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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Social mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Karl_Marx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Marx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Karl Marx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Marx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Max_Weber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Max_Weber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Max Weber</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Max_Weber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C._Wright_Mills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C._Wright_Mills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>C. Wright Mills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C._Wright_Mills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropological_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropological_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Anthropological theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropological_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship-orientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship-orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Kinship-orientation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship-orientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variables_in_theory_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variables_in_theory_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Variables in theory and research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variables_in_theory_and_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Variables in theory and research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Variables_in_theory_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Economic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Ethnicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_stratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_stratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Global stratification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_stratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Social stratification</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تدرج اجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تدرج اجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratificaci%C3%B3n_social" title="Estratificación social – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estratificación social" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratifikasiya" title="Stratifikasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Stratifikasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="সামাজিক স্তরবিন্যাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সামাজিক স্তরবিন্যাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C4%81-h%C5%8De_chi%C3%A2%E2%81%BF-ch%C3%A2n" title="Siā-hōe chiâⁿ-chân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siā-hōe chiâⁿ-chân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социална стратификация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Социална стратификация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tveno_raslojavanje" title="Društveno raslojavanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Društveno raslojavanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratificaci%C3%B3_social" title="Estratificació social – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estratificació social" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_stratifikace" title="Sociální stratifikace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociální stratifikace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haeniad_cymdeithasol" title="Haeniad cymdeithasol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Haeniad cymdeithasol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratifikation_(social)" title="Stratifikation (social) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stratifikation (social)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Schicht" title="Soziale Schicht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziale Schicht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsiaalne_stratifikatsioon" title="Sotsiaalne stratifikatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sotsiaalne stratifikatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Κοινωνική διαστρωμάτωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινωνική διαστρωμάτωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratificaci%C3%B3n_social" title="Estratificación social – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estratificación social" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socia_tavoligo" title="Socia tavoligo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Socia tavoligo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizarte_estratifikazio" title="Gizarte estratifikazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gizarte estratifikazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="قشربندی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قشربندی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratification_sociale" title="Stratification sociale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Stratification sociale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratificaci%C3%B3n_social" title="Estratificación social – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Estratificación social" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C_%EA%B3%84%EC%B8%B5" title="사회 계층 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회 계층" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Սոցիալական ստրատիֆիկացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոցիալական ստրատիֆիկացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="सामाजिक स्तरीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामाजिक स्तरीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvena_stratifikacija" title="Društvena stratifikacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Društvena stratifikacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratifikasi_sosial" title="Stratifikasi sosial – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stratifikasi sosial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratificazione_sociale" title="Stratificazione sociale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stratificazione sociale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99" title="ריבוד חברתי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריבוד חברתי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Әлеуметтік стратификация – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әлеуметтік стратификация" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabiedr%C4%ABbas_nosl%C4%81%C5%86o%C5%A1an%C4%81s" title="Sabiedrības noslāņošanās – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sabiedrības noslāņošanās" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialin%C4%97_stratifikacija" title="Socialinė stratifikacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Socialinė stratifikacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Општествена хиерархија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Општествена хиерархија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociale_stratificatie" title="Sociale stratificatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociale stratificatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="社会階層 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会階層" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosial_lagdeling" title="Sosial lagdeling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sosial lagdeling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosial_lagdeling" title="Sosial lagdeling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sosial lagdeling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87_%DA%89%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="ټولنیزه ډلبندي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټولنیزه ډلبندي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratyfikacja_(socjologia)" title="Stratyfikacja (socjologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stratyfikacja (socjologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratifica%C3%A7%C3%A3o_social" title="Estratificação social – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estratificação social" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социальная стратификация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социальная стратификация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Social stratification" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Друштвена стратификација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друштвена стратификација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socijalna_stratifikacija" title="Socijalna stratifikacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Socijalna stratifikacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratifikaatio" title="Stratifikaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Stratifikaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratifiering" title="Social stratifiering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Social stratifiering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1" title="การจัดช่วงชั้นทางสังคม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การจัดช่วงชั้นทางสังคม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toplumsal_tabakala%C5%9Fma" title="Toplumsal tabakalaşma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toplumsal tabakalaşma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Соціальна стратифікація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Соціальна стратифікація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AC%DB%81_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="سماجی درجہ بندی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سماجی درجہ بندی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_t%E1%BA%A7ng_x%C3%A3_h%E1%BB%99i" title="Phân tầng xã hội – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân tầng xã hội" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="社會階層 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Concept in sociology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a 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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Social stratification</b> refers to a society's <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categorization</a> of its <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> into groups based on <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic</a> factors like <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Job" class="mw-redirect" title="Job">occupation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>, or derived <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> (social and political). It is a hierarchy within groups that ascribe them to different levels of privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social unit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western societies</a>, social stratification is defined in terms of three <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>: an <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">lower class</a>; in turn, each class can be subdivided into an upper-stratum, a middle-stratum, and a lower stratum.<sup id="cite_ref-Saunders1990_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saunders1990-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, or all four. </p><p>The categorization of people by social stratum occurs most clearly in complex <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state-based</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycentric_law" title="Polycentric law">polycentric</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> societies, the latter being based upon socio-economic relations among classes of <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> and classes of <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>. Whether social stratification first appeared in <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal">tribal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band</a> societies or whether it began with <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and large-scale means of <a href="/wiki/Social_exchange_theory" title="Social exchange theory">social exchange</a> remains a matter of debate in the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the <a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">social complexity</a> of a society, the more social stratification exists, by way of <a href="/wiki/Differentiation_(sociology)" title="Differentiation (sociology)">social differentiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky2011a-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stratification can yield various consequences. For instance, the stratification of neighborhoods based on spatial and racial factors can influence disparate access to <a href="/wiki/Mortgage" title="Mortgage">mortgage</a> credit.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_and_usage">Definition and usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition and usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Social stratification" is a concept used in the social sciences to describe the relative social position of persons in a given <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">category</a>, geographical region or other <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social unit</a>. It derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>strātum</i> (plural 'strata'; parallel, horizontal layers) referring to a given society's categorization of its people into rankings of <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic</a> tiers based on factors like <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>, <a href="/wiki/Job" class="mw-redirect" title="Job">occupation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>. In modern <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western societies</a>, stratification is often broadly classified into three major divisions of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>: <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">lower class</a>. Each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. "upper middle").<sup id="cite_ref-Saunders1990_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saunders1990-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social strata may also be delineated on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship ties</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> relations. </p><p>The concept of social stratification is often used and interpreted differently within specific theories. In <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, for example, proponents of <a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)" title="Action theory (sociology)">action theory</a> have suggested that social stratification is commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">developed</a> societies, wherein a <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">dominance hierarchy</a> may be necessary in order to maintain <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> and provide a stable <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a>. <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">Conflict theories</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, point to the inaccessibility of resources and lack of <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> found in stratified societies. Many sociological theorists have criticized the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Working_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Working classes">working classes</a> are often unlikely to advance socioeconomically while the <a href="/wiki/Wealth#The_upper_class" title="Wealth">wealthy</a> tend to hold political power which they use to <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">exploit</a> the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> (laboring class). <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are regulated, in part, by <a href="/wiki/Universal_value" title="Universal value">universal values</a>. Such values are not identical with "consensus" but can indeed be an impetus for social conflict, as has been the case multiple times through history. Parsons never claimed that universal values, in and by themselves, "satisfied" the <a href="/wiki/Functional_prerequisites" title="Functional prerequisites">functional prerequisites</a> of a society. Indeed, the constitution of society represents a much more complicated codification of emerging historical factors. Theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</a> alternately note the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due to the necessity of an educated workforce in technological economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependency theory</a>, suggest that these effects are due to changes in the status of workers to the <a href="/wiki/Third_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Third world">third world</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_underlying_principles">Four underlying principles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Four underlying principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Four principles are posited to underlie social stratification. First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society. Second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. Third, social stratification is universal (found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place). Fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality</a> but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky2011a-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complexity">Complexity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Complexity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although stratification is not limited to complex societies, all complex societies exhibit features of stratification. In any complex society, the total stock of valued goods is distributed unequally, wherein the most <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(social_inequality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (social inequality)">privileged</a> individuals and families enjoy a disproportionate share of <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">valued</a> social resources. The term "stratification system" is sometimes used to refer to the complex <a href="/wiki/Social_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Social relationship">social relationships</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a> that generate these observed inequalities. The key components of such systems are: (a) <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">social-institutional</a> processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desirable, (b) the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">rules</a> of allocation that distribute goods and resources across various positions in the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> (e.g., physician, farmer, 'housewife'), and (c) the <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> processes that link individuals to positions and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky1992-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_mobility">Social mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Social mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg/330px-20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg/495px-20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg/660px-20220801_Economic_stratification_-_cross-class_friendships_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption> Social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-EconomicStratification_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EconomicStratification-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups.<sup id="cite_ref-EconomicStratification_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EconomicStratification-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a> is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or within a stratification system. This movement can be intragenerational or intergenerational. Such mobility is sometimes used to classify different systems of social stratification. <a href="/wiki/Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">Open</a> stratification systems are those that allow for mobility between, typically by placing value on the <a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">achieved status</a> characteristics of individuals. Those societies having the highest levels of intragenerational mobility are considered to be the most open and malleable systems of stratification.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky2011a-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those systems in which there is little to no mobility, even on an intergenerational basis, are considered closed stratification systems. For example, in caste systems, all aspects of social status are <a href="/wiki/Ascribed_status" title="Ascribed status">ascribed</a>, such that one's social position at birth persists throughout one's lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky1992-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karl_Marx">Karl Marx</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Karl Marx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">Base and superstructure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg/220px-Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg/330px-Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg/440px-Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption>The 1911 "<a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System" title="Pyramid of Capitalist System">Pyramid of Capitalist System</a>" cartoon is an example of socialist <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Critique of capitalism">critique of capitalism</a> and of social stratification.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Marxist theory, the modern <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">mode of production</a> consists of two main economic parts: the base and the superstructure. The base encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">relations of production</a>: employer–employee work conditions, the technical <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>, and property relations. Social class, according to <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>, is determined by one's relationship to the means of production. There exist at least two classes in any class-based society: the owners of the means of production and those who sell their labor to the owners of the means of production. At times, Marx almost hints that the ruling classes seem to own the working class itself as they only have their own <a href="/wiki/Labor_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor power">labor power</a> ('<a href="/wiki/Wage_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage labor">wage labor</a>') to offer the more powerful in order to survive. These relations fundamentally determine the ideas and philosophies of a society and additional classes may form as part of the superstructure. Through the ideology of the ruling class—throughout much of history, the land-owning <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>—<a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">false consciousness</a> is promoted both through political and non-political institutions but also through the <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a> and other elements of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>. When the aristocracy falls, the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> become the owners of the means of production in the capitalist system. Marx predicted the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> mode would eventually give way, through its own internal conflict, to revolutionary consciousness and the development of more egalitarian, more <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> societies. </p><p>Marx also described two other classes, the petite <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">lumpenproletariat</a>. The petite bourgeoisie is like a small business class that never really accumulates enough profit to become part of the bourgeoisie, or even challenge their status. The lumpenproletariat is the <a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">underclass</a>, those with little to no social status. This includes prostitutes, street gangs, beggars, the <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homeless</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchables</a> in a given society. Neither of these subclasses has much influence in Marx's two major classes, but it is helpful to know that Marx did recognize differences within the classes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tim_Ingold" title="Tim Ingold">Tim Ingold</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold,_Tim_2006_p._400_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold,_Tim_2006_p._400-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a>'s accounts of egalitarian hunter-gatherers formed part of Karl Marx' and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>' inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>. Morgan spoke of a situation in which people living in the same community pooled their efforts and shared the rewards of those efforts fairly equally. He called this "communism in living". But when Marx expanded on these ideas, he still emphasized an economically oriented culture, with <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> defining the fundamental relationships between people.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, issues of <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a> and property are arguably less emphasized in hunter-gatherer societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowdy2006_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowdy2006-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, combined with the very different social and economic situations of hunter-gatherers may account for many of the difficulties encountered when implementing communism in industrialized states. As Ingold points out: "The notion of communism, removed from the context of domesticity and harnessed to support a project of social engineering for large-scale, industrialized states with populations of millions, eventually came to mean something quite different from what Morgan had intended: namely, a principle of redistribution that would override all ties of a personal or familial nature, and cancel out their effects."<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold,_Tim_2006_p._400_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold,_Tim_2006_p._400-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The counter-argument to Marxist's conflict theory is the theory of structural functionalism, argued by <a href="/wiki/Kingsley_Davis" title="Kingsley Davis">Kingsley Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilbert_E._Moore" title="Wilbert E. Moore">Wilbert Moore</a>, which states that social inequality places a vital role in the smooth operation of a society. The <a href="/wiki/Davis%E2%80%93Moore_hypothesis" title="Davis–Moore hypothesis">Davis–Moore hypothesis</a> argues that a position does not bring power and prestige because it draws a high income; rather, it draws a high income because it is functionally important and the available personnel is for one reason or another scarce. Most high-income jobs are difficult and require a high level of education to perform, and their compensation is a motivator in society for people to strive to achieve more.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Max_Weber">Max Weber</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Max Weber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Three-component theory of stratification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_classification_of_authority" title="Tripartite classification of authority">Tripartite classification of authority</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> was strongly influenced by Marx's ideas but rejected the possibility of effective communism, arguing that it would require an even greater level of detrimental social control and bureaucratization than capitalist society. Moreover, Weber criticized the <a href="/wiki/Dialectical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical">dialectical</a> presumption of a proletariat revolt, maintaining it to be unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, he develops a <a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">three-component theory of stratification</a> and the concept of <a href="/wiki/Life_chances" title="Life chances">life chances</a>. Weber held there are more class divisions than Marx suggested, taking different concepts from both <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> theories to create his own system. He emphasizes the difference between class, status, and party, and treats these as separate but related sources of power, each with different effects on <a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">social action</a>. Working half a century later than Marx, Weber claims there to be four main social classes: the <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_collar_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="White collar workers">white collar workers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a>, and the manual <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>. </p><p>Weber derives many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structure of <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. He notes that, contrary to Marx's theories, stratification is based on more than simple ownership of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. Weber examines how many members of the aristocracy lacked economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and power, for example, because they were <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>. Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy, which are; class, status, and power: </p> <ul><li><b>Class</b>: A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have placed these people in the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell their labor instead of owning capital.</li> <li><b>Status</b>: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. Poets or saints, for example, can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources.</li> <li><b>Power</b>: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>. For example, individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>, or a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">social power</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="C._Wright_Mills">C. Wright Mills</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: C. Wright Mills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">C. Wright Mills</a>, drawing from the theories of <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a>, contends that the imbalance of power in society derives from the complete absence of countervailing powers against corporate leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Power_elite" class="mw-redirect" title="Power elite">power elite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills1956_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mills both incorporated and revised <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> ideas. While he shared <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx's</a> recognition of a dominant wealthy and powerful class, Mills believed that the source for that power lay not only in the economic realm but also in the political and military arenas.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1950s, Mills stated that hardly anyone knew about the power elite's existence, some individuals (including the elite themselves) denied the idea of such a group, and other people vaguely believed that a small formation of a powerful elite existed.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Some prominent individuals knew that <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of the United States">Congress</a> had permitted a handful of political leaders to make critical decisions about peace and war; and that two <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a> had been dropped on Japan in the name of the United States, but neither they nor anyone they knew had been consulted."<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mills explains that the power elite embody a privileged class whose members are able to recognize their high position within society.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to maintain their highly exalted position within society, members of the power elite tend to marry one another, understand and accept one another, and also work together.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills1956_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>[pp. 4–5]</sup> The most crucial aspect of the power elite's existence lays within the core of education.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Youthful upper-class members attend prominent preparatory schools, which not only open doors to such elite universities as <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton</a> but also to the universities' highly exclusive clubs. These memberships in turn pave the way to the prominent social clubs located in all major cities and serving as sites for important business contacts."<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills1956_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>[pp. 63–67]</sup> Examples of elite members who attended prestigious universities and were members of highly exclusive clubs can be seen in <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a>. Both Bush and Kerry were members of the <a href="/wiki/Skull_and_Bones" title="Skull and Bones">Skull and Bones</a> club while attending Yale University.<sup id="cite_ref-Leung_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leung-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This club includes members of some of the most powerful men of the twentieth century, all of which are forbidden to tell others about the secrets of their exclusive club. Throughout the years, the Skull and Bones club has included <a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidents of the United States">presidents</a>, cabinet officers, Supreme Court justices, spies, captains of industry, and often their sons and daughters join the exclusive club, creating a social and political network like none ever seen before.<sup id="cite_ref-Leung_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leung-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The upper class individuals who receive elite educations typically have the essential background and contacts to enter into the three branches of the power elite: The political leadership, the military circle, and the corporate elite.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>The Political Leadership:</b> Mills held that, prior to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, leaders of corporations became more prominent within the political sphere along with a decline in central decision-making among professional politicians.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>The Military Circle:</b> During the 1950s–1960s, increasing concerns about <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> resulted in top military leaders and issues involving defense funding and military personnel training becoming a top priority within the United States. Most of the prominent politicians and corporate leaders have been strong proponents of military spending.</li> <li><b>The Corporate Elite:</b> Mills explains that during the 1950s, when the military emphasis was recognized, corporate leaders worked with prominent military officers who dominated the development of policies. Corporate leaders and high-ranking military officers were mutually supportive of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills1956_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>[pp. 274–276]</sup></li></ul> <p>Mills shows that the power elite has an "inner-core" made up of individuals who are able to move from one position of institutional power to another; for example, a prominent military officer who becomes a political adviser or a powerful politician who becomes a corporate executive.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "These people have more knowledge and a greater breadth of interests than their colleagues. Prominent bankers and financiers, who Mills considered 'almost professional go-betweens of economic, political, and military affairs,' are also members of the elite's inner core.<sup id="cite_ref-Doob_20-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doob-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills1956_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>[pp. 288–289]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropological_theories">Anthropological theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anthropological theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1132462144">.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-caption{padding-bottom:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:#ccccff;padding-top:0.2em;display:block;margin-bottom:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-list-title{background:lavender;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-subgroup .sidebar-heading{background:#e6e6ff;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist template-anthropology-of-kinship"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Kinship_and_descent" title="Category:Kinship and descent">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">Anthropology of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eg-filiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/100px-Eg-filiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/150px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/200px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="52" data-file-height="53" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">Consanguinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">Endogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">Exogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moiety_(kinship)" title="Moiety (kinship)">Moiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">Polygyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">Polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_service" title="Bride service">Bride service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_and_cross_cousins" title="Parallel and cross cousins">Parallel / cross cousins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">Cousin marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">Levirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sororate_marriage" title="Sororate marriage">Sororate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_marriage" title="Posthumous marriage">Posthumous marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joking_relationship" title="Joking relationship">Joking relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">Milk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Descent</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognatic_kinship" title="Cognatic kinship">Cognatic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_descent" title="Bilateral descent">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilateral" title="Matrilateral">Matrilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineal_descendant" title="Lineal descendant">Lineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_(kinship)" title="Collateral (kinship)">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avunculate" title="Avunculate">Avunculate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Linealities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambilineality" title="Ambilineality">Ambilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineality" title="Unilineality">Unilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">Patrilineality</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Household forms and residence</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrifocal_family" title="Matrifocal family">Matrifocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">Matrilocal</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Neolocal_residence" title="Neolocal residence">Neolocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilocal_residence" title="Patrilocal residence">Patrilocal</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Terminology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">Classificatory terminologies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By group</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo (Inuit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology#Dravidian" title="Kinship terminology">Dravidian <i>(debated)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_kinship" title="Philippine kinship">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_Tibet" title="Polyandry in Tibet">Polyandry in Tibet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_India" title="Polyandry in India">in India</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Feminist</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chambri_people#Marriage_within_the_Chambri" title="Chambri people">Chambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosuo_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosuo women">Mosuo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexuality</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Samoa" title="Coming of Age in Samoa">Coming of Age in Samoa</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Bell_(anthropologist)" title="Diane Bell (anthropologist)">Diane Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Boellstorff" title="Tom Boellstorff">Tom Boellstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Herdt" title="Gilbert Herdt">Gilbert Herdt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Kulick" title="Don Kulick">Don Kulick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Lancaster" title="Roger Lancaster">Roger Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Lamphere" title="Louise Lamphere">Louise Lamphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Leacock" title="Eleanor Leacock">Eleanor Leacock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Moore" title="Henrietta Moore">Henrietta Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_O._Murray" title="Stephen O. Murray">Stephen O. Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Rosaldo" title="Michelle Rosaldo">Michelle Rosaldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayle_Rubin" title="Gayle Rubin">Gayle Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Schneider" title="David M. Schneider">David M. Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Strathern" title="Marilyn Strathern">Marilyn Strathern</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_matrilineal_or_matrilocal_societies" title="List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies">Matrilineal / matrilocal societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist anthropology</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_Repression_in_Savage_Society" title="Sex and Repression in Savage Society">Sex and Repression in Savage Society</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship">Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/The_Traffic_in_Women:_Notes_on_the_Political_Economy_of_Sex" title="The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex">"The Traffic in Women"</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Template:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Template talk:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy#Biology" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy § Biology</a></div> <p>Most if not all <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> dispute the "universal" nature of social stratification, holding that it is not the standard among all societies. John Gowdy (2006) writes, "Assumptions about human behaviour that members of market societies believe to be universal, that humans are naturally competitive and acquisitive, and that social stratification is natural, do not apply to many hunter-gatherer peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Gowdy2006_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gowdy2006-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-stratified <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acephalous_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Acephalous Society">acephalous</a> ("headless") societies exist which have little or no concept of social hierarchy, political or economic status, class, or even permanent leadership." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship-orientation">Kinship-orientation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kinship-orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Original_affluent_society" title="Original affluent society">Original affluent society</a></div> <p>Anthropologists identify egalitarian cultures as "<a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>-oriented", because they appear to value social harmony more than wealth or status. These cultures are contrasted with economically oriented cultures (including <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>) in which status and material wealth are prized, and stratification, competition, and conflict are common. Kinship-oriented cultures actively work to prevent social hierarchies from developing because they believe that such stratification could lead to conflict and instability.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal altruism</a> is one process by which this is accomplished. </p><p>A good example is given by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Borshay_Lee" title="Richard Borshay Lee">Richard Borshay Lee</a> in his account of the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>, who practice <i>"insulting the meat".</i> Whenever a hunter makes a kill, he is ceaselessly teased and ridiculed (in a friendly, joking fashion) to prevent him from becoming too proud or egotistical. The meat itself is then distributed evenly among the entire social group, rather than kept by the hunter. The level of teasing is proportional to the size of the kill. Lee found this out when he purchased an entire cow as a gift for the group he was living with, and was teased for weeks afterward about it (since obtaining that much meat could be interpreted as showing off).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Australian Aboriginals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Groote_Eylandt" title="Groote Eylandt">Groote Eylandt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bickerton_Island" title="Bickerton Island">Bickerton Island</a>, off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a>, who have arranged their entire society—spiritually and economically—around a kind of <a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">gift economy</a> called <i><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">renunciation</a>.</i> According to <a href="/wiki/David_H._Turner" title="David H. Turner">David H. Turner</a>, in this arrangement, every person is expected to give <i>everything</i> of any resource they have to any other person who needs or lacks it at the time. This has the benefit of largely eliminating social problems like theft and relative poverty. However, misunderstandings obviously arise when attempting to reconcile Aboriginal <i>renunciative economics</i> with the competition/scarcity-oriented <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> introduced to Australia by European colonists.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variables_in_theory_and_research">Variables in theory and research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Variables in theory and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The social status variables underlying social stratification are based in social perceptions and <a href="/wiki/Social_attitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Social attitude">attitudes</a> about various characteristics of persons and peoples. While many such variables cut across time and place, the relative <a href="/wiki/Statistical_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical weight">weight</a> placed on each variable and specific combinations of these variables will differ from place to place over time. One task of research is to identify accurate <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> that explain how these many variables combine to produce stratification in a given society. Grusky (2011) provides a good overview of the historical development of sociological theories of social stratification and a summary of contemporary theories and research in this field.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky2011b_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky2011b-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many of the variables that contribute to an understanding of social stratification have long been identified, models of these variables and their role in constituting social stratification are still an active topic of theory and research. In general, sociologists recognize that there are no "pure" economic variables, as social factors are integral to economic value. However, the variables posited to affect social stratification can be loosely divided into economic and other social factors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic">Economic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></div> <p>Strictly <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> economic variables are more useful to <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">describing</a> social stratification than <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">explaining</a> how social stratification is constituted or maintained. <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">Income</a> is the most common variable used to describe stratification and associated <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> in a society.<sup id="cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grusky1992-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the distribution of individual or <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">household</a> accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Excess_supply" title="Excess supply">surplus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a> tells us more about variation in individual <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> than does income, alone.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wealth variables can also more vividly illustrate salient variations in the well-being of groups in stratified societies.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a> (GDP), especially <i>per capita</i> GDP, is sometimes used to describe economic inequality and stratification at the <a href="/wiki/International_inequality" title="International inequality">international</a> or global level. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></div> <p>Social variables, both quantitative and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a>, typically provide the most explanatory power in <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> research regarding social stratification, either as <a href="/wiki/Independent_variable#Independent_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent variable">independent</a> variables or as <a href="/wiki/Intervening_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervening variable">intervening variables</a>. Three important social variables include <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (human classification)">race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>, which, at the least, have an intervening effect on social status and stratification in most places throughout the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill1998_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill1998-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional variables include those that describe other ascribed and achieved characteristics such as <a href="/wiki/Job_(role)" class="mw-redirect" title="Job (role)">occupation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">skill</a> levels, <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> level, education level of parents, and <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geographic</a> area. Some of these variables may have both causal and intervening effects on social status and stratification. For example, absolute age may cause a low income if one is too young or too old to perform productive work. The social perception of age and its role in the workplace, which may lead to <a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">ageism</a>, typically has an intervening effect on <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> and income. </p><p>Social scientists are sometimes interested in quantifying the degree of <a href="/wiki/Economic_stratification" title="Economic stratification">economic stratification</a> between different social categories, such as men and women, or workers with different levels of education. An index of stratification has been recently proposed by Zhou for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhou2012_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhou2012-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gender">Gender</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">Gender inequality</a></div> <p>Gender is one of the most pervasive and prevalent social characteristics which people use to make social distinctions between individuals. Gender distinctions are found in economic-, kinship- and caste-based stratification systems.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_role" class="mw-redirect" title="Social role">Social role</a> expectations often form along sex and gender lines. Entire societies may be classified by social scientists according to the <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(social_inequality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (social inequality)">privileges</a> afforded to men or women, especially those associated with ownership and inheritance of <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> societies, such rights and privileges are <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">normatively</a> granted to men over women; in <a href="/wiki/Matriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchal">matriarchal</a> societies, the opposite holds true. Sex- and gender-based <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> is historically found in the annals of most societies and such divisions increased with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sex-based <a href="/wiki/Wage_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage discrimination">wage discrimination</a> exists in some societies such that men, typically, receive higher wages than women for the same type of work. Other differences in employment between men and women lead to an overall gender-based pay-gap in many societies, where women as a category earn less than men due to the types of jobs which women are offered and take, as well as to differences in the number of hours worked by women.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other gender-related values affect the distribution of income, wealth, and property in a given social order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Race">Race</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></div> <p>Racism consists of both <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> based in social perceptions of observable biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of <a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">social actions</a>, practices or beliefs, or <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political systems</a> in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in positions of social power, i.e., they become a <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority category</a> in that society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">exclusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">expulsion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">extermination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned a <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave status</a>, a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> to a minority that are granted to other members of the society. More <a href="/wiki/Covert_racism" title="Covert racism">covert racism</a>, such as that which many scholars posit is practiced in more contemporary societies, is socially hidden and less easily detectable. Covert racism often feeds into stratification systems as an intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities, and housing. Both overt and covert racism can take the form of <a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">structural inequality</a> in a society in which <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">racism has become institutionalized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ethnicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentricity">Ethnocentricity</a></div> <p>Ethnic prejudice and discrimination operate much the same as do racial prejudice and discrimination in society. In fact, only recently have scholars begun to differentiate race and ethnicity; historically, the two were considered to be identical or closely related. With the scientific development of <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> as fields of study, most scholars now recognize that <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (human classification)">race</a> is socially defined on the basis of biologically determined characteristics that can be observed within a society while ethnicity is defined on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culturally</a> learned behavior. Ethnic identification can include shared cultural heritage such as <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic system">symbolic systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuisine" title="Cuisine">cuisine</a>. As with race, ethnic categories of persons may be socially defined as minority <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups">categories</a> whose members are under-represented in positions of social power. As such, ethnic categories of persons can be subject to the same types of majority policies. Whether ethnicity feeds into a stratification system as a direct, causal factor or as an intervening variable may depend on the level of ethnographic centrism within each of the various ethnic populations in a society, the amount of conflict over scarce resources, and the relative social power held within each ethnic category.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_stratification">Global stratification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Global stratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency theory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalizing</a> forces lead to rapid international integration arising from the interchange of <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world views</a>, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Albrow_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albrow-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a> infrastructure, including the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> and its modern representation the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, are major factors in globalization, generating further <a href="/wiki/Interdependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdependence">interdependence</a> of economic and cultural activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Stever_1972_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stever_1972-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like a stratified class system within a nation, looking at the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a> one can see class positions in the unequal distribution of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> and other resources between nations. Rather than having separate national economies, nations are considered as participating in this world economy. The world economy manifests a global <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> with three overarching classes: <a href="/wiki/Core_countries" title="Core countries">core countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semi-periphery_countries" title="Semi-periphery countries">semi-periphery countries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periphery_countries" title="Periphery countries">periphery countries</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to World-systems and Dependency theories. Core nations primarily own and control the major means of production in the world and perform the higher-level production tasks and provide international financial services. Periphery nations own very little of the world's <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> (even when factories are located in periphery nations) and provide low to non-skilled labor. Semiperipheral nations are midway between the core and periphery. They tend to be countries moving towards industrialization and more diversified economies.<sup id="cite_ref-PH_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PH-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Core nations receive the greatest share of surplus production, and periphery nations receive the least. Furthermore, core nations are usually able to purchase raw materials and other goods from noncore nations at low prices, while demanding higher prices for their exports to noncore nations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">global workforce</a> employed through a system of <a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">global labor arbitrage</a> ensures that companies in core countries can utilize the cheapest semi-and non-skilled labor for production. </p><p>Today we have the means to gather and analyze data from economies across the globe. Although many societies worldwide have made great strides toward more equality between differing geographic regions, in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> and <a href="/wiki/Life_chances" title="Life chances">life chances</a> afforded to their peoples, we still find large gaps between the wealthiest and the poorest within a nation and between the wealthiest and poorest nations of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A January 2014 <a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a> report indicates that the 85 wealthiest individuals in the world have a combined wealth equal to that of the bottom 50% of the world's population, or about 3.5 billion people.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, for 2012, the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> reports that 21 percent of people worldwide, around 1.5 billion, live in extreme poverty, at or below $1.25 a day.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zygmunt Bauman has provocatively observed that the rise of the rich is linked to their capacity to lead highly mobile lives: "Mobility climbs to the rank of the uppermost among coveted values—and the freedom to move, perpetually a scarce and unequally distributed commodity, fast becomes the main stratifying factor of our late modern or postmodern time."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_stratification" title="Age stratification">Age stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">Caste system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_stratification" title="Class stratification">Class stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">Dominance hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microinequity" class="mw-redirect" title="Microinequity">Microinequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_stratification" title="Religious stratification">Religious stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">Social inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_of_social_stratification" title="Systems of social stratification">Systems of social stratification</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_Elite" title="The Power Elite">The Power Elite</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBlundell2014" class="citation book cs1">Blundell, Jonathan (2014). <i>Cambridge IGCSE® sociology coursebook</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64513-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64513-4"><bdi>978-1-107-64513-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+IGCSE%C2%AE+sociology+coursebook&rft.pub=Cambridge%2C+UK%3A+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-64513-4&rft.aulast=Blundell&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/what-is-social-stratification/">"What Is Social Stratification?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304215139/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/what-is-social-stratification/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Social+Stratification%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsociology%2Fchapter%2Fwhat-is-social-stratification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Barkan)/06%3A_Social_Stratification/6.0S%3A_6.S%3A__Social_Stratification_(Summary)">"6.S: Social Stratification (Summary)"</a>. 13 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212061534/https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Barkan)/06%3A_Social_Stratification/6.0S%3A_6.S%3A__Social_Stratification_(Summary)">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=6.S%3A+Social+Stratification+%28Summary%29&rft.date=2016-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialsci.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FSociology%2FBook%253A_Sociology_%28Barkan%29%2F06%253A_Social_Stratification%2F6.0S%253A_6.S%253A__Social_Stratification_%28Summary%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-social-stratification-3026643">"What Is Social Stratification, and Why Does It Matter?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416220134/https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-social-stratification-3026643">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Social+Stratification%2C+and+Why+Does+It+Matter%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fwhat-is-social-stratification-3026643&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saunders1990-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saunders1990_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saunders1990_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Robert_Saunders" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Robert Saunders">Saunders, Peter</a> (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialclassstrat0000saun"><i>Social Class and Stratification</i></a></span>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04125-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04125-6"><bdi>978-0-415-04125-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Class+and+Stratification&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-04125-6&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialclassstrat0000saun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToye,_David_L.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Toye, David L. (May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/1.2/toye.html">"The Emergence of Complex Societies: A Comparative Approach"</a>. <i>World History Connected</i>. <b>11</b> (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140627102501/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/1.2/toye.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-06-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+History+Connected&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Complex+Societies%3A+A+Comparative+Approach&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2004-05&rft.au=Toye%2C+David+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu%2F1.2%2Ftoye.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grusky2011a-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky2011a_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrusky,_David_B.2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Grusky, David B. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_yr2011_chunk_g978140512433125_ss1-273#citation">"Theories of Stratification and Inequality"</a>. In Ritzer, George and J. Michael Ryan (ed.). <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 622–624. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405165518">10.1002/9781405165518</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405124331" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405124331"><bdi>978-1405124331</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160901104430/http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_yr2011_chunk_g978140512433125_ss1-273#citation">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theories+of+Stratification+and+Inequality&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Sociology&rft.pages=622-624&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell.&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405165518&rft.isbn=978-1405124331&rft.au=Grusky%2C+David+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sociologyencyclopedia.com%2Fpublic%2Ftocnode%3Fid%3Dg9781405124331_yr2011_chunk_g978140512433125_ss1-273%23citation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoya2023" class="citation journal cs1">Loya, Jose (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ruso.12485">"Differential Access in Mortgage Credit: The Role of Neighborhood Spatial and Racial Stratification"</a>. <i>Rural Sociology</i>. <b>88</b> (2): 546–577. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fruso.12485">10.1111/ruso.12485</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257658592">257658592</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230416003222/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ruso.12485">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rural+Sociology&rft.atitle=Differential+Access+in+Mortgage+Credit%3A+The+Role+of+Neighborhood+Spatial+and+Racial+Stratification&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=546-577&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fruso.12485&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257658592%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Loya&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fruso.12485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grusky1992-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grusky1992_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrusky,_David_B.Ann_Azumi_Takata1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Grusky, David B. & Ann Azumi Takata (1992). "Social Stratification". <i>The Encyclopedia of Sociology</i>. Macmillan Publishing Co. pp. 1955–1970.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Stratification&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Sociology&rft.pages=1955-1970&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Grusky%2C+David+B.&rft.au=Ann+Azumi+Takata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EconomicStratification-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EconomicStratification_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EconomicStratification_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChettyJacksonKuchlerStroebel2022" class="citation journal cs1">Chetty, Raj; Jackson, Matthew O.; Kuchler, Theresa; Stroebel, Johannes; et al. (August 1, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9352590">"Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>608</b> (7921): 108–121. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.608..108C">2022Natur.608..108C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04996-4">10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9352590">9352590</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35915342">35915342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Social+capital+I%3A+measurement+and+associations+with+economic+mobility&rft.volume=608&rft.issue=7921&rft.pages=108-121&rft.date=2022-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9352590%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35915342&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04996-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.608..108C&rft.aulast=Chetty&rft.aufirst=Raj&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Matthew+O.&rft.au=Kuchler%2C+Theresa&rft.au=Stroebel%2C+Johannes&rft.au=Hendren%2C+Nathaniel&rft.au=Fluegge%2C+Robert+B.&rft.au=Gong%2C+Sara&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+Frederico&rft.au=Grondin%2C+Armelle&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9352590&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span> Charted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonhardt2022" class="citation news cs1">Leonhardt, David (August 1, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Friending Bias' / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220801104004/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Friending+Bias%27+%2F+A+large+new+study+offers+clues+about+how+lower-income+children+can+rise+up+the+economic+ladder.&rft.date=2022-08-01&rft.aulast=Leonhardt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2022%2F08%2F01%2Fbriefing%2Feconomic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doob, Christopher. <i>Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society</i> (1st ed.), Pearson Education, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-79241-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-79241-3">0-205-79241-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Harris, Marvin</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TlgVAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture</i></a>. 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Lee</a> and Richard H. Daly (eds.), <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers,</i> p. 400. New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-60919-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-60919-4">0-521-60919-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnard, Alan (2006) "Images of hunters and gatherers in European social thought," in <a href="/wiki/Richard_Borshay_Lee" title="Richard Borshay Lee">Richard B. Lee</a> and Richard H. Daly (eds.), <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers,</i> p. 379. 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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-79241-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-79241-2"><bdi>978-0-205-79241-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Inequality+and+Social+Stratification+in+US+Society&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Inc.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-205-79241-2&rft.aulast=Doob&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills1956-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mills1956_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills1956_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills1956_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills1956_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills1956_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills1956" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Charles W. (1956). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/powerelite000mill"><i>The Power Elite</i></a></span>. London: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+Elite&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpowerelite000mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leung-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leung_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leung_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeung" class="citation news cs1">Leung, Rebecca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/skull-and-bones/">"Skull and Bones"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontline (U.S. TV series)">Frontline</a> (<a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>) (accessed 12 March 2012)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007154453/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-576332.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge: Harvard University Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner, David H. (1999), <i>Genesis Regained: Aboriginal Forms of Renunciation in Judeo-Christian Scriptures and Other Major Traditions,</i> pp. 1–9, Peter Lang. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grusky2011b-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grusky2011b_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrusky,_David_B2011" class="citation book cs1">Grusky, David B (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161008111100/http://inequality.stanford.edu/grusky/article_files/past_present_future_social_inequality.pdf"><i><span></span>'The Past, Present and Future of Social Inequality.' In Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Second ed.). Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 3–51. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inequality.stanford.edu/grusky/article_files/past_present_future_social_inequality.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-10-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27The+Past%2C+Present+and+Future+of+Social+Inequality.%27+In+Social+Stratification%3A+Class%2C+Race%2C+and+Gender+in+Sociological+Perspective&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pages=3-51&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Grusky%2C+David+B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finequality.stanford.edu%2Fgrusky%2Farticle_files%2Fpast_present_future_social_inequality.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomhoff,_G._William2013" class="citation book cs1">Domhoff, G. William (2013). <i>Who Rules America? The Triumph of the Corporate Rich</i>. McGraw-Hill. p. 288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0078026713" title="Special:BookSources/978-0078026713"><bdi>978-0078026713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Rules+America%3F+The+Triumph+of+the+Corporate+Rich&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0078026713&rft.au=Domhoff%2C+G.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry-Rivers,_P.2014" class="citation journal cs1">Perry-Rivers, P. (October 2014). 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London: Palgrave MacMillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patriarchy+and+Accumulation+on+a+World+Scale%3A+Women+in+the+International+Division+of+Labour.&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Mies%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenrard,_Kristen2000" class="citation book cs1">Henrard, Kristen (2000). <i>Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination</i>. New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9041113597" title="Special:BookSources/978-9041113597"><bdi>978-9041113597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Devising+an+Adequate+System+of+Minority+Protection%3A+Individual+Human+Rights%2C+Minority+Rights+and+the+Right+to+Self-Determination&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-9041113597&rft.au=Henrard%2C+Kristen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuess,_Teresa_J2006" class="citation journal cs1">Guess, Teresa J (July 2006). "The Social Construction of Whiteness: Racism by Intent, Racism by Consequence". <i>Critical Sociology</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 649–673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156916306779155199">10.1163/156916306779155199</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146275825">146275825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+Social+Construction+of+Whiteness%3A+Racism+by+Intent%2C+Racism+by+Consequence&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=649-673&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156916306779155199&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146275825%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Guess%2C+Teresa+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoel,_Donald_L.1968" class="citation journal cs1">Noel, Donald L. (Autumn 1968). "A Theory of the Origin of Ethnic Stratification". <i>Social Problems</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 157–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F800001">10.2307/800001</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/800001">800001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Problems&rft.atitle=A+Theory+of+the+Origin+of+Ethnic+Stratification&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-172&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F800001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F800001%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Noel%2C+Donald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albrow-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Albrow_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albrow, Martin and Elizabeth King (eds.) (1990). <i>Globalization, Knowledge and Society </i>London: Sage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803983243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803983243">978-0803983243</a> p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stever_1972-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stever_1972_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStever1972" class="citation journal cs1">Stever, H. Guyford (1972). "Science, Systems, and Society". <i>Journal of Cybernetics</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01969727208542909">10.1080/01969727208542909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cybernetics&rft.atitle=Science%2C+Systems%2C+and+Society&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01969727208542909&rft.aulast=Stever&rft.aufirst=H.+Guyford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974). <i>The Modern World-System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century</i>. New York: Academic Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PH-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PH_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Halsall <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/wallerstein.html">Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071026020045/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/wallerstein.html">Archived</a> 2007-10-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, August 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChirot,_Daniel1977" class="citation book cs1">Chirot, Daniel (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialchangeintw00chi_ex4"><i>Social Change in the Twentieth Century</i></a></span>. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0155814202" title="Special:BookSources/978-0155814202"><bdi>978-0155814202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Change+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0155814202&rft.au=Chirot%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialchangeintw00chi_ex4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140626064130/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2013/2013-world-population-data-sheet.aspx">"2013 World Population Data Sheet"</a>. Population Research Bureau. 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2013/2013-world-population-data-sheet.aspx">the original</a> on 26 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2013+World+Population+Data+Sheet&rft.pub=Population+Research+Bureau&rft.date=2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prb.org%2FPublications%2FDatasheets%2F2013%2F2013-world-population-data-sheet.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2014-01-20/rigged-rules-mean-economic-growth-increasingly-winner-takes-all-for-rich-elites">Rigged rules mean economic growth increasingly "winner takes all" for rich elites all over world</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140803172203/http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2014-01-20/rigged-rules-mean-economic-growth-increasingly-winner-takes-all-for-rich-elites">Archived</a> 2014-08-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a>.</i> 20 January 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlinto,_PedroJaime_Saavedra2012" class="citation journal cs1">Olinto, Pedro & Jaime Saavedra (April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/isp/publication/inequality-in-focus">"An Overview of Global Income Inequality Trends"</a>. <i>Inequalitty in Focus</i>. <b>1</b> (1). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140901115722/http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/isp/publication/inequality-in-focus">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inequalitty+in+Focus&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Global+Income+Inequality+Trends&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2012-04&rft.au=Olinto%2C+Pedro&rft.au=Jaime+Saavedra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldbank.org%2Fen%2Ftopic%2Fisp%2Fpublication%2Finequality-in-focus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bauman, Z. (1988) <i>Globalization: The Human Consequences</i>. Cambridge: Polity <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_stratification&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrusky,_David_B.2014" class="citation book cs1">Grusky, David B. (2014). <i>Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective</i> (4th ed.). Boulder: Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813346717" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813346717"><bdi>978-0813346717</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Stratification%3A+Class%2C+Race%2C+and+Gender+in+Sociological+Perspective&rft.place=Boulder&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0813346717&rft.au=Grusky%2C+David+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolon,_Gary2014" class="citation journal cs1">Solon, Gary (March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w18790.pdf">"Theoretical models of inequality transmission across multiple generations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Research in Social Stratification and Mobility</i>. <b>35</b>: 13–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rssm.2013.09.005">10.1016/j.rssm.2013.09.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154287581">154287581</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227051013/https://www.nber.org/papers/w18790.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2020-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Research+in+Social+Stratification+and+Mobility&rft.atitle=Theoretical+models+of+inequality+transmission+across+multiple+generations&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=13-18&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rssm.2013.09.005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154287581%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Solon%2C+Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nber.org%2Fpapers%2Fw18790.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+stratification" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Social stratification</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Social+stratification">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_class" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_class" title="Template:Social class"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_class" title="Template talk:Social class"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_class" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social class"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_class" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stratum</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related<wbr /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Patrician <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_families" title="List of political families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair castes">Nair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social class in the United States">Classes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions<wbr /> or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Iran" title="Social class in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes_in_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Social classes in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Social class in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td 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