CINXE.COM

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transmission of molecular signals from a cell's exterior to its interior. Signals received by cells must be transmitted effectively into the cell to ensure an appropriate response. This step is initiated by cell-surface receptors.</p> <div class="pharm_sub_cats"><h3>Products for Signal Transduction</h3><ul class="tile_column_1"><li><a href="/cell-biology/a-kinase-anchoring-protiens" title="Browse products for A-Kinase-Anchoring Proteins">A-Kinase-Anchoring Proteins</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/calcium-signaling" title="Browse products for Calcium Signaling">Calcium Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/complement" title="Browse products for Complement">Complement</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/cytokine-and-nf-kappab-signaling" title="Browse products for Cytokine and NF-κB Signaling">Cytokine and NF-κB Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/endocytosis" title="Browse products for Endocytosis">Endocytosis</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/exocytosis" title="Browse products for Exocytosis">Exocytosis</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/gap-channels" title="Browse products for Gap Channels">Gap Channels</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/growth-factor-receptors" title="Browse products for Growth Factor Receptors">Growth Factor Receptors</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/heat-shock-proteins" title="Browse products for Heat Shock Proteins">Heat Shock Proteins</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/hedgehog-signaling" title="Browse products for Hedgehog Signaling">Hedgehog Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/pharmacology/heterotrimeric-g-protein-gtpases" title="Browse products for Heterotrimeric G-protein GTPases">Heterotrimeric G-protein GTPases</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/hippo-yap-taz-signaling" title="Browse products for Hippo and YAP/TAZ Signaling">Hippo and YAP/TAZ Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/immune-checkpoints" title="Browse products for Immune Checkpoints">Immune Checkpoints</a></li></ul><ul class="tile_column_2"><li><a href="/cell-biology/inflammasomes" title="Browse products for Inflammasomes">Inflammasomes</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/inositol-and-camp-signaling" title="Browse products for Inositol and cAMP Signaling">Inositol and cAMP Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/mapk-signaling" title="Browse products for MAPK Signaling">MAPK Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/nitric-oxide-signaling" title="Browse products for Nitric Oxide Signaling">Nitric Oxide Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/notch-signaling" title="Browse products for Notch Signaling">Notch Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/pi-3-kinase-and-akt-signaling" title="Browse products for PI 3-Kinase/Akt Signaling">PI 3-Kinase/Akt Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/post-translational-modifications" title="Browse products for Post-translational Modifications">Post-translational Modifications</a></li><li><a href="/pharmacology/proteasome" title="Browse products for Proteasome">Proteasome</a></li><li><a href="/pharmacology/small-monomeric-gtpases" title="Browse products for Small Monomeric GTPases">Small Monomeric GTPases</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/sting-dependent-signaling" title="Browse products for STING-Dependent Signaling">STING-Dependent Signaling</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/transcription-factors" title="Browse products for Transcription Factors">Transcription Factors</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/translocation" title="Browse products for Translocation">Translocation</a></li><li><a href="/cell-biology/wnt-signaling" title="Browse products for Wnt Signaling">Wnt Signaling</a></li></ul></div> <div class="pharm_long_desc"><h5>Signal Transduction Pathways</h5> <p>Transmission is continued either by a series of biochemical changes within the cell or by modification of the cell membrane potential by the movement of ions in or out of the cell. Receptors that initiate biochemical changes can do so either directly via intrinsic enzymatic activities within the receptor or by activating intracellular messenger molecules.</p> <p>Signal transducing receptors are of four general classes:</p> <ol> <li>Receptors that penetrate the plasma membrane and have intrinsic enzymatic activity or are enzyme associated (<a href='/pharmacology/enzyme-linked-receptors' title='Browse products for Enzyme-Linked Receptors'>Enzyme-linked Receptors</a>)</li> <li>Receptors that are coupled, inside the cell, to G proteins (<a href='/pharmacology/7-tm-receptors' title='Browse products for 7-TM Receptors'>7-TM Receptors</a>)</li> <li>Receptors that are found intracellularly and upon ligand binding directly alter gene transcription (<a href='/pharmacology/nuclear-receptors' title='Browse products for Nuclear Receptors'>Nuclear Receptors</a>)</li> <li><a href='/pharmacology/ligand-gated-ion-channels' title='Browse products for Ligand-gated ion channels'>Ligand-gated ion channels</a></li> </ol> <p>The intracellular component of signal transduction is highly receptor specific, thereby maintaining the specificity of the incoming signal inside the cell. Signal transduction pathways amplify the incoming signal by a signaling cascade using a network of enzymes that act on one another in specific ways to ultimately generate a precise and appropriate physiological response by the cell. Signal transduction involves altering the behavior of proteins in the cascade, in effect turning them on or off like a switch. Adding or removing phosphates is a fundamental mechanism for altering the shape, and therefore the behavior, of a protein. Several small molecules within the cell act as intracellular messengers (also known as second messengers). These include cAMP, cGMP, nitric oxide, lipids and Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions. Activated receptors stimulate second messenger production, which in turn activate other enzymes and so the cascade continues. </p> <h5>Physiology and Disease</h5> <p>One of the most important functions of cell signaling is to control and maintain normal physiological balance within the body. Activation of different signaling pathways leads to diverse physiological responses, such as cell proliferation, death, differentiation, and metabolism. In the last few years signal transduction therapy has become one of the most important areas of modern drug research. In a healthy organism, the processes of cellular growth and differentiation are tightly controlled, but in the pathological state, are uncoupled in such a way as to result in further damage-causing signals, or the growth of the malfunctioning cells. Proliferation of damaged or malfunctioning cells is often a key factor in the generation of disorders such as <a href='/research-area/cancer-research' title='Browse products for Cancer'>cancer</a>, infectious diseases, inflammation, arteriosclerosis, <a href='/research-area/arthritis-research' title='Browse products for Arthritis'>arthritis</a>, and <a href='/research-area/neuroscience-research' title='Browse products for neurological disease'>neurodegenerative diseases</a>.</p></div> </div> <div id="sidebar" class="col-xs-12 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-3 col-xl-3"> <div class="resources_sidebar_container"> <div class="fp_four_box"> <div class="fp_box_wrapper"><h3>Featured New Products</h3> <div class="fp_featured_product"><a href="https://www.tocris.com/products/corafluortm-1-haloalkane_8817">8817 | CoraFluor™ 1, Haloalkane</a><br /> Cell impermeable terbium cryptate FRET donor for TR-FRET assay development, with chloroalkane ligand</div> <div class="fp_featured_product"><a 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