passions%2Fc22zv%2F558b7d920cf20d45521d3cc5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Bertram, Christopher (2003), <i>Rousseau and The Social Contract</i>, London, England: Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+The+Social+Contract&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bertram&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Raymond Birn, "Forging Rousseau: print, commerce and cultural manipulation in the late Enlightenment" (<i>SVEC</i> 2001:08).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer, Ernst</a> (1945), <i>Rousseau, Kant, Goethe</i>, Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%2C+Kant%2C+Goethe&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Cassirer&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1989) [1935], Gay, Peter (ed.), <i>The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i>, Series editor, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a>, Yale University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Question+of+Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Cassirer&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Conrad, Felicity (2008), "Rousseau Gets Spanked, or, Chomsky's Revenge", <i>The Journal of POLI 433</i>, <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>24</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+POLI+433&rft.atitle=Rousseau+Gets+Spanked%2C+or%2C+Chomsky%27s+Revenge&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Felicity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cooper, Laurence (1999).<i> Rousseau, Nature and the Problem of the Good Life</i>. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Cottret" title="Bernard Cottret">Cottret, Monique</a>; Cottret, Bernard (2005), <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau en son temps</i> (in French), Paris: Perrin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau+en+son+temps&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cottret&rft.aufirst=Monique&rft.au=Cottret%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Cranston" title="Maurice Cranston">Cranston, Maurice</a> (1982). <i><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques:_The_Early_Life_and_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work">Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work</a></i>. New York: Norton</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1991), "The Noble Savage", <i>The Scientific Monthly</i>, <b>36</b> (3), Chicago, Illinois: 250, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933SciMo..36..250M">1933SciMo..36..250M</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Noble+Savage&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=250&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933SciMo..36..250M&rft.aulast=Cranston&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dent, Nicholas J. H. (1988). <i>Rousseau: An Introduction to his Psychological, Social, and Political Theory</i>. Oxford: Blackwell</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1992), <i>A Rousseau Dictionary</i>, Oxford, England: Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Rousseau+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Dent&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (2005), <i>Rousseau</i>, London: Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Dent&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Derathé, Robert (1948)<i>. Le Rationalism de J.-J. Rousseau</i>. Press Universitaires de France</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">——— (1988) [1950], <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau et la Science Politique de Son Temps</i> (in French), Paris: Vrin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau+et+la+Science+Politique+de+Son+Temps&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Vrin&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Derath%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derrida,_Jacques" class="mw-redirect" title="Derrida, Jacques">Derrida, Jacques</a> (1976). <i>Of Grammatology</i>, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press</li> <li>Farrell, John (2006). <i>Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau.</i> New York: Cornell University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Fa%C3%BF" title="Bernard Faÿ">Faÿ, Bernard</a> (1974), <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau ou le Rêve de la vie</i> (in French), Paris: Perrin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau+ou+le+R%C3%AAve+de+la+vie&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Fa%C3%BF&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Garrard, Graeme (2003). <i>Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes</i>. Albany: State University of New York Press</li> <li>Garrard, Graeme (2014). "Rousseau, Happiness and Human Nature," <i>Political Studies</i>, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 70–82.</li> <li>Garrard, Graeme (2021). "Children of the State: Rousseau's Republican Educational Theory and Child Abandonment," <i>Educational History</i>, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 147–160.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gauthier" title="David Gauthier">Gauthier, David</a> (2006). <i>Rousseau: The Sentiment of Existence</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Hendel, Charles W. (1934). <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Moralist</i>. 2 Vols. (1934) Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs Merrill</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_de_Jouvenel" title="Bertrand de Jouvenel">de Jouvenel, Bertrand</a> (1962). "Rousseau the Pessimistic Evolutionist". <i>Yale French Studies</i> (27): <span class="nowrap">83–</span>96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+French+Studies&rft.atitle=Rousseau+the+Pessimistic+Evolutionist&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=de+Jouvenel&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kanzler, Peter. The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Social Contract (1762), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776), 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-716-89340-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-716-89340-7">978-1-716-89340-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kateb" title="George Kateb">Kateb, George</a> (1961). "Aspects of Rousseau's Political Thought", <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, December 1961</li> <li>Christopher Kelly, <i>Rousseau's Exemplary Life: the "Confessions" as political philosophy</i>, Ithaca: Cornell, 1987.</li> <li>Christopher Kelly, <i>Rousseau as Author</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Kitsikis" title="Dimitri Kitsikis">Kitsikis, Dimitri</a> (2006). <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascisme</i>. Nantes: Ars Magna Editions</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kuznicki, Jason (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n272.xml">"Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, California: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">444–</span>445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n272">10.4135/9781412965811.n272</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rousseau%2C+Jean-Jacques+%281712%E2%80%931778%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E444-%3C%2Fspan%3E445&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n272&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Kuznicki&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn272.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_LaFreniere" title="Gilbert LaFreniere">LaFreniere, Gilbert F.</a> (1990). "Rousseau and the European Roots of Environmentalism." <i>Environmental History Review</i> 14 (No. 4): 41–72</li> <li>Lange, Lynda (2002). <i>Feminist Interpretations of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i>. University Park: Penn State University Press</li> <li>Maguire, Matthew (2006). <i>The Conversion of the Imagination: from Pascal through Rousseau to Tocqueville</i>. Harvard University Press</li> <li>Marks, Jonathan (2005). <i>Perfection and Disharmony in the Thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Masters" title="Roger Masters">Masters, Roger</a> (ed.), 1964. <i>The First and Second Discourses by Jean-Jacques Rousseau</i>, translated by Roger D. Masters and Judith R. Masters. New York: St. Martin's Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-69440-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-69440-1">978-0-312-69440-1</a></li> <li>Masters, Roger 1968. <i>The Political Philosophy of Rousseau</i>. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01989-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01989-5">978-0-691-01989-5</a>), also available in French (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84788-000-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84788-000-7">978-2-84788-000-7</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">McCarthy, Vincent A (2009), "Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Presence and Absence", in Stewart, Jon (ed.), <i>Kierkegaard and the Renaissance and Modern Traditions</i>, Farnham: Ashgate, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6818-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6818-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-6818-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau%3A+Presence+and+Absence&rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+and+the+Renaissance+and+Modern+Traditions&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6818-3&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Vincent+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Christie McDonald and Stanley Hoffman (eds.), <i>Rousseau and Freedom</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2010.</li> <li>Melzer, Arthur (1990). <i>The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press</li> <li>Paiva, Wilson (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.revistas.usp.br/ep/article/view/162558/156385"><i>Discussing human connectivity in Rousseau as a pedagogical issue</i></a>. Article available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211116122626/https://www.revistas.usp.br/ep/article/view/162558/156385">Archived</a> 16 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Pateman" title="Carole Pateman">Pateman, Carole</a> (1979). <i>The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_T._Riley" title="Patrick T. Riley">Riley, Patrick</a> (1970), "A Possible Explanation of the General Will", <i>American Political Science Review</i>, <b>64</b> (1): 88, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1955615">10.2307/1955615</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1955615">1955615</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146570433">146570433</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=A+Possible+Explanation+of+the+General+Will&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=88&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146570433%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1955615%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1955615&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (1978), "General Will Before Rousseau", <i>Political Theory</i>, <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">485–</span>516, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009059177800600404">10.1177/009059177800600404</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150956456">150956456</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=General+Will+Before+Rousseau&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E485-%3C%2Fspan%3E516&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009059177800600404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150956456%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Riley, Patrick (ed.) (2001). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). <i>Introducing Political Philosophy</i>. Icon Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-450-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-450-4">978-1-84046-450-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1978), Masters, Roger (ed.), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onsocialcontract00rous"><i>On the Social Contract, with the Geneva Manuscript and Political Economy</i></a></span>, translated by Masters, Judith R., New York: St Martin's Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-69446-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-69446-3"><bdi>978-0-312-69446-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Social+Contract%2C+with+the+Geneva+Manuscript+and+Political+Economy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-312-69446-3&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonsocialcontract00rous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1794). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RPBcAAAAcAAJ"><i>Letters on the Elements of Botany: Addressed to a Lady</i></a>. Translated by Martyn, Thomas (4th ed.). Cambridge: B. and J. White. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021532/https://books.google.com/books?id=RPBcAAAAcAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+on+the+Elements+of+Botany%3A+Addressed+to+a+Lady&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=B.+and+J.+White&rft.date=1794&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRPBcAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Scott, John T., ed. (2006), <i>Jean Jacques Rousseau</i>, vol. 3: Critical Assessments of Leading Political Philosophers, New York: Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean+Jacques+Rousseau&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Schaeffer, Denise. (2014) <i>Rousseau on Education, Freedom, and Judgment</i>. Pennsylvania State University Press</li> <li>Simpson, Matthew (2006). <i>Rousseau's Theory of Freedom</i>. London: Continuum Books</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (2007), <i>Rousseau: Guide for the Perplexed</i>, London, England: Continuum Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%3A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Continuum+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Starobinski" title="Jean Starobinski">Starobinski, Jean</a> (1988). <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss,_Leo" class="mw-redirect" title="Strauss, Leo">Strauss, Leo</a> (1953). <i>Natural Right and History</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, chap. 6A</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Strauss, Leo (1947), "On the Intention of Rousseau", <i>Social Research</i>, <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">455–</span>487</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Research&rft.atitle=On+the+Intention+of+Rousseau&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E455-%3C%2Fspan%3E487&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Strong, Tracy B. (2002). <i>Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Politics of the Ordinary</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Talmon" title="Jacob Talmon">Talmon, Jacob R.</a> (1952). <i>The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy</i>. New York: W.W. Norton.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Virioli, Maurizio (2003) [1988], <i>Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the "Well-Ordered Society"</i>, translated by Hanson, Derek, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53138-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53138-2"><bdi>978-0-521-53138-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau+and+the+%22Well-Ordered+Society%22&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53138-2&rft.aulast=Virioli&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Williams, David Lay (2007). <i>Rousseau's Platonic Enlightenment</i>. Pennsylvania State University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (2014), <i>Rousseau's "Social Contract": An Introduction</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+%22Social+Contract%22%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David+Lay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wokler" title="Robert Wokler">Wokler, Robert</a>. (1995). <i>Rousseau</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">——— (2012), Garsten, Bryan (ed.), <i>Rousseau, the Age of Enlightenment, and Their Legacies</i>, introduction by Christopher Brooke</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%2C+the+Age+of+Enlightenment%2C+and+Their+Legacies&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Wokler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wraight, Christopher D. (2008), <i>Rousseau's The Social Contract: A Reader's Guide</i>. London: Continuum Books.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output 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/></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-width:1px; border-color:#E0E0E0; width:20em; background-color:#FFF; margin:0.2em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:1.2em; background-color:#E0E0E0; padding-top:0.2em; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Archives at</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.4em; padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <table class="infobox-subbox"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:33%;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">University of Toronto Archives & Records Management Services, <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_de_Gen%C3%A8ve" title="Bibliothèque de Genève">Bibliothèque de Genève</a> <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6527?uselang=en#P485" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:33%;">Identifiers</th><td class="infobox-data">MS COLL 00130 <span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6527?uselang=en#P485" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:33%;">Source</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/jean-jacques-rousseau-papers">Jean-Jacques Rousseau papers</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.4em; padding-bottom:0.4em; border-top:1px solid #E0E0E0;"> <a href="/wiki/Help:Archival_material" title="Help:Archival material">How to use archival material</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nb-helveticat.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/search?query=any,contains,%22Jean-Jacques+Rousseau%22&tab=LibraryCatalog&search_scope=MyInstitution&vid=41SNL_51_INST:helveticat&lang=de&offset=0">Publications by and about Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> in the catalogue Helveticat of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Library" title="Swiss National Library">Swiss National Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/creator/15">Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_Heritage_Library" title="Biodiversity Heritage Library">Biodiversity Heritage Library</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6527#P4081" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/483">Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1286">Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Rousseau%2C%20Jean-Jacques%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rousseau%2C%20Jean-Jacques%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rousseau%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rousseau%2C%20Jean-Jacques%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau%22%29%20OR%20%28%221712-1778%22%20AND%20Rousseau%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/jean-jacques-rousseau">Works by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a href="https://imslp.org/wiki/Category:Rousseau,_Jean-Jacques" class="extiw" title="scores:Category:Rousseau, Jean-Jacques">Free scores by Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> at the <a href="/wiki/International_Music_Score_Library_Project" title="International Music Score Library Project">International Music Score Library Project</a> (IMSLP)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/rousseau">"Jean-Jacques Rousseau"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jean-Jacques+Rousseau&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Frousseau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rousseau, Jean Jacques"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rousseau,_Jean_Jacques">"Rousseau, Jean Jacques" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. <span class="nowrap">775–</span>778.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rousseau%2C+Jean+Jacques&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E775-%3C%2Fspan%3E778&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJean-Jacques+Rousseau" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau38" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Template:Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Template talk:Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jean-Jacques Rousseau"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jean-Jacques_Rousseau38" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Discourse on the Arts and Sciences">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_devin_du_village" title="Le devin du village">Le devin du village</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letter_to_M._D%27Alembert_on_Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles">Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julie,_or_the_New_Heloise" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie, or the New Heloise">Julie, or the New Heloise</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emile,_or_On_Education" title="Emile, or On Education">Emile, or On Education</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Project_for_Corsica" title="Constitutional Project for Corsica">Constitutional Project for Corsica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_(Rousseau)" title="Pygmalion (Rousseau)">Pygmalion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_the_Government_of_Poland" title="Considerations on the Government of Poland">Considerations on the Government of Poland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_the_Elements_of_Botany" title="Letters on the Elements of Botany">Letters on the Elements of Botany</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essay_on_the_Origin_of_Languages" title="Essay on the Origin of Languages">Essay on the Origin of Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues:_Rousseau,_Judge_of_Jean-Jacques" title="Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques">Dialogues: Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reveries_of_a_Solitary_Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Reveries of a Solitary Walker">Reveries of a Solitary Walker</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amour_de_soi" title="Amour de soi">Amour de soi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amour-propre" title="Amour-propre">Amour-propre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">General will</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Cantemir" title="Dimitrie Cantemir">Cantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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id="French_Revolution37757" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Constitutional monarchy</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Republic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_journals_appearing_under_the_French_Revolution" title="List of journals appearing under the French Revolution">Journals</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Museum</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Significant_civil_and_political_events_by_year5924" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Significant civil and political events by year</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1788</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Tiles" title="Day of the Tiles">Day of the Tiles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(7 Jun 1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Vizille" title="Assembly of Vizille">Assembly of Vizille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jul 1788)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1789</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">What Is the Third Estate?</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jan 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9veillon_riots" title="Réveillon riots">Réveillon riots</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Apr 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Convocation of the Estates General</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 May 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Dauphin_of_France#Illness" title="Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France">Death of the Dauphin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 June 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jun 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jul 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">Great Fear</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">Abolition of Feudalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–11 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">Women's March on Versailles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Oct 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Nationalization of the Church properties</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Nov 1789)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1790</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parlement#Abolition" title="Parlement">Abolition of the Parlements</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Feb–Jul 1790)</span></li> <li>Abolition of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility#The_abolition_of_privileges_during_the_French_Revolution" title="French nobility">Nobility</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Jun 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i> <small>(14 Jul 1790)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1791</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Jun 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">Champ de Mars massacre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jul 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Aug 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">The Constitution of 1791</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1792</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">France declares war</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Apr 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jul 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(1789%E2%80%931795)" title="Paris Commune (1789–1795)">Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jun 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">10th of August</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Aug 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sep 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First republic declared</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1793</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jan 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security" title="Committee of General Security">Committee of General Security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">Fall of the Girondists</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Jun 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat#Death" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Assassination of Marat</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jul 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Aug 1793)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(painting)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Sep 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#Trial_and_execution_(14–16_October_1793)" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette is guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(16 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution#The_Revolution_and_the_Church" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Anti-clerical laws</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(throughout the year)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1794</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton#Life" title="Georges Danton">Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins#Trial_and_execution" title="Camille Desmoulins">Desmoulins guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> guillotined <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">White Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Fall 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins#Fall_from_power" title="Jacobins">Closing of the Jacobin Club</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Nov 1794)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1795–6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal_Year_III" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III">Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Apr 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Aug 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directoire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1795–99)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">5 Oct 1795</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(May 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1797</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congress_of_Rastatt" title="Second Congress of Rastatt">Second Congress of Rastatt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1798</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Flor%C3%A9al_Year_VI" title="Law of 22 Floréal Year VI">Law of 22 Floréal Year VI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 May 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1799</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_30_Prairial_VII" title="Coup of 30 Prairial VII">Coup of 30 Prairial VII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Nov 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Dec 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Revolutionary_campaigns6992" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Revolutionary campaigns</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1792_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1792</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1792)" title="Siege of Thionville (1792)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Valmy</a></li> <li>Royalist Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée</a></li> <li>Dauphiné</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Goddess" title="Column of the Goddess">Lille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1792)" title="Siege of Mainz (1792)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1792)" title="Siege of Namur (1792)">Namur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1793_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1793</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Battle of Neerwinden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Famars" title="Battle of Famars">Battle of Famars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">Expedition to Sardinia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaiserslautern" title="Battle of Kaiserslautern">Battle of Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1793)" title="Siege of Mainz (1793)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Battle of Wattignies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Battle of Hondschoote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bellegarde_(1793)" title="Siege of Bellegarde (1793)">Siege of Bellegarde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peyrestortes" title="Battle of Peyrestortes">Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">First Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Truillas" title="Battle of Truillas">Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">Second Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26–27 Dec 1793)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1794_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1794</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-en-Cauchies" title="Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies">Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Boulou" title="Second Battle of Boulou">Second Battle of Boulou</a> (Pyrenees) <span style="font-size:85%;">(30 Apr – 1 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tourcoing" title="Battle of Tourcoing">Battle of Tourcoing</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tournay_(1794)" title="Battle of Tournay (1794)">Battle of Tournay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June" title="Glorious First of June">Glorious First of June</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Battle of Fleurus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldenhoven_(1794)" title="Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)">Battle of Aldenhoven</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Oct 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1795_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1795 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1795</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1796_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1796</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lonato" title="Battle of Lonato">Battle of Lonato</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3–4 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Theiningen" title="Battle of Theiningen">Battle of Theiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neresheim" title="Battle of Neresheim">Battle of Neresheim</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amberg" title="Battle of Amberg">Battle of Amberg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Battle of Würzburg">Battle of Würzburg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovereto" title="Battle of Rovereto">Battle of Rovereto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">First Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emmendingen" title="Battle of Emmendingen">Battle of Emmendingen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(19 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schliengen" title="Battle of Schliengen">Battle of Schliengen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bassano" title="Second Battle of Bassano">Second Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calliano" title="Battle of Calliano">Battle of Calliano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6–7 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15–17 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Ireland_(1796)" title="French expedition to Ireland (1796)">Ireland expedition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1797_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1797 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1797</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_13_January_1797" title="Action of 13 January 1797">Naval Engagement off Brittany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14–15 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_25_January_1797" title="Action of 25 January 1797">Battle of the Bay of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leoben" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Leoben">Treaty of Leoben</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuwied_(1797)" title="Battle of Neuwied (1797)">Battle of Neuwied</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Oct 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1798_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1798</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 January – 17 May 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French Invasion of Egypt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798#French_landing" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May – 23 Sep 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1799</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Mar – 21 May 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrach" title="Battle of Ostrach">Battle of Ostrach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stockach_(1799)" title="Battle of Stockach (1799)">Battle of Stockach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano" title="Battle of Magnano">Battle of Magnano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)" title="Battle of Cassano (1799)">Battle of Cassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27–28 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Zurich" title="First Battle of Zurich">First Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–7 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)" title="Battle of Trebbia (1799)">Battle of Trebbia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17–20 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_(1799)" title="Battle of Novi (1799)">Battle of Novi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Aug 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Zurich" title="Second Battle of Zurich">Second Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25–26 Sep 1799)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1800_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1800 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1800</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Alessandria" title="Convention of Alessandria">Convention of Alessandria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Battle of Hohenlinden</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Dec 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1800–02)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1801_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1801 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1801</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Feb 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Florence" title="Treaty of Florence">Treaty of Florence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Mar 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_campaign" title="Algeciras campaign">Algeciras campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Jul 1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1802</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1802)" title="Treaty of Paris (1802)">Treaty of Paris</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jun 1802)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Military_leaders7320" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military leaders</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><img alt="French First Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army" title="French Revolutionary Army">French Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustache_Charles_d%27Aoust" title="Eustache Charles d'Aoust">Eustache Charles d'Aoust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Pierre_Augereau" title="Charles-Pierre Augereau">Charles-Pierre Augereau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Beauharnais" title="Alexandre de Beauharnais">Alexandre de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res" title="Jean-Baptiste Bessières">Jean-Baptiste Bessières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Brune" title="Guillaume Brune">Guillaume Brune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Carteaux" title="Jean François Carteaux">Jean François Carteaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Championnet" title="Jean-Étienne Championnet">Jean-Étienne Championnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bertin_Gaston_Chapuis_de_Tourville" title="Charles Bertin Gaston Chapuis de Tourville">Chapuis de Tourville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine" title="Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine">Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout" title="Louis-Nicolas Davout">Louis-Nicolas Davout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Louis Desaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier" title="Jacques François Dugommier">Jacques François Dugommier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas" title="Thomas-Alexandre Dumas">Thomas-Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Charles François Dumouriez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Barth%C3%A9lemy_Ferino" title="Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino">Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_de_Flers" title="Louis-Charles de Flers">Louis-Charles de Flers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grenier" title="Paul Grenier">Paul Grenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Grouchy,_marquis_de_Grouchy" title="Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy">Emmanuel de Grouchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maurice_Hatry" title="Jacques Maurice Hatry">Jacques Maurice Hatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Hoche" title="Lazare Hoche">Lazare Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Jourdan" title="Jean-Baptiste Jourdan">Jean-Baptiste Jourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Christophe_de_Kellermann" title="François Christophe de Kellermann">François Christophe de Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Choderlos_de_Laclos" title="Pierre Choderlos de Laclos">Pierre Choderlos de Laclos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lannes" title="Jean Lannes">Jean Lannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lecourbe" title="Claude Lecourbe">Claude Lecourbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="François Joseph Lefebvre">François Joseph Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald" title="Étienne Macdonald">Étienne Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Marbot" title="Jean-Antoine Marbot">Jean-Antoine Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot" title="Marcellin Marbot">Marcellin Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9verin_Marceau" title="François Séverin Marceau">François Séverin Marceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na" title="André Masséna">André Masséna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon-Adrien_Jeannot_de_Moncey" title="Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey">Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau" title="Jean Victor Marie Moreau">Jean Victor Marie Moreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise" class="mw-redirect" title="Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise">Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Jacques_Osten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Jacques Osten (page does not exist)">Pierre-Jacques Osten</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jacques_Osten" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Jacques Osten">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot" title="Nicolas Oudinot">Nicolas Oudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine-Dominique_de_P%C3%A9rignon" title="Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon">Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr" title="Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr">Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer" title="Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer">Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Mathieu-Philibert_S%C3%A9rurier" title="Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier">Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Souham" title="Joseph Souham">Joseph Souham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gabriel_Suchet" title="Louis-Gabriel Suchet">Louis-Gabriel Suchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Belgrand_de_Vaubois" title="Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois">Belgrand de Vaubois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Victor_Perrin" title="Claude-Victor Perrin">Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Navy#18th_century" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Alexandre_L%C3%A9on_Durand_Linois" title="Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois">Charles-Alexandre Linois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Wars">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Alvinczi" title="József Alvinczi">József Alvinczi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9bastien_Charles_Joseph_de_Croix,_Count_of_Clerfayt" title="François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt">Count of Clerfayt <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Aloys_zu_F%C3%BCrstenberg" title="Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg">Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_von_Hotze" title="Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze">Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze <span style="font-size:85%;">(Swiss)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf,_Count_von_Kalckreuth" title="Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth">Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kray" title="Paul Kray">Pál Kray <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene,_Prince_of_Lambesc" title="Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc">Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc <span style="font-size:85%;">(French)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Anton_Karl,_Count_Baillet_de_Latour" title="Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour">Maximilian Baillet de Latour <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack von Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ritter_von_Otto" title="Rudolf Ritter von Otto">Rudolf Ritter von Otto <span style="font-size:85%;">(Saxon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Josias_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Vitus_von_Quosdanovich" title="Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich">Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heinrich_XV_of_Reuss-Plauen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen">Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_von_Szoboszl%C3%B3" title="Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló">Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_Sebottendorf" title="Karl Philipp Sebottendorf">Karl Philipp Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_Sigmund_von_Wurmser" title="Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser">Dagobert von Wurmser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Kingdom of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abercromby" title="Ralph Abercromby">Ralph Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Saumarez,_1st_Baron_de_Saumarez" title="James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez">James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick,_Duke_of_York_and_Albany" title="Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany">Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V, Prince of Orange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Louis,_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen">Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov" title="Alexander Korsakov">Alexander Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rosenberg" title="Andrei Rosenberg">Andrei Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)#Charles_IV,_decline_and_fall_(1788–1808)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Firm%C3%ADn_de_Carvajal,_Conde_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión">Luis Firmin de Carvajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ricardos" title="Antonio Ricardos">Antonio Ricardos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other_significant_figures_and_factions5821" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other significant figures and factions</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Society_of_1789" title="Patriotic Society of 1789">Patriotic Society of 1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt" class="mw-redirect" title="François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt">François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Ren%C3%A9_Guy_le_Chapelier" title="Isaac René Guy le Chapelier">Isaac René Guy le Chapelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">monarchiens</a></i></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Elliott" title="Grace Elliott">Grace Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaud_II_de_La_Porte" title="Arnaud II de La Porte">Arnaud de La Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas" title="Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas">Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Antoine Barnave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9odore-Victor,_comte_de_Lameth" title="Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth">Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Malo_Fran%C3%A7ois_Lameth" title="Charles Malo François Lameth">Charles Malo François Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ch%C3%A9nier" title="André Chénier">André Chénier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Jordan_(politician)" title="Camille Jordan (politician)">Camille Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Roland_de_la_Plati%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière">Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a></li> <li>Father <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Henri Grégoire">Henri Grégoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Jean_H%C3%A9rault_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles">Marie Jean Hérault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Treilhard" title="Jean Baptiste Treilhard">Jean Baptiste Treilhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victurnien_Vergniaud" title="Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud">Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Debry" title="Jean Debry">Jean Debry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">The Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques-R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" title="Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès">de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Cambon" title="Pierre-Joseph Cambon">Pierre-Joseph Cambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Merlin" title="Antoine Christophe Merlin">Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Jean Joseph Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Neufch%C3%A2teau" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Neufchâteau">François de Neufchâteau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Mountain" title="The Mountain">Montagnards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Louis Antoine de Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_le_Peletier,_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois" title="Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois">Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Voulland" title="Jean-Henri Voulland">Jean-Henri Voulland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Antoine_Merlin_de_Douai" title="Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai">Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Quentin_Fouquier-Tinville" title="Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville">Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas" title="Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas">Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Guillaume_Alexis_Vadier" title="Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier">Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Amar" title="Jean-Pierre-André Amar">Jean-Pierre-André Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine,_comte_Prieur-Duvernois" title="Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois">Prieur de la Côte-d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Prieur de la Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Romme" title="Gilbert Romme">Gilbert Romme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bon_Saint-Andr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bon Saint-André">Jean Bon Saint-André</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien" title="Jean-Lambert Tallien">Jean-Lambert Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Enrag%C3%A9s" title="Enragés">Enragés</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne" title="Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne">Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette" title="Pierre Gaspard Chaumette">Pierre Gaspard Chaumette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro" title="Antoine-François Momoro">Antoine-François Momoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent" title="François-Nicolas Vincent">François-Nicolas Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Chabot" title="François Chabot">François Chabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Gobel" title="Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel">Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot" title="François Hanriot">François Hanriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Jacques Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas-Marie_Maillard" title="Stanislas-Marie Maillard">Stanislas-Marie Maillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Varlet" title="Jean-François Varlet">Jean-François Varlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Th%C3%A9ophile_Victor_Leclerc" title="Jean Théophile Victor Leclerc">Theophile Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Lacombe" title="Claire Lacombe">Claire Lacombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVII" title="Louis XVII">Louis XVII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Henri, Prince of Condé">Louis Henri, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé">Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fesch" title="Joseph Fesch">Joseph Fesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A9sa_Tallien" title="Thérésa Tallien">Thérésa Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste_Target" title="Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target">Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Th%C3%A9ot" title="Catherine Théot">Catherine Théot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Louise_of_Savoy,_Princesse_de_Lamballe" title="Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe">Madame de Lamballe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_du_Barry" title="Madame du Barry">Madame du Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Louis de Breteuil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">de Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chouan" title="Jean Chouan">Jean Chouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_Club" title="Panthéon Club">Panthéon Club</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Truth" title="Society of the Friends of Truth">Social Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Influential_thinkers636" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Influential thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Les Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis_Cloots" title="Anacharsis Cloots">Anacharsis Cloots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Claude François Daunou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Cultural_impact1319" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cultural impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_France" title="Cockade of France">Cockade of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag of France</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscadin" title="Muscadin">Muscadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Reason" title="Temple of Reason">Temple of Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incroyables_and_merveilleuses" title="Incroyables and merveilleuses">Incroyables and merveilleuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">Films</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property479" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property479" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism556" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanticism" title="Template talk:Romanticism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanticism556" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </p> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_education231" 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id="Philosophy_of_education231" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_education" title="Category:Philosophers of education">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Fr%C3%B6bel" title="Friedrich Fröbel">Fröbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart" title="Johann Friedrich Herbart">Herbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Montessori" title="Maria Montessori">Montessori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi" title="Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi">Pestalozzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piaget</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_education" title="Category:Philosophers of education">more...</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centred_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Student-centred learning">Student-centred learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">What to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">Critical pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Educational existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_perennialism" title="Educational perennialism">Educational perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_progressivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational progressivism">Progressive education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social reconstructionism">Social reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">How and whom to teach</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_education" title="Compulsory education">Compulsory education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of education)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_schooling" title="Criticism of schooling">Criticism of schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_education" title="Humanistic education">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montessori_education" title="Montessori education">Montessori education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unschooling" title="Unschooling">Unschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldorf_education" title="Waldorf education">Waldorf education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_education" title="Category:Philosophy of education">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121451116">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100184045">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/30449/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJv8J8HFcRcXTqbDqKh8md">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118603426">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 1712-1778"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79008220">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119228797">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119228797">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00454830">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rousseau, Jean-Jacques <1712-1778>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV006663">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35465222">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990007193&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000085770&CON_LNG=ENG">Russia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX976371">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/20878">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p339698268">Netherlands</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068310846">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90053125">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000027345&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000005743&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000040520">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=61647">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000026136">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199623614">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/tr5780vc4dr8lkm">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810596336205606">Poland</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810569684905606">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/72344">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007267371605171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000057267">Finland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058519982706706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14141410">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00157716?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipni.org/ipni/advAuthorSearch.do?find_abbreviation=Rousseau">International Plant Names Index</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500250225">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/4a7f3a02-b1ba-4e26-8e30-f580ece1150c">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/62b4eeff-837c-4000-8c48-995ba35bb8ef">KulturNav</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/names/102279">Discography of American Historical Recordings</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118603426">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmlo.de/r1589">BMLO</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/962783">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118603426.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118603426">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028202368">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009547">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tls.theaterwissenschaft.ch/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau">Theaterlexikon</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6r49ps1">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/67075">RISM</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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