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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theories of deviance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_of_deviance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories of deviance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_deviance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structural_functionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_functionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Structural functionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_functionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Durkheim's_normative_theory_of_suicide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Durkheim's_normative_theory_of_suicide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Durkheim's normative theory of suicide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Durkheim's_normative_theory_of_suicide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merton's_strain_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merton's_strain_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Merton's strain theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merton's_strain_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolic_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolic_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Symbolic interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolic_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sutherland's_differential_association" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sutherland's_differential_association"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Sutherland's differential association</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sutherland's_differential_association-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutralization_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutralization_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Neutralization theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutralization_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labeling_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labeling_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Labeling theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labeling_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_deviation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_and_secondary_deviation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Primary and secondary deviation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_deviation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broken_windows_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broken_windows_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Broken windows theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broken_windows_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Control theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Conflict theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Karl_Marx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Marx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Karl Marx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Marx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Michel_Foucault" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michel_Foucault"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Michel Foucault</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michel_Foucault-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_theories_of_deviance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_theories_of_deviance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Biological theories of deviance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_theories_of_deviance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Other theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_criminal_justice_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_criminal_justice_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The criminal justice system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_criminal_justice_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Deviance (sociology)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9)" title="انحراف (علم الاجتماع) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انحراف (علم الاجتماع)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Грамадзкае адхіленьне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Грамадзкае адхіленьне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Девиантно поведение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Девиантно поведение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desviaci%C3%B3_(sociologia)" title="Desviació (sociologia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desviació (sociologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviace_(sociologie)" title="Deviace (sociologie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Deviace (sociologie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afvigelsessociologi" title="Afvigelsessociologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Afvigelsessociologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devianz" title="Devianz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Devianz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A4lbiv_k%C3%A4itumine" title="Hälbiv käitumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hälbiv käitumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolog%C3%ADa_de_la_desviaci%C3%B3n" title="Sociología de la desviación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sociología de la desviación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AC%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کج‌رفتاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کج‌رفتاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9viance" title="Déviance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déviance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claona%C3%ADocht" title="Claonaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Claonaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%ED%83%88" title="일탈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="일탈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D6%87%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF_%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%84" title="Դևիանտ վարք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դևիանտ վարք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devijantnost" title="Devijantnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Devijantnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilaku_menyimpang" title="Perilaku menyimpang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perilaku menyimpang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devianza_(sociologia)" title="Devianza (sociologia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Devianza (sociologia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סטייה חברתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סטייה חברתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="დევიაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დევიაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7-%D2%9B%D2%B1%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Девианттық мінез-құлық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Девианттық мінез-құлық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D1%80%D2%AF%D0%BC-%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Девианттуу жүрүм-турум – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Девианттуу жүрүм-турум" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviancia" title="Deviancia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Deviancia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Девијантно однесување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Девијантно однесување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviant_gedrag" title="Deviant gedrag – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Deviant gedrag" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%B8%E8%84%B1" title="逸脱 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="逸脱" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewiacja_spo%C5%82eczna" title="Dewiacja społeczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dewiacja społeczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desvio_(sociologia)" title="Desvio (sociologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desvio (sociologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devian%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Devianță – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Devianță" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Девиантное поведение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Девиантное поведение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_(%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Девијантност (социологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Девијантност (социологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poikkeavuus" title="Poikkeavuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Poikkeavuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avvikande_beteende" title="Avvikande beteende – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Avvikande beteende" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolojide_sapma" title="Sosyolojide sapma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyolojide sapma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Deviance</b> or the <b>sociology of deviance</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explores the actions and/or behaviors that violate <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a> across formally enacted rules (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and <a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">mores</a>). Although deviance may have a negative connotation, the violation of social norms is not always a negative action; positive deviation exists in some situations. Although a norm is violated, a behavior can still be classified as positive or acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social norms differ throughout society and between cultures. A certain act or behaviour may be viewed as deviant and receive sanctions or punishments within one society and be seen as a normal behaviour in another society. Additionally, as a society's understanding of social norms changes over time, so too does the collective perception of deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-OpenStax_CNX-2015_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OpenStax_CNX-2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deviance is <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relative</a> to the place where it was committed or to the time the act took place. Killing another human is generally considered wrong for example, except when governments permit it during warfare or for <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self-defense</a>. There are two types of major deviant actions: <i><a href="/wiki/Mala_in_se" class="mw-redirect" title="Mala in se">mala in se</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mala_prohibita" class="mw-redirect" title="Mala prohibita">mala prohibita</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_deviance">Types of deviance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of deviance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The violation of norms can be categorized as two forms, formal deviance and informal deviance. Formal deviance can be described as a crime, which violates laws in a society. Informal deviance are minor violations that break unwritten rules of social life. <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">Norms</a> that have great moral significance are <a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">mores</a>. Under informal deviance, a more opposes societal <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taboo is a strong social form of behavior considered deviant by a majority. To speak of it publicly is condemned, and therefore, almost entirely avoided. The term “taboo” comes from the Tongan word “<a href="/wiki/Tapu_(Polynesian_culture)" title="Tapu (Polynesian culture)">tapu</a>” meaning "under prohibition", "not allowed", or "forbidden". Some forms of taboo are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other forms of taboo result in <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shame</a>, disrespect and <a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">humiliation</a>. Taboo is not universal but does occur in the majority of societies. Some of the examples include <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Child_molestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Child molestation">child molestation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard Becker</a>, a labeling theorist, identified four different types of deviant behavior labels which are given as:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ol><li>"<a href="/wiki/Falsely_accusing" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsely accusing">Falsely accusing</a>" an individual - others perceive the individual to be obtaining obedient or deviant behaviors.</li> <li>"Pure deviance", others perceive the individual as participating in deviant and rule-breaking behavior.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Conforming" class="mw-redirect" title="Conforming">Conforming</a>", others perceive the individual to be participating in the social norms that are distributed within societies.</li> <li>"Secret deviance" which is when the individual is not perceived as deviant or participating in any rule-breaking behaviors.</li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Malicious_compliance" title="Malicious compliance">Malicious compliance</a> may furthermore pose a special case. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_deviance">Theories of deviance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories of deviance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deviant acts can be assertions of individuality and identity, and thus as <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a> against <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-norms/">group norms</a> of the dominant culture and in favor of a sub-culture. In a society, the behavior of an individual or a group determines how a deviant creates norms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three broad sociological classes exist that describe deviant behavior, namely, <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Functionalism (sociology)">structural functionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic interaction">symbolic interaction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png/220px-A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png/330px-A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png/440px-A_Structural-Functionalist_Understanding_of_Deviance.png 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Structural-functionalist understanding of deviance</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_functionalism">Structural functionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structural functionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></div> <p>Structural functionalists are concerned with how various factors in a society come together and interact to form the whole. Most notable, the work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert Merton</a> have contributed to the Functionalist ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley-2017_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Durkheim's_normative_theory_of_suicide"><span id="Durkheim.27s_normative_theory_of_suicide"></span>Durkheim's normative theory of suicide</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Durkheim's normative theory of suicide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide (Durkheim book)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> would claim that deviance was in fact a normal and necessary part of social organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He would state four important functions of deviance: </p> <ol><li>"Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. Any definition of virtue rests on an opposing idea of vice: There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime."<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Deviance defines moral boundaries, people learn right from wrong by defining people as deviant.</li> <li>A serious form of deviance forces people to come together and react in the same way against it.</li> <li>Deviance pushes society's moral boundaries which, in turn leads to social change.</li></ol> <p>When social deviance is committed, the collective conscience is offended. Durkheim (1897) describes the collective conscience as a set of social norms by which members of a society follow.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley-2017_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without the collective conscience, there would be no absolute morals followed in institutions or groups. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a> is the attachment to groups and institutions, while social regulation is the adherence to the norms and values of society. Durkheim's theory attributes social deviance to extremes of social integration and social regulation. He stated four different <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)#Types_of_suicide" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">types of suicide</a> from the relationship between social integration and social regulation:.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley-2017_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b><a href="/wiki/Altruistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Altruistic">Altruistic</a></b> suicide occurs when one is too socially integrated.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">Egoistic</a></b> suicide occurs when one is not very socially integrated.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Anomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomic">Anomic</a></b> suicide occurs when there is very little social regulation from a sense of aimlessness or despair.  </li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalistic</a></b> suicide occurs when a person experiences too much social regulation.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Merton's_strain_theory"><span id="Merton.27s_strain_theory"></span>Merton's strain theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Merton's strain theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain theory (sociology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg/250px-Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg/375px-Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg/500px-Mertons_social_strain_theory.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> discussed deviance in terms of goals and means as part of his strain/anomie theory. Where Durkheim states that anomie is the confounding of social norms, Merton goes further and states that anomie is the state in which social goals and the legitimate means to achieve them do not correspond. He postulated that an individual's response to societal expectations and the means by which the individual pursued those goals were useful in understanding deviance. Specifically, he viewed collective action as motivated by strain, stress, or frustration in a body of individuals that arises from a disconnection between the society's <i>goals</i> and the popularly used <i>means</i> to achieve those goals. Often, non-routine collective behavior (rioting, rebellion, etc.) is said to map onto economic explanations and causes by way of strain. These two dimensions determine the adaptation to society according to the cultural goals, which are the society's perceptions about the ideal life, and to the institutionalized means, which are the legitimate means through which an individual may aspire to the cultural goals.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merton described <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)#Merton's_theory" title="Strain theory (sociology)">5 types of deviance</a> in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them:<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Innovation</b> is a response due to the strain generated by our culture's emphasis on wealth and the lack of opportunities to get rich, which causes people to be "innovators" by engaging in stealing and selling drugs. Innovators accept society's goals, but reject socially acceptable means of achieving them. (e.g.: monetary success is gained through crime). Merton claims that innovators are mostly those who have been socialised with similar world views to conformists, but who have been denied the opportunities they need to be able to legitimately achieve society's goals.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b>Conformists</b> accept society's goals and the socially acceptable means of achieving them (e.g.: monetary success is gained through hard work). Merton claims that conformists are mostly middle-class people in middle class jobs who have been able to access the opportunities in society such as a better education to achieve monetary success through hard work. According to Merton’s Strain Theory, only conformists accept societal goals.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Minnesota-2016_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Minnesota-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Societal goals are the desired economic, social, or classist achievements dictated by society.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Minnesota-2016_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Minnesota-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Ritualism</b> refers to the inability to reach a cultural goal thus embracing the rules to the point where the people in question lose sight of their larger goals in order to feel respectable. Ritualists reject society's goals, but accept society's institutionalized means. Ritualists are most commonly found in dead-end, repetitive jobs, where they are unable to achieve society's goals but still adhere to society's means of achievement and social norms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b>Retreatism</b> is the rejection of both cultural goals and means, letting the person in question "drop out". Retreatists reject the society's goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. Merton sees them as true deviants, as they commit acts of deviance to achieve things that do not always go along with society's values. Robert Merton’s Strain Theory dictates that deviance in lower economic classes oftentimes is characterized by retreatism deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-courses.lumenlearning.com_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-courses.lumenlearning.com-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merton claims that homelessness and addiction in lower classes is a result of individuals rebelling against both work and the desire for economic progress.<sup id="cite_ref-courses.lumenlearning.com_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-courses.lumenlearning.com-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Rebellion</b> is somewhat similar to retreatism, because the people in question also reject both the cultural goals and means, but they go one step further to a "counterculture" that supports other social orders that already exist (rule breaking). Rebels reject society's goals and legitimate means to achieve them, and instead creates new goals and means to replace those of society, creating not only new goals to achieve but also new ways to achieve these goals that other rebels will find acceptable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolic_interaction">Symbolic interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Symbolic interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic interaction">Symbolic interaction</a></div> <p>Symbolic interaction refers to the patterns of communication, interpretation, and adjustment between individuals. Both the verbal and nonverbal responses that a listener then delivers are similarly constructed in expectation of how the original speaker will react. The ongoing process is like the game of charades, only it is a full-fledged conversation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "symbolic interactionism" has come into use as a label for a relatively distinctive approach to the study of human life and human conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-Blumer-1969_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blumer-1969-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others. Most symbolic interactionists believe a physical reality does indeed exist by an individual's social definitions, and that social definitions do develop in part or relation to something “real.” People thus do not respond to this reality directly, but rather to the social understanding of reality. Humans therefore exist in three realities: a physical objective reality, a social reality, and a unique. A unique is described as a third reality created out of the social reality, a private interpretation of the reality that is shown to the person by others.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both individuals and society cannot be separated far from each other for two reasons. One, being that both are created through social interaction, and two, one cannot be understood in terms without the other. Behavior is not defined by forces from the environment such as drives, or instincts, but rather by a reflective, socially understood meaning of both the internal and external incentives that are currently presented.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Blumer" title="Herbert Blumer">Herbert Blumer</a> (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:<sup id="cite_ref-Blumer-1969_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blumer-1969-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>"Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things;"</li> <li>"The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society;" and</li> <li>"These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters;"</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sutherland's_differential_association"><span id="Sutherland.27s_differential_association"></span>Sutherland's differential association</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sutherland's differential association"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></div> <p>In his differential association theory, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Sutherland" title="Edwin Sutherland">Edwin Sutherland</a> posited that criminals learn criminal and deviant behaviors and that deviance is not inherently a part of a particular individual's nature. When an individual's significant others engage in deviant and/or criminal behavior, criminal behavior will be learned as a result to this exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-Botterweck,_Michael_C_2011_p_152_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botterweck,_Michael_C_2011_p_152-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that criminal behavior is learned in the same way that all other behaviors are learned, meaning that the acquisition of criminal knowledge is not unique compared to the learning of other behaviors. </p><p>Sutherland outlined some very basic points in his theory, including the idea that the learning comes from the interactions between individuals and groups, using communication of symbols and ideas. When the symbols and ideas about deviation are much more favorable than unfavorable, the individual tends to take a favorable view upon deviance and will resort to more of these behaviors. </p><p>Criminal behavior (motivations and technical knowledge), as with any other sort of behavior, is learned. One example of this would be gang activity in inner city communities. Sutherland would feel that because a certain individual's primary influential peers are in a gang environment, it is through interaction with them that one may become involved in crime.<sup id="cite_ref-Botterweck,_Michael_C_2011_p_152_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botterweck,_Michael_C_2011_p_152-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neutralization_theory">Neutralization theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Neutralization theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Techniques_of_neutralization" title="Techniques of neutralization">Techniques of neutralization</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gresham_Sykes" title="Gresham Sykes">Gresham Sykes</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Matza" title="David Matza">David Matza</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Techniques_of_neutralization" title="Techniques of neutralization">neutralization theory</a> explains how deviants justify their deviant behaviors by providing alternative definitions of their actions and by providing explanations, to themselves and others, for the lack of guilt for actions in particular situations. </p><p>There are five types of neutralization:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Denial of responsibility</b>: the deviant believes s/he was helplessly propelled into the deviance, and that under the same circumstances, any other person would resort to similar actions;</li> <li><b>Denial of injury</b>: the deviant believes that the action caused no harm to other individuals or to the society, and thus the deviance is not morally wrong;</li> <li><b>Denial of the victim</b>: the deviant believes that individuals on the receiving end of the deviance were deserving of the results due to the victim's lack of virtue or morals;</li> <li><b>Condemnation of the condemners</b>: the deviant believes enforcement figures or victims have the tendency to be equally deviant or otherwise corrupt, and as a result, are hypocrites to stand against; and</li> <li><b>Appeal to higher loyalties</b>: the deviant believes that there are loyalties and values that go beyond the confines of the law; morality, friendships, income, or traditions may be more important to the deviant than legal boundaries.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Labeling_theory">Labeling theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Labeling theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Tannenbaum" title="Frank Tannenbaum">Frank Tannenbaum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard S. Becker</a> created and developed the labeling theory, which is a core facet of symbolic interactionism, and often referred to as Tannenbaum's "dramatization of evil." Becker believed that "social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Labeling is a process of social reaction by the "social audience," wherein people stereotype others, judging and accordingly defining (labeling) someone's behavior as deviant or otherwise. It has been characterized as the "invention, selection, manipulation of beliefs which define conduct in a negative way and the selection of people into these categories."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, labeling theory suggests that deviance is caused by the deviant's being labeled as morally inferior, the deviant's internalizing the label and finally the deviant's acting according to that specific label (i.e., an individual labelled as "deviant" will act accordingly). As time goes by, the "deviant" takes on traits that constitute deviance by committing such deviations as conform to the label (so the audience has the power to not label them and have the power to stop the deviance before it ever occurs by not labeling them). Individual and societal preoccupation with the label, in other words, leads the deviant individual to follow a self-fulfilling prophecy of abidance to the ascribed label.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This theory, while very much a <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic interactionist">symbolic interactionist</a> theory, also has elements of conflict theory, as the dominant group has the power to decide what is deviant and acceptable and enjoys the power behind the labeling process. An example of this is a prison system that labels people convicted of theft, and because of this they start to view themselves as by definition thieves, incapable of changing. "From this point of view," <a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard S. Becker</a> writes:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Deviance is <i>not</i> a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an "offender". The deviant is one to whom the label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label. </p></blockquote> <p>In other words, "behavior only becomes deviant or criminal if defined and interfered as such by specific people in [a] specific situation."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note the salient fact that society is not always correct in its labeling, often falsely identifying and misrepresenting people as deviants, or attributing to them characteristics which they do not have. In legal terms, people are often wrongly accused, yet many of them must live with the ensuant <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigma</a> (or conviction) for the rest of their lives. </p><p>On a similar note, society often employs double standards, with some sectors of society enjoying favoritism. Certain behaviors in one group are seen to be perfectly acceptable, or can be easily overlooked, but in another are seen, by the same audiences, as abominable. </p><p>The medicalization of deviance, <i>the transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition</i>, is an important shift that has transformed the way society views deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> The labelling theory helps to explain this shift, as behavior that used to be judged morally are now being transformed into an objective clinical diagnosis. For example, people with drug addictions are considered "sick" instead of "bad."<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_and_secondary_deviation">Primary and secondary deviation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Primary and secondary deviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Lemert" title="Edwin Lemert">Edwin Lemert</a> developed the idea of primary and secondary deviation as a way to explain the process of labeling. Primary deviance is any general deviance before the deviant is labeled as such in a particular way. Secondary deviance is any action that takes place after primary deviance as a reaction to the institutional identification of the person as a deviant.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When an actor commits a crime (primary deviance), however mild, the institution will bring social penalties down on the actor. However, punishment does not necessarily stop crime, so the actor might commit the same primary deviance again, bringing even harsher reactions from the institutions. At this point, the actor will start to resent the institution, while the institution brings harsher and harsher repression. Eventually, the whole community will stigmatize the actor as a deviant and the actor will not be able to tolerate this, but will ultimately accept his or her role as a criminal, and will commit criminal acts that fit the role of a criminal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Primary and secondary deviation is what causes people to become harder criminals. Primary deviance is the time when the person is labeled deviant through confession or reporting. Secondary deviance is deviance before and after the primary deviance. Retrospective labeling happens when the deviant recognizes his acts as deviant after the primary deviance, while prospective labeling is when the deviant recognizes future acts as deviant. The steps to becoming a criminal are:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ol><li>Primary deviation;</li> <li>Social penalties;</li> <li>Secondary deviation;</li> <li>Stronger penalties;</li> <li>Further deviation with resentment and hostility towards punishers;</li> <li>Community stigmatizes the deviant as a criminal;</li> <li>Tolerance threshold passed;</li> <li>Strengthening of deviant conduct because of stigmatizing penalties; and finally,</li> <li>Acceptance as role of deviant or criminal actor.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broken_windows_theory">Broken windows theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Broken windows theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows theory</a> states that an increase in minor crimes such as graffiti, would eventually lead to and encourage an increase in larger transgressions. This suggests that greater policing on minor forms of deviance would lead to a decrease in major crimes. The theory has been tested in a variety of settings including New York City in the 90s. Compared to the country's average at the time, violent crime rates fell 28 percent as a result of the campaign. Critics of the theory question the direct causality of the policing and statistical changes that occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Control_theory">Control theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Control theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)" title="Control theory (sociology)">Control theory</a> advances the proposition that weak bonds between the individual and society free people to deviate. By contrast, strong bonds make deviance costly. This theory asks why people refrain from deviant or criminal behavior, instead of why people commit deviant or criminal behavior, according to <a href="/wiki/Travis_Hirschi" title="Travis Hirschi">Travis Hirschi</a>. The control theory developed when norms emerge to deter deviant behavior. Without this "control", deviant behavior would happen more often. This leads to conformity and groups. People will conform to a group when they believe they have more to gain from conformity than by deviance. If a strong bond is achieved there will be less chance of deviance than if a weak bond has occurred. Hirschi argued a person follows the norms because they have a bond to society. The bond consists of four positively correlated factors: opportunity, attachment, belief, and involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> When any of these bonds are weakened or broken one is more likely to act in defiance. <a href="/wiki/Michael_R._Gottfredson" title="Michael R. Gottfredson">Michael Gottfredson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Travis_Hirschi" title="Travis Hirschi">Travis Hirschi</a> in 1990 founded their Self-Control Theory. It stated that acts of force and fraud are undertaken in the pursuit of self-interest and self-control. A deviant act is based on a criminals own self-control of themselves.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Containment theory is considered by researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reckless" title="Walter Reckless">Walter C. Reckless</a> to be part of the control theory because it also revolves around the thoughts that stop individuals from engaging in crime. Reckless studied the unfinished approaches meant to explain the reasoning behind delinquency and crime. He recognized that societal disorganization is included in the study of delinquency and crime under social deviance, leading him to claim that the majority of those who live in unstable areas tend not to have criminal tendencies in comparison those who live in middle-class areas. This claim opens up more possible approaches to social disorganization, and proves that the already implemented theories are in need or a deeper connection to further explore ideas of crime and delinquency. These observations brought Reckless to ask questions such as, "Why do some persons break through the tottering (social) controls and others do not? Why do rare cases in well-integrated society break through the lines of strong controls?" Reckless asserted that the intercommunication between self-control and social controls are partly responsible for the development of delinquent thoughts. Social disorganization was not related to a particular environment, but instead was involved in the deterioration of an individual's social controls. The containment theory is the idea that everyone possesses mental and social safeguards which protect the individual from committing acts of deviancy. Containment depends on the individuals ability to separate inner and outer controls for normative behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More contemporary control theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Crutchfield" title="Robert Crutchfield">Robert Crutchfield</a> take the theory into a new light, suggesting labor market experiences not only affect the attitudes and the "stakes" of individual workers, but can also affect the development of their children's views toward conformity and cause involvement in delinquency. This is an ongoing study as he has found a significant relationship between parental labor market involvement and children's delinquency, but has not empirically demonstrated the mediating role of parents' or children's attitude.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In a study conducted by Tim Wadsworth, the relationship between parent's employment and children's delinquency, which was previously suggested by Crutchfield (1993), was shown empirically for the first time. The findings from this study supported the idea that the relationship between socioeconomic status and delinquency might be better understood if the quality of employment and its role as an informal social control is closely examined.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_theory">Conflict theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Conflict theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Special:EditPage/Deviance (sociology)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">Conflict theory</a></div> <p>In sociology, conflict theory states that society or an organization functions so that each individual participant and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as political changes and revolutions. Deviant behaviors are actions that do not go along with the social institutions as what cause deviance. The institution's ability to change norms, wealth or status comes into conflict with the individual. The legal rights of poor folks might be ignored, middle class are also accept; they side with the elites rather than the poor, thinking they might rise to the top by supporting the status quo. Conflict theory is based upon the view that the fundamental causes of crime are the social and economic forces operating within society. However, it explains white-collar crime less well.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Minnesota-2016_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Minnesota-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This theory also states that the powerful define crime. This raises the question: for whom is this theory functional? In this theory, laws are instruments of oppression: tough on the powerless and less tough on the powerful.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Minnesota-2016_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Minnesota-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Karl Marx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> did not write about deviant behavior but he wrote about <a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">alienation</a> amongst the proletariat—as well as between the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> and the finished product—which causes conflict, and thus deviant behavior. </p><p>Many Marxist theorists have employed the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_state" title="Capitalist state">capitalist state</a> in their arguments. For example, Steven Spitzer utilized the theory of <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> control over social junk and social dynamite; and George Rusche was known to present analysis of different punishments correlated to the social capacity and infrastructure for labor. He theorized that throughout history, when more labor is needed, the severity of punishments decreases and the tolerance for deviant behavior increases. <a href="/wiki/Jock_Young" title="Jock Young">Jock Young</a>, another Marxist writer, presented the idea that the modern world did not approve of diversity, but was not afraid of social conflict. The late modern world, however, is very tolerant of diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is extremely afraid of social conflicts, which is an explanation given for the political correctness movement. The late modern society easily accepts difference, but it labels those that it does not want as deviant and relentlessly punishes and persecutes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Michel_Foucault">Michel Foucault</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Michel Foucault"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> believed that <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> had been phased out from modern society due to the dispersion of power; there was no need any more for the wrath of the state on a deviant individual. Rather, the <a href="/wiki/Modernity#Sociologically" title="Modernity">modern state</a> receives praise for its fairness and dispersion of power which, instead of controlling each individual, controls the mass. </p><p>He also theorized that institutions control people through the use of <a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">discipline</a>. For example, the modern prison (more specifically the <a href="/wiki/Panopticon" title="Panopticon">panopticon</a>) is a template for these institutions because it controls its inmates by the perfect use of discipline. </p><p>Foucault theorizes that, in a sense, the <a href="/wiki/Post_modern#History_of_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Post modern">postmodern society</a> is characterized by the lack of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> on the part of individuals. Institutions of knowledge, norms, and values, are simply in place to categorize and control humans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biological_theories_of_deviance">Biological theories of deviance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Biological theories of deviance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian school of criminology</a> contends that biological factors may contribute to crime and deviance. <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> was among the first to research and develop the Theory of Biological Deviance which states that some people are genetically predisposed to criminal behavior. He believed that criminals were a product of earlier genetic forms. The main influence of his research was Charles Darwin and his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">Theory of Evolution</a>. Lombroso theorized that people were born criminals or in other words, less evolved humans who were biologically more related to our more primitive and animalistic urges. From his research, Lombroso took Darwin's Theory and looked at primitive times himself in regards to deviant behaviors. He found that the skeletons that he studied mostly had low foreheads and protruding jaws. These characteristics resembled primitive beings such as <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo neanderthalensis">Homo Neanderthalensis</a></i>. He stated that little could be done to cure born criminals because their characteristics were biologically inherited. Over time, most of his research was disproved. His research was refuted by Pearson and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Buckman_Goring" title="Charles Buckman Goring">Charles Goring</a>. They discovered that Lombroso had not researched enough skeletons to make his research thorough enough. When Pearson and Goring researched skeletons on their own they tested many more and found that the bone structure had no relevance in deviant behavior. The statistical study that Charles Goring published on this research is called "The English Convict". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_theories">Other theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The classical school of <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a> comes from the works of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_(prison_reformer)" title="John Howard (prison reformer)">John Howard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Downes_Rock_2007_p._36_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Downes_Rock_2007_p._36-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beccaria assumed a <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> view of <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> along with a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> theory of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. He argued that the role of the state was to maximize the greatest possible utility to the maximum number of people and to minimize those actions that harm the society. He argued that deviants commit deviant acts (which are harmful to the society) because of the utility it gives to the private individual. If the state were to match the pain of punishments with the utility of various deviant behaviors, the deviant would no longer have any incentive to commit deviant acts. (Note that Beccaria argued for <i>just</i> punishment; as raising the severity of punishments without regard to logical measurement of utility would cause increasing degrees of social harm once it reached a certain point.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_criminal_justice_system">The criminal justice system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The criminal justice system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three sections of the criminal justice system that function to enforce formal deviance:<sup id="cite_ref-OpenStax_CNX-2015_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OpenStax_CNX-2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Police</b>: The police maintain public order by enforcing the law. Police use personal discretion in deciding whether and how to handle a situation. Research suggests that police are more likely to make an arrest if the offence is serious, if bystanders are present, or if the suspect is of a visible minority.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Courts</b>: Courts rely on an adversarial process in which attorneys-one representing the defendant and one representing the Crown-present their cases in the presence of a judge who monitors legal procedures. In practice, courts resolve most cases through plea bargaining. Though efficient, this method puts less powerful people at a disadvantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Corrections system</b>: Community-based corrections include probation and parole.<sup id="cite_ref-OpenStax_CNX-2015_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OpenStax_CNX-2015-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These programs lower the cost of supervising people convicted of crimes and reduce <a href="/wiki/Prison_overcrowding" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison overcrowding">prison overcrowding</a> but have not been shown to reduce recidivism.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>There are four jurisdictions for punishment (retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, societal protection),<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which fall under one of two forms of justice that an offender will face:<sup id="cite_ref-Conley-2017_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-2017-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Punitive justice</b> (retribution & deterrence): This form of justice defines boundaries of acceptable behaviors, whereby an individual suffers the consequences of committing a crime and in which pain or suffering inflicted on the individual is hidden from the public.</li> <li><b>Rehabilitative justice</b> (rehabilitation & societal protection): This form of justice focuses on specific circumstances, whereby individuals are meant to be fixed.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormality_(behavior)" title="Abnormality (behavior)">Abnormality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisocial_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisocial behavior">Antisocial behavior</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deviant_Behavior_(journal)" title="Deviant Behavior (journal)">Deviant Behavior</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Libertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonconformity_(quality)" title="Nonconformity (quality)">Nonconformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality disorders">Personality disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">Antisocial personality disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perversion" title="Perversion">Perversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_engulfment" title="Role engulfment">Role engulfment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudeness" title="Rudeness">Rudeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li>Social disorganization theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy#Sociopathy" title="Psychopathy">Sociopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_aggression" title="Workplace aggression">Workplace aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_deviance" title="Workplace deviance">Workplace deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFErikson1962" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kai_T._Erikson" title="Kai T. Erikson">Erikson, Kai T.</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/798544">"Notes on the Sociology of Deviance"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Problems" title="Social Problems">Social Problems</a></i>. <b>9</b> (4): 307–314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F798544">10.2307/798544</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-7791">0037-7791</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/798544">798544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Problems&rft.atitle=Notes+on+the+Sociology+of+Deviance&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=307-314&rft.date=1962&rft.issn=0037-7791&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F798544%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F798544&rft.aulast=Erikson&rft.aufirst=Kai+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F798544&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoode2015" class="citation cs2">Goode, Erich (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118701386.ch1">"The Sociology of Deviance"</a>, <i>The Handbook of Deviance</i>, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–29, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118701386.ch1">10.1002/9781118701386.ch1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-70138-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-70138-6"><bdi>978-1-118-70138-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-05</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Handbook+of+Deviance&rft.atitle=The+Sociology+of+Deviance&rft.pages=1-29&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118701386.ch1&rft.isbn=978-1-118-70138-6&rft.aulast=Goode&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781118701386.ch1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macionis,_J._2010-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_J._2010_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacionisGerber2010" class="citation book cs1">Macionis, John; Gerber, Linda (2010). <i>Sociology</i> (7th Canadian ed.). 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JwvZ98k2wRMC&pg=PA36"><i>Understanding Deviance: A Guide to the Sociology of Crime and Rule-breaking</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927828-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927828-2"><bdi>978-0-19-927828-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Deviance%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Sociology+of+Crime+and+Rule-breaking&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927828-2&rft.aulast=Downes&rft.aufirst=D.M.&rft.au=Rock%2C+P.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJwvZ98k2wRMC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deviance_(sociology)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Clinard, M. B., and R. F. Meier. 1968. <i>Sociology of Deviant Behavior</i>.</li> <li>Dinitz, Simon, Russell R. Dynes, and Alfred C. Clarke. 1975. <i>Deviance: Studies in Definition, Management, and Treatment</i>.</li> <li>Douglas, J. D., and F. C. Waksler. 1982. <i>The Sociology of Deviance: An Introduction</i>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown & Co.</a></li> <li>Gibbs, Jack P.; Erickson, Maynard L. (1975). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2946038">Major Developments in the Sociological Study of Deviance</a>". <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. <b>1</b>: 21–42.</li> <li>MacNamara, Donal E. J., and Andrew Karmen. 1983. <i>DEVIANTS: Victims or Victimizers?</i> Beverly Hills, Calif.: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>.</li> <li>Pratt, Travis. n.d. "Reconsidering Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime: Linking the Micro- and Macro-level Sources of Self-control and Criminal Behavior Over the Life-course."</li> <li>Bartel, Phil. 2012. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cec.vcn.bc.ca/cmp/modules/cri-dev.htm">Deviance</a>." <i>Social Control and Responses to Variant Behaviour</i> (module). Vancouver Community Network. Web. Accessed 7 April 2020.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120215133912/http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/soci/thomson/criminaljustice/deviance/deviance.htm">Types of Deviance</a>." <i>Criminal Justice</i>. <a href="/wiki/Acadia_University" title="Acadia University">Acadia University</a>. Archived from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/soci/thomson/criminaljustice/deviance/deviance.htm">original</a> on 17 Oct 10. Retrieved on 23 Feb. 2012.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/index-eng.shtml">Research at <abbr>CSC</abbr></a><abbr>."</abbr> <i>Correctional Service of Canada</i>. Government of Canada. Web. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2012.</li> <li>Macionis, John, and Linda Gerber. 2010. "Emile Durkheim"s Basic Insight" <i>Sociology</i> (7th ed.).</li> <li>Macionis, John, and Linda Gerber. 2010. "The Criminal Justice System" <i>Sociology</i> (7th ed.).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuChiuLinOishi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Su, Jenny C.; Chiu, Chi-Yue; Lin, Wei-Fang; Oishi, Shigehiro (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5120833">"Social Monitoring Matters for Deterring Social Deviance in Stable but Not Mobile Socio-Ecological Contexts"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>11</b> (11): e0167053. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1167053S">2016PLoSO..1167053S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0167053">10.1371/journal.pone.0167053</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5120833">5120833</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27880826">27880826</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Social+Monitoring+Matters+for+Deterring+Social+Deviance+in+Stable+but+Not+Mobile+Socio-Ecological+Contexts&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e0167053&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5120833%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27880826&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0167053&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PLoSO..1167053S&rft.aulast=Su&rft.aufirst=Jenny+C.&rft.au=Chiu%2C+Chi-Yue&rft.au=Lin%2C+Wei-Fang&rft.au=Oishi%2C+Shigehiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5120833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMehrabiEskandariehKhodadostSadeghi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mehrabi, M.; Eskandarieh, S.; Khodadost, M.; Sadeghi, M.; Nikfarjam, A.; Hajebi, A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5138462">"The Impact of Social Structures on Deviant Behaviors: The Study of 402 High Risk Street Drug Users in Iran"</a>. <i>Journal of Addiction</i>. <b>2016</b>: 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2016%2F6891751">10.1155/2016/6891751</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5138462">5138462</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27994907">27994907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Addiction&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Social+Structures+on+Deviant+Behaviors%3A+The+Study+of+402+High+Risk+Street+Drug+Users+in+Iran&rft.volume=2016&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5138462%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27994907&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2016%2F6891751&rft.aulast=Mehrabi&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Eskandarieh%2C+S.&rft.au=Khodadost%2C+M.&rft.au=Sadeghi%2C+M.&rft.au=Nikfarjam%2C+A.&rft.au=Hajebi%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5138462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtoisGendron2017" class="citation journal cs1">Courtois, Cynthia; Gendron, Yves (2017). "The "Normalization" of Deviance: A Case Study on the Process Underlying the Adoption of Deviant Behavior". <i>Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory</i>. <b>36</b> (3): 15–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2308%2Fajpt-51665">10.2308/ajpt-51665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Auditing%3A+A+Journal+of+Practice+%26+Theory&rft.atitle=The+%22Normalization%22+of+Deviance%3A+A+Case+Study+on+the+Process+Underlying+the+Adoption+of+Deviant+Behavior&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=15-43&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2308%2Fajpt-51665&rft.aulast=Courtois&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rft.au=Gendron%2C+Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeviance+%28sociology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span 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href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">Homo sacer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blacklisting" title="Blacklisting">Blacklisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vogelfrei" title="Vogelfrei">Vogelfrei</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">Persona non grata</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_enemy" title="Public enemy">Public enemy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_state" title="Enemy of the state">Enemy of the state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Group pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_missing_out" title="Fear of missing out">Fear of missing out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazing" title="Hazing">Hazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mere exposure effect">Mere exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_(sociology)" title="Normalization (sociology)">Normalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(sociology)" title="Passing (sociology)">Passing (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">Psychosocial issue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purity_spiral" title="Purity spiral">Purity spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contagion" title="Social contagion">Social contagion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_contagion" title="Behavioral contagion">Behavioral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_Contagion_Models" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime Contagion Models">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copycat_suicide" title="Copycat suicide">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teasing" title="Teasing">Teasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_positivity" title="Toxic positivity">Toxic positivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual pressure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_personality" title="Authoritarian personality">Authoritarian personality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_leadership_style" title="Authoritarian leadership style">Authoritarian leadership style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarian_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing authoritarian personality">Right-wing authoritarian personality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_freak" title="Control freak">Control freak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_personality_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conformity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(psychology)" title="Compliance (psychology)">Compliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_reinforcement" title="Communal reinforcement">Communal reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countersignaling" title="Countersignaling">Countersignaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creeping_normality" title="Creeping normality">Creeping normality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">Internalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_of_deviance" title="Normalization of deviance">Normalization of deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Asch conformity experiments">Asch conformity experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaching_experiment" title="Breaching experiment">Breaching experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anticonformity_(psychology)" title="Anticonformity (psychology)">Anticonformity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_advocate" title="Devil's advocate">Devil's advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">Dissent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">Political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(behavior)" title="Eccentricity (behavior)">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">Idiosyncrasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insubordination" title="Insubordination">Insubordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_clown" title="Pueblo clown">Pueblo clown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_team" title="Red team">Red team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_value" title="Shock value">Shock value</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sociology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology2" title="Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology2" title="Template talk:Sociology2"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sociology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_sociology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic sociology topics">General aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological practice">Sociological practice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Subfields of sociology">Related fields<br />and subfields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_sociology" title="Comparative sociology">Comparative sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sociology_of" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%">Sociology of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">death</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of medicine">medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of sports">sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_small_groups" title="Sociology of small groups">small groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Major theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Key themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology" title="Category:Sociology">Categories</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_lists" title="Category:Sociology lists">lists</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></b></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" 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