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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Method of digital signal processing</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/GpaGUI.png/220px-GpaGUI.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/GpaGUI.png/330px-GpaGUI.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/GpaGUI.png/440px-GpaGUI.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>Geometric phase analysis performed by <a href="/wiki/CrysTBox#gpaGUI" title="CrysTBox">CrysTBox gpaGUI</a> showing input image (bottom left) and d-spacing map (bottom right)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geometric phase analysis</b> is a method of <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a> used to determine crystallographic quantities such as d-spacing or strain from <a href="/wiki/High-resolution_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="High-resolution transmission electron microscopy">high-resolution transmission electron microscope</a> images.<sup id="cite_ref-hytch1997_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hytch1997-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hytch1998_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hytch1998-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The analysis needs to be performed using specialized <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principle">Principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geometric_phase_analysis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In geometric phase analysis, local changes in the periodicity of a high resolution image of a crystalline material are quantified, resulting in a two-dimensional map. Quantities which can be mapped with geometric phase analysis include interplanar distances (d-spacing), two-dimensional deformation and strain tensors and displacement vectors. This allows strain fields to be determined at very high resolution, down to the unit cell of the material. Importantly, GPA performed on images that have sub unit-cell resolution can produce erroneous results. For example, a change in composition may appear as a component of the deformation tensor, with the result that an interface appears to have a strain field associated with it when in fact there is none.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the calculations are performed in the frequency domain, the input image, with a periodicity of the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">crystal lattice</a>, must be transformed into a spatial frequency representation using a 2D <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>. From a mathematical point of view, the frequency image is a complex matrix with a size equal to the original image. From a crystallographic point of view, there is an analogy between the 2D Fourier transform and <a href="/wiki/Selected_area_diffraction" title="Selected area diffraction">diffraction pattern</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_lattice" title="Reciprocal lattice">reciprocal lattice</a>. The intensity peaks (or power peaks) in the Fourier transform correspond to crystallographic planes depicted in the original image, specifically a sine wave with the orientation and period of the corresponding planes. A change in the phase of this sine wave indicates a change in the position of its peaks and troughs, which can be interpreted as a component of a 2D deformation tensor. </p><p>Due to the <a href="/wiki/Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex</a> nature of the frequency image, it can be used to calculate <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a>. Together with a vector of one crystallographic plane depicted in the image, the amplitude and phase can be used to generate a 2D map of d-spacing.<sup id="cite_ref-hytch1997_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hytch1997-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If two vectors of non-parallel planes are known, the method can be used to generate maps of strain and displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-hytch1998_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hytch1998-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geometric_phase_analysis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to perform geometric phase analysis, a computer tool is needed. Firstly, because manual evaluation of transforms between spatial and frequential domain would be highly impractical. Secondly, a vector of crystallographic plane is an important input parameter and the analysis is sensitive to the accuracy of its localization. Therefore, the accuracy and repeatability of the analysis requires precise localization of diffraction spots. </p><p>The required functionalities are available in several software packages including Strain++<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the crystallographic suite <a href="/wiki/CrysTBox" title="CrysTBox">CrysTBox</a>. The latter offers an interactive geometric phase analysis called <a href="/wiki/CrysTBox#gpaGUI" title="CrysTBox">gpaGUI</a>. In both packages it is possible to locate peaks in the Fourier transform with sub-pixel precision (e.g. <a href="/wiki/CrysTBox#diffractGUI" title="CrysTBox">diffractGUI</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Klinger_2017_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klinger_2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerycaption">High-resolution image of magnesium processed with geometric phase analysis.</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI_input.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Input image (magnesium)"><img alt="Input image (magnesium)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GpaGUI_input.png/120px-GpaGUI_input.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GpaGUI_input.png/180px-GpaGUI_input.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GpaGUI_input.png/240px-GpaGUI_input.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Input image (magnesium)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI_filtered010.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Filtered image of plane (0 1 0)"><img alt="Filtered image of plane (0 1 0)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/GpaGUI_filtered010.png/120px-GpaGUI_filtered010.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/GpaGUI_filtered010.png/180px-GpaGUI_filtered010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/GpaGUI_filtered010.png/240px-GpaGUI_filtered010.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Filtered image of plane (0 1 0)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI_dsp010.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of (0 1 0) d-spacing"><img alt="Map of (0 1 0) d-spacing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/GpaGUI_dsp010.png/120px-GpaGUI_dsp010.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/GpaGUI_dsp010.png/180px-GpaGUI_dsp010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/GpaGUI_dsp010.png/240px-GpaGUI_dsp010.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of (0 1 0) d-spacing</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI_strainXx.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of XX component of strain tensor"><img alt="Map of XX component of strain tensor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/GpaGUI_strainXx.png/120px-GpaGUI_strainXx.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/GpaGUI_strainXx.png/180px-GpaGUI_strainXx.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/GpaGUI_strainXx.png/240px-GpaGUI_strainXx.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of XX component of strain tensor</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GpaGUI_displacementX.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of X component of displacement vector"><img alt="Map of X component of displacement vector" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GpaGUI_displacementX.png/120px-GpaGUI_displacementX.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GpaGUI_displacementX.png/180px-GpaGUI_displacementX.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GpaGUI_displacementX.png/240px-GpaGUI_displacementX.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of X component of displacement vector</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geometric_phase_analysis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-resolution_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="High-resolution transmission electron microscopy">High-resolution transmission electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron microscope">Transmission electron microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrysTBox" title="CrysTBox">CrysTBox</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geometric_phase_analysis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-hytch1997-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hytch1997_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hytch1997_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHÿtch1997" class="citation journal cs1">Hÿtch, M.J. (1997). "Geometric phase analysis of high resolution electron microscope images". <i>Scanning Microscopy</i>. <b>11</b>: 53–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scanning+Microscopy&rft.atitle=Geometric+phase+analysis+of+high+resolution+electron+microscope+images&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=53-66&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=H%C3%BFtch&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeometric+phase+analysis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hytch1998-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hytch1998_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hytch1998_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHÿtchSnoeckKilaas1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hÿtch, M.J.; Snoeck, E.; Kilaas, R. (1998). 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"Artefacts in geometric phase analysis of compound materials". <i>Ultramicroscopy</i>. <b>157</b>: 91-97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ultramic.2015.05.020">10.1016/j.ultramic.2015.05.020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ultramicroscopy&rft.atitle=Artefacts+in+geometric+phase+analysis+of+compound+materials&rft.volume=157&rft.pages=91-97&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ultramic.2015.05.020&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+JP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeometric+phase+analysis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters" class="citation web cs1">Peters, Jonathan JP. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jjppeters.github.io/Strainpp/">"Strain++"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Strain%2B%2B&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+JP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjjppeters.github.io%2FStrainpp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeometric+phase+analysis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klinger_2017-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Klinger_2017_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlinger2017" class="citation journal cs1">Klinger, Miloslav (2017-07-07). "More features, more tools, more CrysTBox". <i>Journal of Applied Crystallography</i>. <b>50</b> (4). International Union of Crystallography (IUCr): 1226–1234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1107%2Fs1600576717006793">10.1107/s1600576717006793</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1600-5767">1600-5767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Crystallography&rft.atitle=More+features%2C+more+tools%2C+more+CrysTBox&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1226-1234&rft.date=2017-07-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1107%2Fs1600576717006793&rft.issn=1600-5767&rft.aulast=Klinger&rft.aufirst=Miloslav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeometric+phase+analysis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div><div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electron_microscopy" title="Template:Electron microscopy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electron_microscopy" title="Template talk:Electron microscopy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electron_microscopy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electron microscopy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electron_microscopy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">Electron microscopy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">Electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of electron microscopy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Micrograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_microscope_technology" title="Timeline of microscope technology">Timeline of microscope technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a> interaction<br />with matter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auger_effect" title="Auger effect">Auger effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_diffraction" title="Electron diffraction">Electron diffraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_scattering" title="Electron scattering">Electron scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kikuchi_lines_(physics)" title="Kikuchi lines (physics)">Kikuchi lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_electrons" title="Secondary electrons">Secondary electrons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence" title="X-ray fluorescence">X-ray fluorescence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detectors_for_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Detectors for transmission electron microscopy">Detectors for transmission electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_gun" title="Electron gun">Electron gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everhart%E2%80%93Thornley_detector" title="Everhart–Thornley detector">Everhart–Thornley detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_electron_emission" title="Field electron emission">Field electron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_emission_gun" title="Field emission gun">Field emission gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_lens" title="Magnetic lens">Magnetic lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmator" title="Stigmator">Stigmator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microscopes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_microprobe" title="Electron microprobe">EM</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlative_light-electron_microscopy" title="Correlative light-electron microscopy">Correlative light EM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_electron_microscopy" title="Cryogenic electron microscopy">Cryo-EM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microprobe" title="Electron microprobe">EMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-Phase_Electron_Microscopy" title="Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy">Liquid-Phase EM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-energy_electron_microscopy" title="Low-energy electron microscopy">Low-energy EM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoemission_electron_microscopy" title="Photoemission electron microscopy">Photoemission EM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">SEM</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_scanning_electron_microscope" title="Environmental scanning electron microscope">Environmental SEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_cryomicroscopy" title="Scanning electron cryomicroscopy">CryoSEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_confocal_electron_microscopy" title="Scanning confocal electron microscopy">Confocal SEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEM-XRF" title="SEM-XRF">SEM-XRF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">TEM</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_cryomicroscopy" title="Transmission electron cryomicroscopy">Cryo-TEM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_cryotomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cryotomography">Cryo-ET</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_filtered_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy">EFTEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-resolution_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="High-resolution transmission electron microscopy">HRTEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Scanning transmission electron microscopy">STEM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4D_scanning_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="4D scanning transmission electron microscopy">4D STEM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aberration-Corrected_Transmission_Electron_Microscopy" title="Aberration-Corrected Transmission Electron Microscopy">Aberration-Corrected TEM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4D_scanning_transmission_electron_microscopy" title="4D scanning transmission electron microscopy">4D STEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annular_dark-field_imaging" title="Annular dark-field imaging">Annular dark-field imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathodoluminescence" title="Cathodoluminescence">Cathodoluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_contrast_imaging" title="Charge contrast imaging">Charge contrast imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_beam_electron_diffraction" title="Convergent beam electron diffraction">CBED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_electron_microscopy" title="Cryogenic electron microscopy">cryoEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-field_microscopy" title="Dark-field microscopy">Dark-field microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">EDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_backscatter_diffraction" title="Electron backscatter diffraction">EBSD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_Kikuchi_diffraction" title="Transmission Kikuchi diffraction">TKD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_channelling_contrast_imaging" title="Electron channelling contrast imaging">ECCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_energy_loss_spectroscopy" title="Electron energy loss spectroscopy">EELS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_beam-induced_current" title="Electron beam-induced current">EBIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_holography" title="Electron holography">Electron holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_tomography" title="Electron tomography">Electron tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focused_ion_beam" title="Focused ion beam">FIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluctuation_electron_microscopy" title="Fluctuation electron microscopy">FEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_electron_microscopy" title="Immune electron microscopy">Immune electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geometric phase analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon-Induced_Near-field_Electron_Microscopy" title="Photon-Induced Near-field Electron Microscopy">PINEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precession_electron_diffraction" title="Precession electron diffraction">Precession electron diffraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_block-face_scanning_electron_microscopy" title="Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy">Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelength-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">WDXS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak-beam_dark-field_microscopy" title="Weak-beam dark-field microscopy">WBDF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Developers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Crewe" title="Albert Crewe">Albert Crewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_von_Borries" title="Bodo von Borries">Bodo von Borries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Dennis Gabor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_G._Bauer" title="Ernst G. Bauer">Ernst G. Bauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ernst Ruska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerasimos_Danilatos" title="Gerasimos Danilatos">Gerasimos Danilatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_Rose" title="Harald Rose">Harald Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hillier" title="James Hillier">James Hillier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Ardenne" title="Manfred von Ardenne">Manfred von Ardenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Knoll" title="Max Knoll">Max Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Haider" title="Maximilian Haider">Maximilian Haider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_J._Zaluzec" title="Nestor J. Zaluzec">Nestor J. Zaluzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ondrej_Krivanek" title="Ondrej Krivanek">Ondrej Krivanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eugene_Everhart" title="Thomas Eugene Everhart">Thomas Eugene Everhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Ellis_Cosslett" title="Vernon Ellis Cosslett">Vernon Ellis Cosslett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Manufacturers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_AG" title="Carl Zeiss AG">Carl Zeiss AG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEI_Company" title="FEI Company">FEI Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitachi" title="Hitachi">Hitachi High-Technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JEOL" title="JEOL">JEOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leica_Microsystems" title="Leica Microsystems">Leica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nion_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Nion Company">Nion Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TESCAN" title="TESCAN">TESCAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo_Fisher_Scientific" title="Thermo Fisher Scientific">Thermo Fisher Scientific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gegi.usherbrooke.ca/casino/index.html">CASINO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrysTBox" title="CrysTBox">CrysTBox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EM_Data_Bank" title="EM Data Bank">EM Data Bank</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/EMsoft-org/EMsoft">EMsoft</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gatan.com/products/tem-analysis/gatan-microscopy-suite-software">Digital Micrograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_methods_(electron_microscopy)" title="Direct methods (electron microscopy)">Direct methods</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iucr.org/resources/commissions/electron-crystallography/software">IUCr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTEX" title="MTEX">MTEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multislice" title="Multislice">Multislice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Electron_microscopy" title="Category:Electron microscopy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electron_microscopy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Electron microscopy">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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