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href="#1516–1556_Charles_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>1516–1556 Charles I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1516–1556_Charles_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1516–1556 Charles I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1516–1556_Charles_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Escudo_gold" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escudo_gold"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Escudo gold</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escudo_gold-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tepuzque_gold" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tepuzque_gold"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Tepuzque gold</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tepuzque_gold-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Pillars_type_silver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Pillars_type_silver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Early Pillars type silver</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Pillars_type_silver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Type_1536" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_1536"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Type 1536</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_1536-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_1542" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_1542"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Type 1542</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_1542-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vellón_coins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vellón_coins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Vellón coins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vellón_coins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1556–1598_Philip_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1556–1598_Philip_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>1556–1598 Philip II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1556–1598_Philip_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1556–1598 Philip II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1556–1598_Philip_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monetary_law_of_1566" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_law_of_1566"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Monetary law of 1566</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_law_of_1566-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1572_cross_type_silver" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1572_cross_type_silver"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>1572 cross type silver</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1572_cross_type_silver-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1598–1621_Philip_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1598–1621_Philip_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>1598–1621 Philip III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1598–1621_Philip_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1621–1665_Philip_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1621–1665_Philip_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>1621–1665 Philip IV</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1621–1665_Philip_IV-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1621–1665 Philip IV subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1621–1665_Philip_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coinage_in_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_in_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Coinage in Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_in_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage_in_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_in_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Coinage in America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_in_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philip's_early_coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip's_early_coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Philip's early coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip's_early_coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1651_pillars-and-waves_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1651_pillars-and-waves_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>1651 pillars-and-waves type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1651_pillars-and-waves_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1665–1700_Charles_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1665–1700_Charles_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>1665–1700 Charles II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1665–1700_Charles_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1665–1700 Charles II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1665–1700_Charles_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Currency_reform_of_1686" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currency_reform_of_1686"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Currency reform of 1686</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currency_reform_of_1686-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage_in_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_in_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Coinage in America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_in_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1700–1746_Philip_V" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1700–1746_Philip_V"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>1700–1746 Philip V</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1700–1746_Philip_V-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1700–1746 Philip V subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1700–1746_Philip_V-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Milled_pillar_silver_of_1732" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milled_pillar_silver_of_1732"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Milled pillar silver of 1732</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milled_pillar_silver_of_1732-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milled_gold_of_1732" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milled_gold_of_1732"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Milled gold of 1732</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milled_gold_of_1732-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1746–1759_Ferdinand_VI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1746–1759_Ferdinand_VI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>1746–1759 Ferdinand VI</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1746–1759_Ferdinand_VI-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1746–1759 Ferdinand VI subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1746–1759_Ferdinand_VI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coinage_in_Spain_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_in_Spain_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Coinage in Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_in_Spain_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage_in_America_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_in_America_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Coinage in America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_in_America_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1759–1788_Charles_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1759–1788_Charles_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>1759–1788 Charles III</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1759–1788_Charles_III-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 1759–1788 Charles III subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-1759–1788_Charles_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coinage_type_of_1759" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_type_of_1759"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Coinage type of 1759</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_type_of_1759-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_dollars_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_dollars_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Spanish dollars in China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_dollars_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage_of_1772" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_of_1772"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Coinage of 1772</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_of_1772-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coinage_of_1786" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage_of_1786"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Coinage of 1786</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage_of_1786-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1788–1808_Charles_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1788–1808_Charles_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>1788–1808 Charles IV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1788–1808_Charles_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1808–1821_Ferdinand_VII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1808–1821_Ferdinand_VII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>1808–1821 Ferdinand VII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1808–1821_Ferdinand_VII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetary_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Monetary legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Technical summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Mints</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_references_consulted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_references_consulted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Other references consulted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_references_consulted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg/180px-Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg/270px-Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg/360px-Spanish_coin_found_at_Padre_Island_National_Seashore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> Spanish coin from the <a href="/wiki/San_Esteban_(1554_shipwreck)" title="San Esteban (1554 shipwreck)">1554 shipwreck</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <p>This article provides an outline of the <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Spanish America</a> (<i>las Indias</i>, the Indies) from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization</a> in the 15th century until <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American independencies</a> in the 19th. This great realm was divided into the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a> (capital: <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>), which came to include all Spanish territory north of <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroyalty of Peru</a> (capital: Lima), which included Panama and all Spanish territory in South America except Venezuela. The monetary system of Spanish America, originally identical to that of Spain, soon diverged and took on a distinctive character of its own, which it passed on to the independent nations that followed after. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1480–1516_Ferdinand_and_Isabella"><span id="1480.E2.80.931516_Ferdinand_and_Isabella"></span>1480–1516 <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Ferdinand and Isabella</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1480–1516 Ferdinand and Isabella"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1497_Medina_del_Campo">1497 Medina del Campo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1497 Medina del Campo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Real (R) = 34 Maravedíes (mrs) </p><p>After the Spanish kingdoms were united under <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand of Aragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella of Castile</a> and soon after the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Granada">conquest of Granada</a>, the Spanish monetary system was reformed. This caused some damage to the kingdom. The <i><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">maravedí</a></i> had served as the Spanish money of account since the 11th century, but on June 2, 1497 the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ordinance_of_Medina_del_Campo_(1497)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ordinance of Medina del Campo (1497) (page does not exist)">Ordinance of Medina del Campo</a> (site of the great international fairs) made the real the unit of account, with the maravedí defined as a fraction of it (the 34th part). The standard silver coin became the <i><a href="/wiki/Spanish_real" title="Spanish real">real</a></i> of 3·434 g, 0·9306 fine (3·195 g silver), rated 34 maravedíes. There was also a half, a 3, and a 6-real coin. This reform adopted the <i>excelente</i> (called <i>ducado</i> from 1504) for gold, a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Ducat" title="Ducat">Venetian ducat</a>, 3·521 g, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">23<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> carats fine (3484·442 mg gold), rated 375 maravedíes. A third standard coin was the <i>blanca</i>, a small coin of 1·198 g, worth half a maravedí. The blanca was a copper coin containing a trace of silver, a type of coin known as <a href="/wiki/Billon_(alloy)" title="Billon (alloy)">billon</a>, <i>wellón</i> in Spanish. This was the monetary system that the Spaniards brought to the New World. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1502_Copper_coins_for_Santo_Domingo">1502 Copper coins for Santo Domingo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1502 Copper coins for Santo Domingo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first distinctive coins minted for Spanish America were copper 4-maravedí pieces authorized for <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a> by Ferdinand on December 20, 1505 (later confirmed by his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile" title="Joanna of Castile">Johanna</a>, on May 10, 1531). These coins were minted in Spain (at <a href="/wiki/Burgos" title="Burgos">Burgos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>) and shipped to Santo Domingo (<a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>), and subsequently also to Mexico and Panama. The first were struck 1502–1504 in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, with an F-I monogram obverse and pillars reverse. Ferdinand died in 1516, and Johanna's son Charles became King Carlos I of Aragon and Regent of Castille, so the last coppers struck in the early 1520s had a Carlos-Johanna monogram. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1516–1556_Charles_I"><span id="1516.E2.80.931556_Charles_I"></span>1516–1556 <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1516–1556 Charles I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Escudo_gold">Escudo gold</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Escudo gold"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor (as Karl V), reformed the gold coinage in 1537, replacing the ducado with the <i>escudo</i> or <i>corona</i>, essentially a debased ducat. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">escudo</a>, 24 mm, 3·383 g, 0·9167 fine (3101·117 mg gold), was rated 350 mrs. The ducado was not minted after 1537 but continued as a money of account (Ducado = 375 Maravedíes), especially for foreign exchange. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tepuzque_gold">Tepuzque gold</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tepuzque gold"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charles sent silver coins to <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> in 1523, but this was insufficient for local commerce. A sort of "coin" was produced at Mexico City: gold discs stamped with their weight and fineness and sometimes with royal countermarks. These discs are known as <i>Tepuzque</i> (the Aztec word for copper) gold or <i>peso de oro</i>. Although not strictly coins, they did serve as money and circulated as late as 1591. No examples are known to exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Pillars_type_silver">Early Pillars type silver</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Pillars type silver"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mexico_City#History" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> was growing and by 1525 it was petitioning the crown for a mint to produce coin locally in order to facilitate trade. This wish was granted by royal ordinance of May 11, 1535 and a mint opened and began producing silver coins at Mexico City in April 1536. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_1536">Type 1536</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Type 1536"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first silver struck in the Indies (Spanish America), known as the pillar type because it depicted the <a href="/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules" title="Pillars of Hercules">pillars of Hercules</a>, were hand struck, typically on a full-sized round planchet of even thickness. <i>Obv</i>.: the crowned shield of Leon and Castile, quartered with castle and lion, with the pomegranate of Granada at the point of the shield, and on either side a mintmark (M for Mexico), the rim inscribed KAROLVS ET IOHANA REGES. <i>Rev</i>.: two crowned columns (pillars of Hercules) with PLVS (for <i><a href="/wiki/Plus_Ultra_(motto)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plus Ultra (motto)">plus ultra</a></i>) on a banner and the value (dots or a number) between them, the rim continuing the inscription with HISPANIARVM ET INDIARVM. The full inscription appears only on the larger coins, becoming more abbreviated as coins size decreases. The small quarter real has a crowned initial K without mintmark obverse (instead of the shield); the half real had the initials K I and the mintmark below. The assayer's initial appears either on the reverse between the column bases (R or G), or on the obverse in place of one of the two mintmarks (P or F). </p><p>Struck at Mexico City between 1536 and 1542, undated.<br /> Denominations:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>, 1, 2, and 3 reales. (These coins are rare; perhaps only 300—400 specimens survive.) The 2 and 3-real coins were confused because of their similar size, so the 3 reales was discontinued in 1537. The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> real was unpopular because of its small size; it was not minted after 1540. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_1542">Type 1542</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Type 1542"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reverse of the design was modified in 1542, when waves were placed between the two pillars and the full motto PLVS VLTRA, without a banner, appeared across the field. </p><p>Struck at Mexico City (1542–1572), Santo Domingo (1542–1564), and <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> (1568–1572); undated.<br /> Denomination: 1, 2, and 4 reales. (At least 2,500 specimens of this series survive.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vellón_coins"><span id="Vell.C3.B3n_coins"></span>Vellón coins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vellón coins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vellón (copper) coins of 2 and 4 maravedíes were minted at Mexico City (and evidently at Santo Domingo 1542–1556), authorized June 28, 1542 by Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Mendoza" title="Antonio de Mendoza">Mendoza</a>. They had K obverse and I reverse, each flanked by a lion and castle with the value under the I. They were rejected by the public, and they were withdrawn from circulation in 1556. Copper coins, which dominated currency circulation in Spain during the 17th century, were not minted again in Spanish America until the end of the 18th century. (The reason why copper coinage was not utilized in the Spanish colonies as small change is unresolved and a matter of dispute among economic historians. Royal regulations of 1565 specifically stated that neither gold nor wellón was authorized to be minted in the Indies.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1556–1598_Philip_II"><span id="1556.E2.80.931598_Philip_II"></span>1556–1598 <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1556–1598 Philip II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Philip II ascended the throne in 1556, Mexico City continued minting type 1542 coins in the name of Charles and Johanna. Lima, however, used the inscription PHILIPVS II. </p><p>From 1565 until 1821 there was an annual galleon convoy (<a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Galeones de Manila-Acapulco</a>) that crossed the Pacific from <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a> loaded with silver coin, which was exchanged at <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> in the Philippines for Oriental goods, chiefly for spices, silk, tea, porcelain, and lacquerware. </p><p>The output of the American mines was usually shipped to Spain in the form of ingots or of crude, temporary coins (known as <i><a href="/wiki/Macuquina" title="Macuquina">macuquinas</a></i> in Spanish and as "cobs" in English). Ingots and cobs were a way to account for the 20% (royal fifth, <i>quinto real</i>) of all treasure due the king. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monetary_law_of_1566">Monetary law of 1566</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monetary law of 1566"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The value of the escudo was raised on November 23, 1566 from 350 to 400 mrs, and multiples were introduced. The double escudo (<i>doblón</i>) was called a <i><a href="/wiki/Pistole" title="Pistole">pistole</a></i> in the rest of Europe and in England. The 8-escudo piece (<i>onza de oro</i>) was initially known as a double doubloon, then as a quadruple pistole, but eventually gained fame as the <a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Spanish doubloon</a>. This doubloon of 8 escudos eventually became the most common Spanish gold coin, equivalent to 16 silver pesos. </p><p>The 1566 reform also provided for a silver 8-real coin, the <i>real de a ocho</i> or <i>peso duro</i> (which had already been minted in Spain in limited number). This coin, 39–40 mm, 27·468 g, containing 25·561 g pure silver, was now struck in the Indies, at Lima from 1568 and at Mexico City from 1572. This coin was commonly known in English as the <i><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">piece of eight</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1572_cross_type_silver">1572 cross type silver</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1572 cross type silver"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new coin design of 1572 (new for America, but already being minted in Spain) is known in English as the shield or the cross type. It was known in Mexico as <i>maquina de papalote y cruz</i> (windmill and cross money). These were <a href="/wiki/Hammered_coinage" title="Hammered coinage">hammered coins</a>, produced quickly, and they generally deteriorated in quality throughout the period. Most cobs were soon melted down to produce coins, jewelry, etc. But many circulated as coin, but their crude appearance invited <a href="/wiki/Coin_clipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Coin clipping">clipping</a>, and many were soon lightweight. <i>Obv</i>.: the crowned Habsburg arms, with mintmark and assayer's initial left and the value right, the rim inscribed PHILIPVS II DEI GRATIA. <i>Rev</i>.: the quartered arms of Castile and León inside a quatrefoil design, the dividing lines emphasized, looking like a cross, the rim inscribed REX HISPANIARVM ET INDIARVM. The inscriptions are abbreviated on the smaller coins. Minor differences in design detail can be ascribed to a specific mint. </p><p>Struck at Mexico City 1572–1734, Santo Domingo 1572–1578, <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> 1572–1650, <a href="/wiki/La_Plata" title="La Plata">La Plata</a> 1573–1574, <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosí</a> 1574–1650, Panama 1580–1582, <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Colombia" title="Cartagena, Colombia">Cartagena (Colombia)</a> 1622–1650, and <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a> 1622–1650. This was the first New World type to be struck in the 8-real denomination.<br /> Denomination: 1, 2, 4, and 8 reales<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1598–1621_Philip_III"><span id="1598.E2.80.931621_Philip_III"></span>1598–1621 <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1598–1621 Philip III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trade with the Far East and bullion shipments to Spain required ever greater quantities of processed silver. The demand for quantity led to ever poorer workmanship during the 17th century, so that coins were struck on crude pieces of silver. These roughly made lumps of silver, irregular in shape and thickness but of standard weight and fineness, conveniently served as temporary coins (<i>macuquina</i> or "cobs"). </p><p>Philip III continued with the shield type of 1572 (inscribed PHILIPVS III), also in denominations of 1, 2, 4, and 8 reales. Mexico City coins were dated from 1607. Potosí, where the position of mint assayer was auctioned off to the highest bidder, only began dating coins in 1617, after a scandal involving an illegal debasement of the cob coinage (1610–1617). The dates were added to the obverse inscription, but because of the irregular shape of a cob, they are rarely legible. </p><p>Philip III unleashed the era of wellón in Spain in 1599, when his government attempted to remain solvent by authorizing wellón of pure copper. It was at this time that the flood of silver from Mexico and Peru peaked. The different kinds of coin—gold, silver, and wellón—had circulated at par since 1497, but heavy issues of wellón above its intrinsic value destroyed its customary acceptance at par, and began driving silver out of circulation. By 1620 accounts in Spain were being kept in reales of wellón, no longer in silver reales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1621–1665_Philip_IV"><span id="1621.E2.80.931665_Philip_IV"></span>1621–1665 <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1621–1665 Philip IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_in_Spain">Coinage in Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Coinage in Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The output of wellón in 1621–1626 was prodigious. Since 1599 over 15 billion maravedíes worth of wellón had been minted. Silver was constantly at a premium, and prices rose sharply. Then the influx of silver began declining in the 1630s as more silver was retained in America for colonial needs.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_in_America">Coinage in America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Coinage in America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old world coin types used in early America are known from archeological evidence of coin hoards commencing at Santo Domingo, circa 1500, and onward. Most any coin used in the old world could have migrated to the new, with explorers and settlers embarking from many ports with some local change in their purses. On arrival in America the first coins were walked about, able to be found hundreds of miles away from where their owners first stepped ashore. Coin types found in abundance, such as "blancas" of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>, were likely drivers of early commerce, and not mere keepsakes of the immigrants. The first new world mint was authorized in 1536 at New Spain, Mexico City. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philip's_early_coinage"><span id="Philip.27s_early_coinage"></span>Philip's early coinage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Philip's early coinage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Silver coins of the 1572 type were minted with PHILIPVS IV and a 1/2-real cob was added to the usual 1, 2, 4, and 8-real denominations. There were major gold deposits in Colombia; a mint opened at Santa Fe de Bogotá in 1620, and it produced the first gold coins (cobs) in Spanish America in 1622. Unlike silver, the gold coins show the king's portrait obverse. </p><p>A second illegal debasement of the cob coinage in the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1631–1648 was a major scandal. The public began refusing all Peruvian coins as potentially below standard. After this affair, the cross design was replaced at all the Peruvian mints by a new pillar-and-wave design. The reputation of coins from the Mexico City mint was unblemished, and cross type cobs continued to be produced there until 1734. Meanwhile, all Peruvian coins circulating in Spain were called to the mints in 1650 to be recoined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1651_pillars-and-waves_type">1651 pillars-and-waves type</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1651 pillars-and-waves type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the debasement scandals in Peru, cross type cobs were replaced by a type known as pillars and waves in English and as <i>Perulera</i> in Spanish. These hand struck cobs, like the cross type, degraded in quality as time passed. <i>Obv</i>.: a cross with lions and castles (similar to the 1572 reverse). <i>Rev</i>.: a pair of pillars with waves below intersected by three horizontal lines of text, forming a tic-tac-toe design, the top line with the mintmark, the value, and the assayer's initial (e.g. L 8 M = Lima, 8 reales, assayer M), the middle line PLVS VLTR[A] (abbreviated on the smaller coins), the bottom line the assayer's initial, the last two numerals of the year, and the mintmark (e.g. M 88 L = assayer M, 1688, Lima). </p><p>Struck at the Bogotá, Potosí, Cartagena, and Lima mints from 1651 on. Even after the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Milled_coinage" title="Milled coinage">milled coinage</a> in 1732, the Potosí mint continued to produce cobs of this type (the last in 1773). These cobs were generally accepted, but there were still occasional periods of debasement, and Peruvian coinage was usually considered inferior. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1665–1700_Charles_II"><span id="1665.E2.80.931700_Charles_II"></span>1665–1700 <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 1665–1700 Charles II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peso = 8 Reales </p><p>Escudo = 2 Pesos = 16 Reales </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Currency_reform_of_1686">Currency reform of 1686</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Currency reform of 1686"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The overissue of wellón coin in Spain had driven gold and silver from circulation. After the failure of numerous attempts to correct this situation, the currency finally underwent a major reform on October 14, 1686, when Spain devalued silver by ≈20% and adopted a dual coinage standard. The old silver standard (<i>plata vieja</i>) was maintained in the American colonies, but a new devalued silver (<i>plata nueva</i>) was adopted for circulation in Spain itself. The old piece of eight was valued at 10 reales of the new silver coin. The new 8-real coin was known as <i>peso sencillo</i>, the old piece of eight as <i>peso fuerte</i>. Foreign exchange was quoted in <i>pesos de cambio</i>, based on the old piece of eight, which continued to be produced in America. After this, the monetary systems of Spain and of Spanish America differed significantly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_in_America_2">Coinage in America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Coinage in America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1675 Mexico was finally authorized to mint gold, producing its first gold cobs in December 1679, Lima minted its first gold in 1696. </p><p>The silver coins of the 16th century bore an irregular row of dots near the rim, which became more regular during the 17th century as gold coins took on a rounder, standard shape. The circle of dots (<i>cordoncillo</i>) was placed closer to the edge. Silver coins followed the gold in adopting these improved details, but the piece of eight did not show a clear outline until 1709.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1700–1746_Philip_V"><span id="1700.E2.80.931746_Philip_V"></span>1700–1746 <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1700–1746 Philip V"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peso (peso fuerte, duro) = 8 <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Reales</a> </p><p>Onza de oro = 16 Pesos </p><p>Various Imperial <a href="/wiki/Thaler" title="Thaler">thalers</a>, called <i>dollars</i> in English, were familiar to North American colonists. The piece of eight had the same intrinsic value as the thaler and by the end of the 17th century it too was being called <i>dollar</i> (and was so designated in Jamaican monetary legislation of 1738). By the mid 18th century the piece of eight was commonly known in British North America as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Spanish dollar</a>. Colloquial terms used in New Spain were: <i>pataca</i> for the peso (real de a ocho), <i>tostón</i> for the medio peso (4 reales), and <i>peseta</i> for the 2 reales. </p><p>Gold circulation became more common in Spanish America after 1704, when the West Indies adopted a gold standard. </p><p>After 1716 the Spanish mints flooded Spain with debased silver based on the <i>real sencillo</i> of 3·067 g, containing 2·556 g silver. These silver coins were called <i>plata provincial</i>. The silver minted in America was now officially called <i>plata nacional</i>, but was also called <i>plata vieja</i> (old silver) or <i>plata gruesa</i> (heavy silver), and occasionally <i>plata doble</i> (double silver). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">British East India Company</a> had established a regular trade with China by 1720, paying for goods with Spanish silver. </p><p>To prevent sweating and clipping, laws of 1728 and 1730 adopted modern minting techniques. Gold and silver coins were to be perfectly round and to have <a href="/wiki/Milled_coinage" title="Milled coinage">milled</a> edges. There was a reduction in weight and fineness, the peso becoming 27·064 g (the same weight as the gold onza), with 24·809 g pure silver. The <i>onza de oro</i> or <i>peso duro de oro</i> (8-escudo piece) was 27·064 g, 22 carats fine, 24,808·936 mg pure gold. The Mexico City mint was the first to comply, in 1732, using an up-to-date screw press. An edge design, resembling a tulip, was put on the 8-reales to make any clipping evident. Technical problems and local resistance to design change delayed the adoption of milled coinage at Lima and Santiago until 1751. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milled_pillar_silver_of_1732">Milled pillar silver of 1732</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Milled pillar silver of 1732"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The milled pillar type of 1732, <i>columnario</i> in Spanish, was machine struck on a full-sized round planchet. <i>Obv</i>.: the crowned arms of Castile and León, the assayer's initial left, the value right, the rim inscribed PHILIP•V•D•G•HISPAN•ET•IND•REX+. <i>Rev</i>.: two orbs (representing the Old and the New Worlds) under a crown and over the Straits of Gibraltar, flanked by two crowned pillars with PLUS VLTR[A] on banners wrapped around the columns, the inscription VTRAQUE VNUM, and below, the date, preceded and followed by the mintmark. The obverse shield is the usual lions, castles, and pomegranate, but with the center defaced by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> arms (three fleurs-de-lis). Some minor modifications were subsequently made in the location of the mintmark and assayer's initials. The 8-real coin, 39.5 mm, was given a protective corded edge design resembling a tulip. </p><p>Produced until 1772: at Mexico from 1732, Santiago and Lima from 1751, Guatemala City from 1754, Santa Fe de Bogotá from 1759, and Potosí from 1767. During the production of these coins some minor modifications were made in the location of the mintmark and assayer's initials. The old style cobs continued to be produced in the Viceroyalty of Peru, with the last coming from the Potosí mint in 1773. </p><p>Denominations:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>, 1, 2, 4, and 8 reales. </p><p>The 8-reales produced from 1732 until 1772 was the coin that became a standard in the English colonies in North America: it is the coin referred to in colonial contracts calling for payment in <i>Spanish milled dollars</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milled_gold_of_1732">Milled gold of 1732</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Milled gold of 1732"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first milled gold was also produced in 1732 at the Mexico City mint. The production of gold cobs continued until 1750, after which time they were completely replaced by milled coinage. The gold coins feature an obverse portrait design, and the royal arms (reverse) appear smaller than on the silver coins to allow for the encircling collar of the Golden Fleece. The royal titles are the same as on the silver, but the legends vary. The 1732–1747 type bears the inscription INITIUM SAPIENTIAE TIMOR DOMINI.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1746–1759_Ferdinand_VI"><span id="1746.E2.80.931759_Ferdinand_VI"></span>1746–1759 <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VI_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VI of Spain">Ferdinand VI</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 1746–1759 Ferdinand VI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_in_Spain_2">Coinage in Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Coinage in Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The debased Spanish provincial silver was supposed to remain in Spain, but it crossed the Atlantic to create problems. The 2-real coin was particularly common in the English colonies, where it was known as a <i>pistareen</i>. It was easily distinguished from the Spanish American silver because provincial silver had the crowned heraldic Habsburg shield obverse and cross with the Castile and León shield reverse, and were known as "cross" pistareens (and cross reales). The peso duro (dollar) was usually worth five pistareens. </p><p>On May 4, 1754 Ferdinand VI prohibited the circulation in America of all money coined in Spain, including national gold and silver coins identical with those minted in America. The quantity of overvalued provincial silver in circulation was so great that colonial officials lacked the means to redeem and remove it from circulation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_in_America_3">Coinage in America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Coinage in America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1748 the inscription on the gold coins was changed to NOMINA MAGNA SEQUOR (until 1759). Lima switched from producing gold cobs to minting milled gold in 1751. A mint opened at Santiago, Chile, in 1750, which produced chiefly gold coins. The rim inscription is FERDND•VI•D•G•HISPAN•ET•IND•REX+ obverse, and +VTRAQUE VNUM+[mintmark]+[year]+[mintmark]+ reverse. On the silver 8-real coin the royal Spanish crown on top of the left pillar was replaced in 1754 by an Imperial crown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1759–1788_Charles_III"><span id="1759.E2.80.931788_Charles_III"></span>1759–1788 <a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 1759–1788 Charles III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_type_of_1759">Coinage type of 1759</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Coinage type of 1759"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The silver of Charles III bore the rim inscription CAROLUS•III•D•G•HISPAN•ETIND•REX+ obverse, and +VTRA QUE VNUM+(mintmark)+(year)+(mintmark)+ reverse. The 8-real piece was commonly called the <i>Carolus dollar</i> in English. The inscription on the gold coins of Charles III was changed to IN UTROQ FELIX AUSPICE DEO (and remained thus until the American colonies gained independence). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_dollars_in_China">Spanish dollars in China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Spanish dollars in China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After 1757, China restricted European trade to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Factories" title="Thirteen Factories">Thirteen Factories</a> for a description of this trading system). The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">British East India Company</a> dominated this trade and paid for its purchases with Spanish Carolus dollars, which were accepted in China for more than the 4s:2d sterling that was considered their intrinsic value. Chinese merchants gradually became accustomed to the dependable weight and fineness of Spanish milled silver and, instead of melting the coins down, they began to use them as currency, often with a <i>chop</i> (seal, countermark) to guarantee its acceptability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_of_1772">Coinage of 1772</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Coinage of 1772"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charles adopted new coin designs with the royal profile, more difficult to counterfeit, and his Pragmatic of May 29, 1772 ordered all money in circulation in Spain and the Indies to be recoined at the same weight and fineness, but he secretly instructed the mints to lower the fineness of national gold from 22 carats to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">21<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> and of national silver from 0·91667 to 0·90278. This gave a peso of 27·064 g with 24·433 g silver and an onza of 27·064 g with 24,386·057 mg gold. </p><p>These coins are known as the "portrait" or "modified pillar" type in English, and as <i>busto</i> in Spanish. (English <i>head real</i> was applied to the provincial silver real coined in Spain, which was 20% lighter.) <i>Obv</i>.: bust of the king, the rim inscribed CAROLUS III DEI GRATIA with the date. <i>Rev</i>.: two columns (pillars of Hercules) with the motto PLUS VLTRA on banners, but the two orbs between the columns were replaced with the crowned shield of Leon and Castile, the rim inscribed HISPAN. ET IND. REX, then the mintmark, value, and assayer's initials. The corded (tulip) edge of the eight reales was replaced with an edge design of alternating circles and rectangles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage_of_1786">Coinage of 1786</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Coinage of 1786"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secret instructions to the mints, June 25, 1786 reduced the fineness of escudos to 21 carats (0·875). This should have produced an onza containing 23,681·257 mg fine gold, but foreign assays show the coins only 0·8698 fine, and those minted after 1800 consistently 0·8646 fine. Assays made by Bonneville on coins minted 1786–1800 showed that all silver was minted only 0·8958 fine. (The old, true standard was not restored until after 1821.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1788–1808_Charles_IV"><span id="1788.E2.80.931808_Charles_IV"></span>1788–1808 <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: 1788–1808 Charles IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of problems in supplying new dies, an edict of December 24, 1788 authorized the American mints to continue using the dies with the portrait of Charles III, while changing the name to Charles IIII by adding another Roman numeral I. New dies finally arrived in 1791. The 8 reales was struck at Potosí in 1789 and 1790 with the bust of Charles III but the name altered to "IV", then with the new portrait of Charles IV in 1791. The first <i>cuarto</i> (1/4 real) was struck at Mexico City in 1794. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1808–1821_Ferdinand_VII"><span id="1808.E2.80.931821_Ferdinand_VII"></span>1808–1821 <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: 1808–1821 Ferdinand VII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The colonies were cut off from Spain by the French occupation and the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a> of 1808–1814. They were ruled by independent juntas who refused to recognize <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">José Napoleón Bonaparte</i>), proclaimed King of Spain and the Indies and older brother of <a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoléon Bonaparte">Napoléon Bonaparte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a>, instead declaring allegiance to the deposed Ferdinand VII. But the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">independence movement</a> had already been initiated in earnest by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda" title="Francisco de Miranda">Francisco de Miranda</a>, and in 1810 it broke out in full force. </p><p>The Spanish Napoleonic coinage was used only in Spain. The American mints initially minted coins with the portrait of Ferdinand VII. The minting of royalist coins effectively ended in 1821, when republican forces captured the mint at Lima (although republican coins were counterstamped as royalist at Lima in 1824). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monetary_legacy">Monetary legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Monetary legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The monetary unit in the former Spanish colonies was the silver peso, with a value of 8 <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">reales</a>. Silver coins were: cuartillo (1/4 R), medio (1/2 R), real, peseta (2 R), medio peso (4 R), and peso (8 R). If minted to standard, they were either 0·916 fine or (from 1772) 0·902 fine. Circulation also included a varying quantity of <i>macuquina</i>, worn, and of varying weight and fineness. There were also silver coins of various types that had been produced by republicans and royalists during the struggle for independence. </p><p>Gold did not circulate as common currency. It was used primarily in international trade and for hoarding, The standard coin was the gold onza, with variations in fineness, the pre-1771 coins being 0·9165 fine; the 1771 type, 0·901 fine; and the 1786 type, only 0.875 fine. </p><p>Copper coins were also in circulation, having appeared in quantity during the struggles for independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_summary">Technical summary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Technical summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mint standards were set by the Spanish crown and until 1686 the coinage of Spain and of the Indies (Spanish America) were identical, save in two respects. A minor difference was that coins minted in America were inscribed REX HISPANIARVM ET INDIARVM (king of the Spains and the Indies), while those minted in Spain had only REX HISPANIARVM. The major difference was that wellón or copper coins were not minted for circulation in the Spanish American colonies, while after 1602 the currency of Spain itself consisted chiefly of copper coin. </p><p>Although Mexico and Peru were the chief source of the world's silver, after 1620 silver was always at a premium in Spain and wellón constituted the accounting unit and the chief medium of exchange (the cuarto also became a common accounting unit). The silver flowed through Spain in a steady stream to pay for imports, wars, and imperial expansion. </p><p>Philip IV reformed Spain's monetary system in 1686 by debasing the silver coinage, which had been unchanged since 1497. This reform applied only to coins minted in Spain. The coinage of the American colonies, which had already assumed great importance in international trade, was left untouched, and the 1497 silver standard continued in use (until 1728). From this time on, the monetary systems and currencies of Spain and of Spanish America developed differently. </p><p>Coins were defined by monetary regulations as so many minted per mark weight and of a certain minimum fineness. The mint mark used was the mark of Castile. It originated when Alfonso X (1252–1284) replaced the Roman pound (<i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_units_of_measurement#Mass_and_coins" title="Ancient Roman units of measurement">libra</a></i>) with the <a href="/wiki/Cologne_mark" title="Cologne mark">Cologne mark</a>. Spanish numismatists usually use the weight of this mark as determined in 1799, i.e. 230·0465 grams. The measure of fineness (<i>ley</i> in Spanish) for gold was 24 <i>quilates</i> (<a href="/wiki/Carat_(purity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carat (purity)">carats</a>), each of 4 <i>granos</i> (grains); the measure for silver was 12 <i>dineros</i>, each of 24 granos.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Standard Reference Coins Minted in Spanish America<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">according to the legal definition</span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>coin </th> <th># per<br />mark </th> <th>fineness<br />(ley) </th> <th>weight g </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Millesimal_fineness" class="mw-redirect" title="Millesimal fineness">millesimal<br />fineness</a> </th> <th>fine metal </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Silver coin </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1497–1728 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>real </td> <td>67 </td> <td>11d 4gr </td> <td>3·433 </td> <td>·9305 </td> <td>3·195 g </td></tr> <tr> <td>peso </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span>     </td> <td>11d 4gr </td> <td>27·468 </td> <td>·9305 </td> <td>25·561 g </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1728–1772 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>real </td> <td>68 </td> <td>11d 0gr </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·9166 </td> <td>3·101 g </td></tr> <tr> <td>peso </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>11d 0gr </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·9166 </td> <td>24·809 g </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1772–1786 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>real </td> <td>68 </td> <td>10d 20gr   </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·9028 </td> <td>3·054 g </td></tr> <tr> <td>peso </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>10d 20gr </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·9028 </td> <td>24·433 g </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1786–1821 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>real </td> <td>68 </td> <td>10d 18gr </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·8958 </td> <td>3·031 g </td></tr> <tr> <td>peso </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>10d 18gr </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·8958 </td> <td>24·245 g </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Gold Coin </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1536–1772 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>escudo     </td> <td>68 </td> <td>22q </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·9166 </td> <td>3,101·117 mg </td></tr> <tr> <td>onza </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>22q </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·9166 </td> <td>24,808·936 mg </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1772–1786 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>escudo </td> <td>68 </td> <td>21q 2·5gr </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·9010 </td> <td>3,048·257 mg </td></tr> <tr> <td>onza </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>21q 2·5gr </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·9010 </td> <td>24,386·057 mg </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">1786–1821 standard </th></tr> <tr> <td>escudo </td> <td>68 </td> <td>21q </td> <td>3·383 </td> <td>·875 </td> <td>2,960·157 mg </td></tr> <tr> <td>onza </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>21q </td> <td>27·064 </td> <td>·875 </td> <td>23,681·257 mg </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mints">Mints</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Mints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The four early, permanent mints in the Indies were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Mint" title="Mexican Mint">Mexico City</a> (1536–1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mint_of_Peru" title="National Mint of Peru">Lima</a> (1568–1572, 1577–1588, 1659–1660, 1684–1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mint_of_Bolivia" title="National Mint of Bolivia">Potosí</a> (1574–1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Moneda_de_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Casa de Moneda de Colombia">Santa Fe de Bogotá</a> (1622–1820)</li></ul> <p>Early ephemeral mints were five: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a> (1542–1564, 1573–1578)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucre,_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sucre, Bolivia">La Plata (modern Sucre)</a> (1573–1574)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_City" title="Panama City">Panama City</a> (1580–1582)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Colombia" title="Cartagena, Colombia">Cartagena</a> (1622–1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuzco" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuzco">Cuzco</a> (1698)</li></ul> <p>Later permanent mints were three: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guatemala_City" title="Guatemala City">Guatemala City</a> (1733–1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Santiago de Chile">Santiago de Chile</a> (1749–1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n" title="Popayán">Popayán</a> (1758–1822)</li></ul> <p><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, W.A. (1896, reprinted 1967), <i>The history of currency 1251 to 1894: being an account of the gold and silver moneys and monetary standards of Europe and America, together with an examination of the effects of currency and exchange phenomena on commercial and national progress and well-being</i>, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, reprinted by Augustus M. Kelley, pp. 319–344, LC 67·20086 .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bischoff, William, editor 1989. <i>The Coinage of El Perú</i>, New York: American Numismatic Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">halmers, Robert (1893), <i>History of currency in the British colonies</i>, London: Eyre and Spottiswoode for Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 5–23, 101-105, 390-396 .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw, W.A. (1896, reprinted 1967), <i>The history of currency 1251 to 1894: being an account of the gold nio and silver moneys and monetary standards of Europe and America, together with an examination of the effects of currency and exchange phenomena on commercial and national progress and well-being</i>, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, reprinted by Augustus M. Kelley, pp. 319–344, LC 67·20086.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fuenterrebollo.com/faqs-numismatica/real-ocho-austrias-2.html">Real de a Ocho (1621–1700)</a>, Portal Fuenterrebollo. Retrieved on 20 March 2008 <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span> Information on the early coinage in Spanish America (and contemporary Spain).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tesorillo.com/articulos/libro/02.htm"><i>Las casas de moneda españolas en América del sur</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080405172742/http://www.tesorillo.com/articulos/libro/02.htm">Archived</a> April 5, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on 20 March 2008 <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span> On-line book detailing the history of the Spanish mints in South America.</span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sedwickcoins.com/pboc4.htm"><i>The Practical Book of Cobs</i> 4th Ed. Sedwick</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCarson1962" class="citation cs2">Carson, R.A.G. (1962), <i>Coins: ancient, mediaeval & modern</i>, London: Hutchinson, pp. 428–430, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-104820-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-104820-6"><bdi>0-09-104820-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coins%3A+ancient%2C+mediaeval+%26+modern&rft.place=London&rft.pages=428-430&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=0-09-104820-6&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=R.A.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalmers1893" class="citation cs2">Chalmers, Robert (1893), <i>History of currency in the British colonies</i>, London: Eyre and Spottiswoode for Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 5–23, 101–105, 390–396, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-665-02956-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-665-02956-X"><bdi>0-665-02956-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+currency+in+the+British+colonies&rft.place=London&rft.pages=5-23%2C+101-105%2C+390-396&rft.pub=Eyre+and+Spottiswoode+for+Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1893&rft.isbn=0-665-02956-X&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDargent_Chamot" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dargent Chamot, Eduardo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080405172742/http://www.tesorillo.com/articulos/libro/02.htm"><i>Las casas de moneda españolas en América del sur</i></a> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tesorillo.com/articulos/libro/02.htm">the original</a> on 5 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Las+casas+de+moneda+espa%C3%B1olas+en+Am%C3%A9rica+del+sur&rft.aulast=Dargent+Chamot&rft.aufirst=Eduardo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tesorillo.com%2Farticulos%2Flibro%2F02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span> On-line book detailing the history of the Spanish mints in South America.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSédillot1955" class="citation cs2">Sédillot, René (1955), <i>Toutes les monnaies du monde</i>, Paris: Recueil Sirey, pp. 23–24, 171–172, 432–433</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toutes+les+monnaies+du+monde&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=23-24%2C+171-172%2C+432-433&rft.pub=Recueil+Sirey&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=S%C3%A9dillot&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw1967" class="citation cs2">Shaw, W.A. (1967) [1896], <i>The history of currency 1251 to 1894: being an account of the gold and silver moneys and monetary standards of Europe and America, together with an examination of the effects of currency and exchange phenomena on commercial and national progress and well-being</i>, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, reprinted by Augustus M. Kelley, pp. 319–344, LC 67·20086</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+currency+1251+to+1894%3A+being+an+account+of+the+gold+and+silver+moneys+and+monetary+standards+of+Europe+and+America%2C+together+with+an+examination+of+the+effects+of+currency+and+exchange+phenomena+on+commercial+and+national+progress+and+well-being&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=319-344&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons%2C+reprinted+by+Augustus+M.+Kelley&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=W.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumner1898" class="citation cs2">Sumner, W.G. (1898), "The Spanish dollar and the colonial shilling", <i>American Historical Review</i>, <b>3</b> (3), The American Historical Review, Vol. 3, No. 4: 607–619, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1834139">10.2307/1834139</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1834139">1834139</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Spanish+dollar+and+the+colonial+shilling&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=607-619&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1834139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1834139%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sumner&rft.aufirst=W.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fuenterrebollo.com/faqs-numismatica/real-ocho-austrias-2.html">"Real de a Ocho (1621–1700), Portal Fuenterrebollo"</a> (in Spanish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Real+de+a+Ocho+%281621%E2%80%931700%29%2C+Portal+Fuenterrebollo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fuenterrebollo.com%2Ffaqs-numismatica%2Freal-ocho-austrias-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACurrency+of+Spanish+America" class="Z3988"></span> Information on the early coinage in Spanish America (and contemporary Spain).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_references_consulted">Other references consulted</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Other references consulted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Standard Catalog of World Coins: Spain, Portugal and The New World</i>, by Krause-Mishler (2002) (Contributor: Daniel Frank Sedwick )</li> <li>Calbetó de Grau, Gabriel. 1970. <i>Compendio de las Piezas de Ocho Reales</i>. 2 volumes/tomos. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Ediciones Juan Ponce de León.</li> <li>Bischoff, William, editor 1989. <i>The Coinage of El Perú</i>, New York: American Numismatic Society.</li> <li>Cayón, Adolfo, Clemente Cayón and Juan Cayón. 1998. <i>Las Monedas Españolas, Del tremis al euro, Del 411 a nuestros días</i>. Madrid</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Currency_of_Spanish_America&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sedwickcoins.com/articles/colonialcoinage.htm"><i>The Colonial Coinage of Spanish America</i></a> An introduction by Daniel Frank Sedwick</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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