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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="This article exist only in this language. 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searchaux" style="display:none">Idea that the temperature at the top of anvil clouds does not depend on Earth surface temperature</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg/220px-Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg/330px-Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg/440px-Hector_cloud_from_Gunn_Point.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>Anvil cloud over the <a href="/wiki/Tiwi_Islands" title="Tiwi Islands">Tiwi Islands</a>, Australia</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">physical hypothesis</a> that describes the response of <a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">cloud radiative properties</a> to rising surface temperatures. It presumes that the temperature at which radiation is emitted by <a href="/wiki/Anvil_clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Anvil clouds">anvil clouds</a> is constrained by radiative processes and thus does not change in response to surface warming. Since the amount of radiation emitted by clouds is a function of their temperature, it implies that it does not increase with surface warming and thus a warmer surface does not increase radiation emissions (and thus cooling) by cloud tops. The mechanism has been identified both in <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate models</a> and observations of cloud behaviour, it affects <a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">how much the world heats up for each extra tonne of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere</a>. However, some evidence suggests that it may be more correctly formulated as decreased anvil warming rather than no anvil warming. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_hypothesis">Background and hypothesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background and hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_cooling" title="Radiative cooling">radiative cooling</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> is balanced by the release of <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> through condensation of <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour">water vapour</a> lofted to high altitudes by <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>. The radiative cooling is mostly a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">emissions</a> by water vapour and thus becomes ineffective above the 200 <a href="/wiki/HPa" class="mw-redirect" title="HPa">hPa</a> <a href="/wiki/Pressure_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure level">pressure level</a>. Congruently, it is at this elevation that thick clouds and <a href="/wiki/Anvil_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Anvil cloud">anvil clouds</a> – the topmost convective clouds – concentrate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "fixed anvil temperature hypothesis" stipulates that owing to energetic and thermodynamic constraints imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Clausius%E2%80%93Clapeyron_relation" title="Clausius–Clapeyron relation">Clausius-Clapeyron relationship</a>, the temperature and thus radiative cooling of anvil clouds does not change much with surface temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, cooling decreases below −73 °C (200 K) as the ineffective radiative cooling by <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span> becomes dominant below that temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20023_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20023-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the elevation of high clouds rises with surface temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-AlbernVoigt2019_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlbernVoigt2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A related hypothesis is that <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a> temperatures are insensitive to surface warming; however it appears to have distinct mechanisms from the fixed anvil temperature process.<sup id="cite_ref-HuVallis2019_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HuVallis2019-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have been related to each other in several studies,<sup id="cite_ref-SullivanSchiro2019_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SullivanSchiro2019-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which sometimes find a fixed tropopause temperature a more reasonable theory than fixed anvil temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191849_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191849-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence">Evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis has been widely accepted and even extended to the non-tropical atmosphere. Its strength relies in part on its reliance on simple physical arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191842_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Models">Models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis was initially formulated by Hartmann and Larson 2002 in the context of the NCAR/PSU MM5 <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate model</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20022_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20022-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the stability of top cloud temperatures was already observed in a one-dimensional model by Hansen <i>et al.</i> 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDel_Genio2016107_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_Genio2016107-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been recovered, with limitations, in climate models<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410516_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410516-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in numerous <a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">general circulation models</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maher2019_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maher2019-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some have recovered a dependence on cloud size<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162313_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162313-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a><sup id="cite_ref-ChaeSherwood2010_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChaeSherwood2010-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that the fixed anvil temperature is more properly expressed as anvil temperature changing more slowly than surface temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191848_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeeleyJeevanjeeRomps20191848-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate models also simulate an increase in cloud top height<sup id="cite_ref-Li2019_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li2019-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some radiative-convective models apply it to the <a href="/wiki/Outflow_(meteorology)" title="Outflow (meteorology)">outflow</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi2014_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi2014-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis has also been obtained in simulations of <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">exoplanet</a> climates.<sup id="cite_ref-YangLeconte2019_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YangLeconte2019-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At very high <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> concentrations approaching a <a href="/wiki/Runaway_greenhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway greenhouse">runaway greenhouse</a> however, other physical effects pertaining to cloud opacity may take over and dominate the fixed anvil temperature as surface temperatures reach extreme levels.<sup id="cite_ref-RamirezKopparapu2014_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RamirezKopparapu2014-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observations">Observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis has been backed by observational studies<sup id="cite_ref-Asrar2013_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asrar2013-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for large clouds. Smaller clouds however have no stable temperature and there are temperature fluctuations of about 5 °C (9 °F)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162307_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162307-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which may relate to processes involving the <a href="/wiki/Brewer-Dobson_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewer-Dobson circulation">Brewer-Dobson circulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ChaeSherwood2010_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChaeSherwood2010-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xu <i>et al.</i> 2007 found that cloud temperatures are more stable for clouds with sizes exceeding 150 kilometres (93 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162312_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162312-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ascent of cloud top height with warming is also supported by observations.<sup id="cite_ref-Li2019_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li2019-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analyses of convection changes during the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> cycle support the hypothesis, stipulating that a moister middle troposphere offsets the effects of less favourable thermodynamics during El Niño.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETakahashiLuoMasunagaStorer20248_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakahashiLuoMasunagaStorer20248-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clouds are the second biggest uncertainty in future climate change after human actions, as their effects are complicated and not properly understood.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis has effects on global <a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">climate sensitivity</a>, since anvil clouds are the most important source of outgoing radiation linked to tropical convection<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021–2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021–2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their temperature being stable would render the outgoing radiation non-responsive to surface temperature changes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20024_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20024-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This creates a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> component of <a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">cloud feedback</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDel_Genio2016116_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_Genio2016116-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fixed anvil temperature hypothesis has also been used to argue that climate modelling should use temperature rather than pressure to model the height of high clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-KluftDacie2019_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KluftDacie2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_views">Alternative views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Alternative views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A hypothesis which would have the opposite effect on climate is the <a href="/wiki/Iris_hypothesis" title="Iris hypothesis">iris hypothesis</a>, according to which the coverage of anvil clouds declines with warming, thus allowing more radiation to escape into space and resulting in slower warming.<sup id="cite_ref-SeeleyJeevanjee2019_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SeeleyJeevanjee2019-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>proportionate anvil warming hypothesis</i> by Zelinka and Hartmann 2010 was formulated on the basis of <a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">general circulation models</a> and envisages a small increase of anvil temperature with high warming.<sup id="cite_ref-ZelinkaHartmann2011_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZelinkaHartmann2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter hypothesis was intended as a modification to the fixed anvil temperature hypothesis<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162307_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENodaSeikiSatohYamada20162307-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and includes considerations of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_stability" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric stability">atmospheric stability</a> and appears to reflect actual climate conditions more closely.<sup id="cite_ref-KluftDacie2019_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KluftDacie2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, there is a view that cloud top temperatures could actually decrease with surface warming<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410530_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410530-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as convection height rises. This may constitute a non-equilibrium response.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410531_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgelDragervan_den_Heever201410531-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2020<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> further research is needed to properly understand the physics of some cloud feedbacks,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they differ between models,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and progress on properly modelling clouds globally is very slow.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartmannLarson20021-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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.id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlbernVoigtPinto2019" class="citation journal cs1">Albern, Nicole; Voigt, Aiko; Pinto, 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href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for 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solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a 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