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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Didactic_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Didactic_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Didactic age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Didactic_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devotional_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devotional_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Devotional period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devotional_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Narrative_epics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Narrative_epics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Narrative epics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Narrative_epics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Medieval literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vijayanagar and Nayak period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tamil_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tamil_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Tamil novel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tamil_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Popular fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tamil_Novel_Writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tamil_Novel_Writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Tamil Novel Writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tamil_Novel_Writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periodicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Periodicals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tamil_journalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tamil_journalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Tamil journalism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tamil_journalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tamil journalism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tamil_journalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tamil_Novels_Writers_Name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tamil_Novels_Writers_Name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Tamil Novels Writers Name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tamil_Novels_Writers_Name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A" title="أدب تاميلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب تاميلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="তামিল সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তামিল সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamili_kirjandus" title="Tamili kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tamili kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EB%B0%80_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="타밀 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="타밀 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Թամիլական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թամիլական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="तमिल साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तमिल साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="ტამილური ლიტერატურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტამილური ლიტერატურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="തമിഴ് സാഹിത്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തമിഴ് സാഹിത്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesusasteraan_Tamil" title="Kesusasteraan Tamil – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesusasteraan Tamil" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1" title="တမီးလ်စာပေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တမီးလ်စာပေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="तमिल साहित्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="तमिल साहित्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_adabiyoti" title="Tamil adabiyoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tamil adabiyoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तमिळ्साहित्यम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="तमिळ्साहित्यम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தமிழ் இலக்கியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தமிழ் இலக்கியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q10549089#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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Statue in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Thai" title="Tamil Thai">Tamil Thai</a> temple, <a href="/wiki/Karaikudi" title="Karaikudi">Karaikudi</a>, Tamil Nadu. </figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:..Tamil_Nadu_Flag(INDIA).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png/90px-..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png/135px-..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png/180px-..Tamil_Nadu_Flag%28INDIA%29.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="454" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Life in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Architecture of Tamil Nadu">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Tamil_Nadu" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Tamil Nadu">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Climate of Tamil Nadu">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Demographics of Tamil Nadu">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Education in Tamil Nadu">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_cinema" title="Tamil cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Public holidays in Tamil Nadu">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Music of Tamil Nadu">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Politics of Tamil Nadu">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Religion in Tamil Nadu">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Sports in Tamil Nadu">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_temples_in_Tamil_Nadu" class="mw-redirect" title="List of temples in Tamil Nadu">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Tourism in Tamil Nadu">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Transport in Tamil Nadu">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Wildlife of Tamil Nadu">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Template:Life in Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Template talk:Life in Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life in Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Tamil literature</b> includes a collection of literary works that have come from a tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil people</a> from south India, including the land now comprising <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Tamil people">Eelam Tamils</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_diaspora" title="Tamil diaspora">Tamil diaspora</a>. </p><p>The history of Tamil literature follows the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">history of Tamil Nadu</a>, closely following the social, economical, political and cultural trends of various periods. The early <a href="/wiki/Sangam_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam Literature">Sangam literature</a>, dated before 300 BCE, contain anthologies of various poets dealing with many aspects of life, including love, war, social values and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-sangam_before_300_bc_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sangam_before_300_bc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by the early epics and moral literature, authored by <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivite</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> authors and poets lasting up to the 5th century CE. From the 6th to 12th century CE, the Tamil devotional poems written by <a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a> (sages of <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Nayanmars" class="mw-redirect" title="Nayanmars">Nayanmars</a> (sages of <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>) and, heralded the great <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a> which later engulfed the entire Indian subcontinent. During the medieval era some of the grandest of Tamil literary classics like <a href="/wiki/Kambaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kambaramayanam">Kambaramayanam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periya_Puranam" title="Periya Puranam">Periya Puranam</a> were authored and many poets were patronized by the imperial <a href="/wiki/Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola">Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a> empires. The later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works and also contributions by a few <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Muslim</a> and European authors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. The modern Tamil literary movement started with <a href="/wiki/Subramania_Bharathi" class="mw-redirect" title="Subramania Bharathi">Subramania Bharathi</a>, the multifaceted Indian Nationalist poet and author, and was quickly followed up by many who began to utilize the power of literature in influencing the masses. With growth of literacy, Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear. Modern Tamil literary criticism also evolved. The popularity of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_cinema" title="Tamil cinema">Tamil cinema</a> has also interacted with Tamil literature in some mutually enriching ways.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:120%;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Indian literature</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Meitei_literature" title="Ancient Meitei literature">Ancient Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prakrit#Literature" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Tamil Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early Medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_literature" title="Bengali literature">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_literature" title="Kannada literature">Kannada</a> (<a href="/wiki/Extinct_Kannada_literature" title="Extinct Kannada literature">Extinct Kannada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_literature" title="Malayalam literature">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_literature" title="Odia literature">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_literature" title="Telugu literature">Telugu</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval to early Modern</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_literature" title="Assamese literature">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language#Literature" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braj_literature" title="Braj literature">Braj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_literature" title="Bhojpuri literature">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English_literature" title="Indian English literature">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_literature" title="Gujarati literature">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_literature" title="Hindi literature">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashmiri literature">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_literature" title="Kokborok literature">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_literature" title="Konkani literature">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_literature" title="Maithili literature">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_literature" title="Marathi literature">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_literature" title="Meitei literature">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_literature" title="Mizo literature">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_literature" title="Nepali literature">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_literature" title="Punjabi literature">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_literature" title="Rajasthani literature">Rajasthani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_literature" title="Sindhi literature">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_literature" title="Urdu literature">Urdu</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_literature" title="Template:Indian literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_literature" title="Template talk:Indian literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sangam_age">Sangam age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sangam age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="clear:right; float:right; background:#ffffff; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;" class="toccolours" width="220"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#A8BDEC;text-align:center;" colspan="2">Topics in <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Agattiyam" title="Agattiyam">Agattiyam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Eight Anthologies</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ai%E1%B9%85kurun%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Aiṅkurunūṟu">Aiṅkurunūṟu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Akan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Akanāṉūṟu">Akanāṉūṟu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%9Fan%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Puṟanāṉūṟu">Puṟanāṉūṟu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kalittokai" title="Kalittokai">Kalittokai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%9Funtokai" title="Kuṟuntokai">Kuṟuntokai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai" title="Naṟṟiṇai">Natṟiṇai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pati%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppattu" title="Patiṟṟuppattu">Patiṟṟuppattu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#efefef"><a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Ten Idylls</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%9Fi%C3%B1cipp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" title="Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu">Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Malaipa%E1%B9%ADuka%E1%B9%AD%C4%81m" title="Malaipaṭukaṭām">Malaipaṭukaṭām</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maturaikk%C4%81%C3%B1ci" title="Maturaikkāñci">Maturaikkāñci</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mullaipp%C4%81%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADu" title="Mullaippāṭṭu">Mullaippāṭṭu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ne%E1%B9%ADunalv%C4%81%E1%B9%ADai" title="Neṭunalvāṭai">Neṭunalvāṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADi%E1%B9%89app%C4%81lai" title="Paṭṭiṉappālai">Paṭṭiṉappālai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perump%C4%81%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai">Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Poru%E1%B9%87ar%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai">Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ci%E1%B9%9Fup%C4%81%E1%B9%87%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai">Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b>Related topics</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Sangam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">Sangam landscape</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_history_from_Sangam_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil history from Sangam literature">Tamil history from Sangam literature</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_music" title="Ancient Tamil music">Ancient Tamil music</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC;"><b><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81la%E1%B9%ADiy%C4%81r" title="Nālaṭiyār">Nālaṭiyār</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81%E1%B9%89ma%E1%B9%87ikka%E1%B9%ADikai" title="Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai">Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89%E1%B9%89%C4%81_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu">Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/I%E1%B9%89iyavai_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu">Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81r_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kār Nāṟpatu">Kār Nāṟpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B8%B7ava%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu">Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ainti%E1%B9%87ai_Aimpatu" title="Aintiṇai Aimpatu">Aintiṇai Aimpatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%89aimo%E1%B8%BBi_Aimpatu" title="Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu">Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Aintinai_E%E1%B8%BBupatu" title="Aintinai Eḻupatu">Aintinai Eḻupatu</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ti%E1%B9%87aim%C4%81lai_N%C5%AB%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Faimpatu" title="Tiṇaimālai Nūṟṟaimpatu">Tiṇaimālai Nūṟṟaimpatu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tirika%E1%B9%ADukam" title="Tirikaṭukam">Tirikaṭukam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81rakk%C5%8Dvai" title="Ācārakkōvai">Ācārakkōvai</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B8%BBamo%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" title="Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu">Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ci%E1%B9%9Fupa%C3%B1cam%C5%ABlam" title="Ciṟupañcamūlam">Ciṟupañcamūlam</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mutumo%E1%B8%BBikk%C4%81nci" title="Mutumoḻikkānci">Mutumoḻikkānci</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/El%C4%81ti" title="Elāti">Elāti</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kainnilai" title="Kainnilai">Kainnilai</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#A8BDEC"><b>Bhakti Literature</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Ramavataram</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tevaram" title="Tevaram">Tevaram</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumuṟai</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:right;padding: 0 5px 0 5px"><small class="editlink noprint plainlinksneverexpand"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Sangam_literature&action=edit">edit </a></small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tolkaappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkaappiyam">Tolkaappiyam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kumari_Kandam" title="Kumari Kandam">Kumari Kandam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">Sangam landscape</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism_in_Ancient_Tamilakam" title="Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam">Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg/220px-Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg/330px-Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg/440px-Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ilango_Adigal" title="Ilango Adigal">Ilango Adigal</a> (c. 100 CE) wrote <a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappathikaaram</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">Five great epics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg/250px-Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg/375px-Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg/500px-Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3831" data-file-height="2155" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Thiruvalluvar</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Thirukkural</a> (c. 300s BCE), taught in schools today.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, traditions, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Unfortunately much of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period has been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-majumdar193_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-majumdar193-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The literature currently available from this period is perhaps just a fraction of the wealth of material produced during this golden age of Tamil civilization. The available literature from this period has been broadly divided in antiquity into three categories based roughly on chronology. These are: the <a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Text Series</a> (<i>Pathinenmaelkanakku</i>) comprising the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Eight Anthologies</a> (<i>Ettuthokai</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Idylls" title="Ten Idylls">Ten Idylls</a> (<i>Pattupattu</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">Five Great Epics</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Tolkaappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkaappiyam">Tolkaappiyam</a></i>, a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poetics" title="Poetics">poetics</a> is dated from this period.<sup id="cite_ref-majumdar193_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-majumdar193-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> </p> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="ta" class="poem"> <p><b>குறிஞ்சி – தலைவன் கூற்று</b><br /> யாயும் ஞாயும் யாரா கியரோ<br /> எந்தையும் நுந்தையும் எம்முறைக் கேளிர்<br /> யானும் நீயும் எவ்வழி யறிதும்<br /> செம்புலப் பெயனீர் போல<br /> அன்புடை நெஞ்சம் தாங்கலந் தனவே.<br /> -செம்புலப் பெயனீரார். </p> </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p><b>Red earth and pouring rain</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> What could my mother be to yours?<br /> What kin is my father to yours anyway?<br /> And how<br /> Did you and I meet ever?<br /> But in love our hearts have mingled<br /> like red earth and pouring rain. </p> </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<i>(<a href="/wiki/Kuruntokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuruntokai">Kuruntokai</a> – 40)</i>, a poem from the <i><a href="/wiki/Ettuthokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ettuthokai">Eight Anthologies</a></i> </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left">—Translated by <a href="/wiki/A._K._Ramanujan" title="A. K. Ramanujan">A. K. Ramanujan</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tamil legends hold that these were composed in three successive poetic assemblies (<i><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Sangam</a></i>) that were held in ancient times on a now vanished <a href="/wiki/Kumari_Kandam" title="Kumari Kandam">continent</a> far to the south of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant amount of literature could have preceded <i>Tolkappiyam</i> as grammar books are usually written after the existence of literature over long periods. Tamil tradition holds the earliest <i>Sangam</i> poetry to be over twelve millennia old. Modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> scholarship places the poems between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sangam age is considered by the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil people</a> as the golden era of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil language</a>. This was the period when the Tamil country was ruled by the three 'crowned kings' the <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Cheras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pandyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyas">Pandyas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholas">Cholas</a>. The land was at peace with no major external threats. <a href="/wiki/Asoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Asoka">Asoka</a>'s conquests had no impact on the Tamil land and the people were able to indulge in literary pursuits. The poets had a much more casual relationship with their rulers than can be imagined in later times. They could chide them when they are perceived to wander from the straight and narrow. The greatness of the Sangam age poetry may be ascribed not so much to its antiquity, but due to the fact that their ancestors were indulging in literary pursuits and logical classification of the habitats and society in a systematic manner with little to draw from precedents domestically or elsewhere. The fact that these classifications were documented at a very early date in the grammatical treatise <i><a href="/wiki/Tolkappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkappiyam">Tolkappiyam</a></i>, demonstrates the organized manner in which the Tamil language has evolved. <i>Tolkappiyam</i> is not merely a textbook on Tamil <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> giving the inflection and syntax of words and sentences but also includes classification of habitats, animals, plants and human beings. The discussion on human emotions and interactions is particularly significant. Tolkappiyam is divided into three chapters: <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> and subject matter (<i>Porul</i>). While the first two chapters of Tolkappiyam help codify the language, the last part, <i>Porul</i> refers to the people and their behavior. The grammar helps to convey the literary message on human behavior and conduct, and uniquely merges the language with its people. </p><p>The literature was classified into the broad categories of 'subjective' (<i>akam</i>) and 'objective' (<i>puram</i>) topics to enable the poetic minds to discuss any topic under the sun, from grammar to love, within the framework of well prescribed, socially accepted conventions. Subjective topics refer to the personal or human aspect of emotions that cannot be verbalized adequately or explained fully. It can only be experienced by the individuals and includes love and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual relationship">sexual relationship</a>. </p><p>Recognizing that human activities cannot take place in vacuum and are constantly influenced by environmental factors, human experiences, in general, and subjective topics in particular, are assigned to <a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">specific habitats</a>. Accordingly, land was classified into five genres (<i>thinai</i>): <i>mullai</i> (forests), <i>kurinji</i> (mountainous regions), <i>marutham</i> (agricultural lands), <i>neithal</i> (seashore), <i>paalai</i> (wasteland). The images associated with these landscapes – birds, beasts, flowers, gods, music, people, weather, seasons – were used to subtly convey a mood, associated with an aspect of life. <i><a href="/wiki/Kuruntokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuruntokai">Kuruntokai</a></i>, a collection of poems belonging to the <i><a href="/wiki/Ettuthokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ettuthokai">Ettuthokai</a></i> anthology demonstrates an early treatment of the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_landscape" title="Sangam landscape">Sangam landscape</a>. Such treatments are found to be much refined in the later works of <i><a href="/wiki/Akananuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Akananuru">Akananuru</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Paripaatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paripaatal">Paripaatal</a></i>. <i>Paripaatal</i> takes its name from the musical <i><a href="/wiki/Paripaatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paripaatal">Paripaatal</a> meter</i> utilised in these poems. This is the first instance of a work set to music. <i>Akaval</i> and <i>kalippa</i> were the other popular meters used by poets during the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam</a> age.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_in_the_Sangam_age">Religion in the Sangam age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Religion in the Sangam age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Tamilakam" title="Religion in ancient Tamilakam">Religion in ancient Tamilakam</a></div> <p>Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil literature. Ancient Tamils primarily followed the <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> tradition (which considered Vishnu as the supreme deity) and <a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a> (who worshiped Murugan as the supreme god). According to <a href="/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil" title="Kamil Zvelebil">Kamil Zvelebil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> was considered ageless (the god who stays forever) and was regarded as the supreme god of Tamils, whereas <a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Skanda</a> was considered to be young and was regarded as a personal god of Tamils.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197448–49_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197448–49-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Perumal_(deity)" title="Perumal (deity)">Mayon</a> is indicated to be the deity associated with the <i>mullai tiṇai</i> (pastoral landscape) in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardy_156_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardy_156-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clothey_34_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clothey_34-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tolkappiyar<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Not broadly accepted as author of ''Tolkāppiyam'', if that's the work in question (June 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> mentions <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Mayon</a> first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><b>Paripādal</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>: <span lang="ta">பரிபாடல்</span>, meaning <i>the paripadal-metre anthology</i>) is a classical <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Anthologies" title="Eight Anthologies">Eight Anthologies</a> (<i>Ettuthokai</i>) in the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973123–124_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973123–124-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Tolkāppiyam, <i>Paripadal</i> is a kind of verse dealing only with love (<i>akapporul</i>) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Mayon</a> or the "dark one", as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a>.The earliest verses of <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal"><i>Paripadal</i></a> describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many poems of the <i>Paripadal</i> consider <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Perumal</a> as the supreme god of Tamils.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of <i>Paramporul</i> (achieving oneness with <a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatma</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam age</a>. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> and considered as the most mentioned god in the <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Muruga" class="mw-redirect" title="Muruga">Cēyōṉ</a></i> "the red one", who is identified with <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>, whose name is literally <i>Murukaṉ</i> ("the youth") in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></i>; extant works of <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a>, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE, glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favoured god of the Tamils".<sup id="cite_ref-sangam_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sangam-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no mentions of <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a> are said to be forms of <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> and considers Vishnu as the supreme god in <a href="/wiki/Parip%C4%81%E1%B9%ADal" title="Paripāṭal">Paripāṭal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two poems depicted as example of <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, one in the praise of <a href="/wiki/Maha_Vishnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> and other of <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a>. </p><p>To Tirumal (<a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a>): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1157697682"> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p><span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; <br /> பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ; <br /> கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ; <br /> சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ; <br /> அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ; <br /> மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ; <br /> வேதத்து மறை நீ; <br /> பூதத்து முதலும் நீ; <br /> வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ; <br /> திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ; <br /> அனைத்தும் நீ; <br /> அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;</span></span> </p> </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p>In fire, you are the heat;<br /> in blossoms, the fragrance;<br /> among the stones, you are the diamond;<br /> in speech, truth;<br /> among virtues, you are love;<br /> in valour—strength;<br /> in the Veda, you are the secret;<br /> among elements, the primordial;<br /> in the burning sun, the light;<br /> in moonshine, its sweetness;<br /> you are all,<br /> and you are the substance and meaning of all. </p> </div> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;font-size:90%"> <td style="padding-left:1.6em;text-align:left">—<i>Paripadal, iii: 63-68</i> </td> <td style="padding-left:3.6em;text-align:left">—F Gros, K Zvelebil<sup id="cite_ref-kz49_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kz49-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>To Seyyon (<a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Skandha</a>): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <div class="poem"> <p>We pray you not for wealth,<br /> not for gold, not for pleasure;<br /> But for your grace, for love, for virtue,<br /> these three,<br /> O god with the rich garland of <i>kaṭampu</i> flowers<br /> with rolling clusters! </p> </div> <p>– <i>Pari. v.: 78–81</i><sup id="cite_ref-kz49_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kz49-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The other gods also referred to in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkappiyam</a></i> are <i>Vēntaṉ</i> "the sovereign" (identified with <a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Korravai" title="Korravai">Korravai</a></i> "the victorious" (identified with <a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna"><i>Varunan</i></a> "the sea god".<sup id="cite_ref-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Sangam_period">Post-Sangam period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Post-Sangam period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Didactic_age">Didactic age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Didactic age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three centuries after the Sangam age marks the <a href="/wiki/Didacticism" title="Didacticism">didactic</a> age. The invaders <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2019)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> replaced number of words and concepts relating to <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>. Around 300 CE, the Tamil land was under the influence of a group of people known as the <a href="/wiki/Kalabhras" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalabhras">Kalabhras</a>. The Kalabhras were Buddhist<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and a number of Buddhist authors flourished during this period. <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> saw rapid growth. These authors, perhaps reflecting the austere nature of their faiths, created works mainly on morality and ethics. A number of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> and Buddhist poets contributed to the creation of these didactic works as well as grammar and lexicography. The collection the <a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Text series</a> (<i>Pathinenkilkanakku</i>) was of this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table style="float:right; width:325px; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; background:#f9f9f9; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:90%;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <p><small>எப்பொருள் யார்யார்வாய்க் கேட்பினும் அப்பொருள் <br /> மெய்ப்பொருள் காண்ப தறிவு.</small><br /> "The mark of wisdom is to discern the truth<br /> From whatever source it is heard."<br /> – <i>(<a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Tirukkural</a> – 423)</i><sup id="cite_ref-kur_al423_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kur_al423-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The best known of these works on ethics is the <i><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Tirukkural</a></i> by Thiruvalluvar. The book is a comprehensive manual of ethics, polity and love, containing 1,330 <a href="/wiki/Couplet" title="Couplet">distichs</a> or <i>kural</i> divided into chapters of ten distichs each: the first thirty-eight on ethics, the next seventy on polity and the remainder on love.<sup id="cite_ref-majumdar194_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-majumdar194-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other famous works of this period are <i><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B8%B7ava%E1%B8%BBi_N%C4%81%E1%B9%9Fpatu" title="Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu">Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nalatiyar" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalatiyar">Nalatiyar</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Inna_Narpathu" class="mw-redirect" title="Inna Narpathu">Inna Narpathu</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Iniyavai_Narpathu" class="mw-redirect" title="Iniyavai Narpathu">Iniyavai Narpathu</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> texts <i>Nalatiyar</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pazhamozhi_Nanuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Pazhamozhi Nanuru">Pazhamozhi Nanuru</a></i> each consist of four hundred poems, each of which cites a <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a> and then illustrates it with a story. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devotional_period">Devotional period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Devotional period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></div> <p>The fall of the Kalabhras around 500 CE saw a reaction from the thus far suppressed Hindus. The Kalabhras were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Pandyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyas">Pandyas</a> in the south and by the Pallavas in the north. Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnava">Vaishnava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saiva" title="Saiva">Saiva</a> literature was created . Many Vaishnava <a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a> provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature . Vaishnava <a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a> were producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into the Four Thousand Sacred Hymns (<i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divyap_Prabhandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham">Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham</a></i>) by <i>Nathamunigal</i> . It is considered as the Tamil Vedam equal to the Sanskrit vedas . The three earliest Alvars were <a href="/wiki/Poigai_Alvar" title="Poigai Alvar">Poigai Alvar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhoothath_Alvar" title="Bhoothath Alvar">Bhoothath Alvar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pey_Alvar" title="Pey Alvar">Pey Alvar</a> . Each of these wrote one hundred <i><a href="/wiki/Venpa" title="Venpa">Venpas</a></i> on the glory of <a href="/wiki/Maha_Vishnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Vishnu">Maha Vishnu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tirukoilur" title="Tirukoilur">Tirukoilur</a> . <a href="/wiki/Thirumazhisai_Aazhwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirumazhisai Aazhwar">Tirumalisai Alwar</a> who was a contemporary of the <a href="/wiki/Pallava" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava">Pallava</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahendravarman_I" title="Mahendravarman I">Mahendravarman I</a> wrote such works as <i>Naanmugantiruvadiandadi</i>. <a href="/wiki/Tirumangai_Alvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirumangai Alvar">Tirumangai Alvar</a> who lived in the 8th century CE was a more prolific writer and his works constitute about a third of the Diyaprabhandam. <a href="/wiki/Periyalvar" title="Periyalvar">Periyalvar</a> and his adopted daughter <a href="/wiki/Andal" title="Andal">Andal</a> contributed nearly 650 hymns to the Vaishnava canon. Andal symbolised purity and love for the God and wrote her hymns addressing <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> as a lover. The hymn of Andal which starts with <i>Vaaranam Aayiram</i> (One Thousand Elephants) tells of her dream wedding to Vishnu and is sung even today at Tamil Vaishnava weddings. Nammalvar, who lived in the 9th century, wrote <i>Tiruvaimoli</i>. It comprises 1,101 stanzas and is held in great esteem for its elucidation of the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>. This corpus was collected by <a href="/wiki/Nathamuni" title="Nathamuni">Nathamuni</a>, around 950 CE and formed the classical and vernacular basis for <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a>. These Hymns <i>Naalayira Divya Prabhandham</i> is respected at par with Vedas by Sri Vaishnavites in sanctity and holiness and hence referred to as <i>Dravida Vedam</i> or <i>Tamil Vedam</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Along with the Vaishnava Alvars, Many <a href="/wiki/Saiva" title="Saiva">Saiva</a> Nayanmars were also producing devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into Periya Puranam . <a href="/wiki/Karaikal_Ammaiyar" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaikal Ammaiyar">Karaikal Ammaiyar</a> who lived in the 6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnists Sundaramoorthy, Thirugnana Sambanthar and <a href="/wiki/Thirunavukkarasar" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirunavukkarasar">Thirunavukkarasar</a> (also known as Appar) were of this period. Of Appar's verses 3066 have survived. <a href="/wiki/Sambandar" title="Sambandar">Sambandar</a> sang 4,169 verses. Together these form the first six books of the Saiva canon, collected by Nambi Andar Nambi in the 10th century. <a href="/wiki/Sundarar" title="Sundarar">Sundarar</a> wrote Tiruttondartokai which gives the list of sixty-two Nayanmars. This was later elaborated by <a href="/wiki/Sekkilar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sekkilar">Sekkilar</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Periyapuranam" class="mw-redirect" title="Periyapuranam">Periyapuranam</a> (4,272 verses) . <a href="/wiki/Manikkavasagar" class="mw-redirect" title="Manikkavasagar">Manikkavasagar</a>, who lived around the 8th century CE was a minister in the Pandya court. His <a href="/wiki/Tiruvasakam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiruvasakam">Tiruvasakam</a> consisting of over 600 verses is noted for its passionate devotion. These Saivite Hymns collectively called Thirumurai.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrative_epics">Narrative epics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Narrative epics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Cilappatikaram" title="Cilappatikaram">Cilappatikaram</a></i> is one of the outstanding works of general literature of this period. The authorship and exact date of the classic <i>Cilappatikaram</i> are not definitely known. Ilango Adigal, who is credited with this work was reputed to be the brother of the Sangam age <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a> king Senguttuvan. However we have no information of such a brother in the numerous poems sung on the Chera king. The <i>Cilappatikaram</i> is unique in its vivid portrayal of the ancient Tamil land. This is unknown in other works of this period. <i>Cilappatikaram</i> and its companion epic <i><a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a></i> are Jain and Buddhist philosophy. <i>Manimekalai</i> was written by Sattanar who was a contemporary of Ilango Adigal. Manimekalai contains a long exposition of fallacies of logic. Kongu Velir, a <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> author wrote <i>Perunkathai</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Valayapathi" title="Valayapathi">Valayapathi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Kundalakesi" title="Kundalakesi">Kundalakesi</a></i> are the names of two other narrative poems of this period written by a <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> and a Buddhist author respectively. These works have been lost and only a few poems of <i>Valayapathi</i> have been found so far.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_literature">Medieval literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chola_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Chola literature">Chola literature</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg/150px-MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg/225px-MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg/300px-MarinaBeach_Kambar_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1115" data-file-height="1357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kambar_(poet)" title="Kambar (poet)">Kambar</a> (c.1100 CE) wrote the Tamil '<a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Raamaayanam</a>'.</figcaption></figure> <p>The medieval period was the period of the Imperial <a href="/wiki/Cholas" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholas">Cholas</a> when the entire south India was under a single administration. The period between the 11th and the 13th centuries, during which the Chola power was at its peak, there were relatively few foreign incursions and the life for the Tamil people was one of peace and prosperity. It also provided the opportunity for the people to interact with cultures beyond their own, as the Cholas ruled over most of the South India, Sri Lanka and traded with the kingdoms in southeast Asia. The Cholas built numerous temples, mainly for their favourite god <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Siva</a>, and these were celebrated in numerous hymns. The <i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Prabhanda</a></i> became the dominant form of poetry. The religious canons of <a href="/wiki/Saiva" title="Saiva">Saiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnava">Vaishnava</a> sects were beginning to be systematically collected and categorised. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of <a href="/wiki/Rajaraja_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaraja Chola I">Rajaraja Chola I</a>, collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called <i>Tirumurais</i>. The hagiology of <a href="/wiki/Saivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saivism">Saivism</a> was standardised in <i><a href="/wiki/Periyapuranam" class="mw-redirect" title="Periyapuranam">Periyapuranam</a></i> (also known as <i>Tiruttondar Puranam</i>) by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola II">Kulothunga Chola II</a> (1133–1150 CE). Religious books on the <a href="/wiki/Vaishnava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnava">Vaishnava</a> sect were mostly composed in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> during this period. The great Vaishnava leader <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a> lived during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Athirajendra_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Athirajendra Chola">Athirajendra Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola I">Kulothunga Chola I</a>, and had to face religious persecution from the Cholas who belonged to the Saiva sect. One of the best known Tamil works of this period is the <i><a href="/wiki/Kambaramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kambaramayanam">Ramavatharam</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Kambar_(poet)" title="Kambar (poet)">Kamban</a> who flourished during the reign of Kulottunga III. <i>Ramavatharam</i> is the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is not a mere translation or even an adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet <a href="/wiki/Avvaiyar_(12th-century_poet)" title="Avvaiyar (12th-century poet)">Auvaiyar</a> who found great happiness in writing for young children. Her works, <i>Athichoodi</i> and <i>Konraiventhan</i> are even now generally read and taught in schools in Tamil Nadu. Her two other works, <i>Mooturai</i> and <i>Nalvali</i> were written for slightly older children. All the four works are didactic in character. They explain the basic wisdom that should govern mundane life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Of the books on the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> faiths, the most noteworthy is the <i><a href="/wiki/Jivaka-chintamani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivaka-chintamani">Jivaka-chintamani</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> ascetic Thirutakkadevar composed in the 10th century. <i><a href="/wiki/Viruttam" title="Viruttam">Viruttam</a></i> style of poetry was used for the first time for the verses in this book. The five Tamil epics <i>Seevaka-chintamani</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Manimekalai" title="Manimekalai">Manimekalai</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kundalakesi" title="Kundalakesi">Kundalakesi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Valayapathi" title="Valayapathi">Valayapathi</a></i> are collectively known as <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature</a>. There were a number of books written on Tamil grammar. <i>Yapperungalam</i> and <i>Yapperungalakkarigai</i> were two works on <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Jain</a> ascetic Amirtasagara. Buddamitra wrote <i>Virasoliyam</i>, another work on Tamil grammar, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Virarajendra_Chola" class="mw-redirect" title="Virarajendra Chola">Virarajendra Chola</a>. <i>Virasoliyam</i> attempts to find synthesis between Sanskrit and Tamil grammar. Other grammatical works of this period are <i>Nannul</i> by Pavanandi, <i>Vaccanandi Malai</i> by Neminatha, and the annotations on the puram theme, <i>Purapporul Venpamalai</i> by Aiyanaridanar.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There were biographical and political works such as Jayamkondar's <a href="/wiki/Kalingattuparani" title="Kalingattuparani">Kalingattuparani</a>, a semi-historical account on the two invasions of <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical region)">Kalinga</a> by <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola I">Kulothunga Chola I</a>. Jayamkondar was a poet-laureate in the Chola court and his work is a fine example of the balance between fact and fiction the poets had to tread. Ottakuttan, a close contemporary of <a href="/wiki/Kambar_(poet)" title="Kambar (poet)">Kambar</a>, wrote three <i>Ulas</i> on <a href="/wiki/Vikrama_Chola" title="Vikrama Chola">Vikrama Chola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kulothunga_Chola_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulothunga Chola II">Kulothunga Chola II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rajaraja_Chola_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajaraja Chola II">Rajaraja Chola II</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period">Vijayanagar and Nayak period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vijayanagar and Nayak period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period from 1300 CE to 1650 was a period of constant change in the political situation of Tamil Nadu. The Tamil country was invaded by the armies of the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> and raided the <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a> kingdom. This overstretched the Delhi Sultanate to such an extent it collapsed soon after which triggered the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Bahmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani">Bahmani</a> Sultans in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagar_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Vijayanagar empire">Vijayanagar empire</a> rose from the ashes of the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Hoysalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysalas">Hoysalas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalukyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalukyas">Chalukyas</a> and eventually conquered the entire south India. The Vijayanagar kings appointed regional governors to rule various territories of their kingdom and Tamil Nadu was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Madurai Nayaks">Madurai Nayaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanjavur Nayaks">Thanjavur Nayaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gingee_Nayaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Gingee Nayaks">Gingee Nayaks</a>. This period saw a large output of philosophical works, commentaries, epics and devotional poems. A number of monasteries (<i>Mathas</i>) were established by the various Hindu sects and these began to play a prominent role in educating the people. Numerous authors were of either the Saiva or the Vaishnava sects. The Vijayanagar kings and their Nayak governors were ardent Hindus and they patronised these <i>mathas</i>. Although the kings and the governors of the Vijayanagar empire spoke Kannada and <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a> they encouraged the growth of Tamil literature as we find no slowing down in the literary output during this period. </p><p>There was a large output of works of philosophical and religious in nature, such as the <i>Sivananabodam</i> by Meykandar. At the end of the 14th century Svarupananda Desikar wrote two anthologies on the philosophy of <i><a href="/wiki/Advaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Advaita">Advaita</a></i>, the <i>Sivaprakasapperundirattu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Arunagirinathar" title="Arunagirinathar">Arunagirinathar</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/Tiruvannamalai" title="Tiruvannamalai">Tiruvannamalai</a> in the 14th century wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugazh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugazh">Tiruppugal</a></i>. Around 1360 verses of unique lilt and set to unique metres these poems are on the god <a href="/wiki/Muruga" class="mw-redirect" title="Muruga">Muruga</a>. Madai Tiruvengadunathar, an official in the court of the Madurai Nayak, wrote <i>Meynanavilakkam</i> on the <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>. <a href="/wiki/Siva_prakasar" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva prakasar">Siva prakasar</a>, in the early 17th century wrote a number of works on the Saiva philosophy. Notable among these is the <i>Nanneri</i> which deals with moral instructions. A considerable par to the religious and philosophical literature of the age took the form of <i>Puranas</i> or narrative epics. A number of these were written on the various deities of the temples in Tamil Nadu and are known as Sthala Puranas, based on legend and folklore. One of the most important of the epics was the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharatam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabharatam">Mahabharatam</a> by Villiputturar. He translated <a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a>'s epic into Tamil and named it <i>Villibharatam</i>. <i>Kanthapuranam</i> on the god <a href="/wiki/Murugan" class="mw-redirect" title="Murugan">Murugan</a> was written by Kacchiappa Sivachariyar who lived in the 15th century. This work was based broadly on the Sanskrit <i><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skandapurana</a></i>. Varatungarama Pandya, a <a href="/wiki/Pandya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandya">Pandya</a> king of the period was a littérateur of merit and wrote <i>Paditrruppattanthathi</i>. He also translated into Tamil the erotic book known as <i>Kokkoha</i> from Sanskrit. </p><p>This period also an age of many <a href="/wiki/Commentaries_in_Tamil_literary_tradition" title="Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition">commentaries of ancient Tamil works</a>. Adiyarkunallar wrote an annotation on <a href="/wiki/Cilappatikaram" title="Cilappatikaram">Cilappatikaram</a>. Senavaraiyar wrote a commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Tolkappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkappiyam">Tolkappiyam</a>. Then came the famous Parimelalagar whose commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Tirukkural</a> is still considered one of the best available. Other famous annotators such as Perasiriyar and Naccinarikiniyar wrote commentaries on the various work of Sangam literature. The first Tamil dictionary was attempted by Mandalapurusha who compiled the lexicon <i>Nigandu Cudamani</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thayumanavar" title="Thayumanavar">Thayumanavar</a>, who lived in the early 18th century, is famous for a number of short poems of philosophical nature. </p><p>The 17th-century altruist Syed Khader, known colloquially as <a href="/wiki/Seethakaathi" title="Seethakaathi">Seethakaathi</a>, was a great patron of all Tamil poets. He commissioned <a href="/wiki/Umaru_Pulavar" title="Umaru Pulavar">Umaruppulavar</a> to pen the first biography of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Nabi</a>. The collection of poems was called <i>Seerapuranam</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 17th century also saw for the first time literary works by Christian authors. Costanzo Giuseppe Beschi (1680–1746), better known as <a href="/wiki/Veeramamunivar" class="mw-redirect" title="Veeramamunivar">Veeramamunivar</a>, compiled the first dictionary in Tamil. His <i>Chathurakarathi</i> was the first to list the Tamil words in alphabetical order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Renaissance" title="Tamil Renaissance">Tamil Renaissance</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF,_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG/150px-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG/225px-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG/300px-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%2C_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Subramanya_Bharathi" class="mw-redirect" title="Subramanya Bharathi">Subramanya Bharathi</a> (1882–1921) Tamil writer, poet, Indian freedom fighter.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bharathidasan_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Bharathidasan_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1572" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Tamil_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Tamil Movement">Thani Tamil Iyakkam's</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Bharathidasan" title="Bharathidasan">Bharathidasan</a>, freedom fighter, Tamil writer, poet.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 18th and the 19th century Tamil Nadu witnessed some of the most profound changes in the political scene. The traditional Tamil ruling clans were superseded by European colonists and their sympathisers. The Tamil society underwent a deep cultural shock with the imposition of western cultural influences. The Hindu religious establishments attempted to stem the tide of change and to safeguard the Tamil cultural values. Notable among these were the Saiva monasteries at Tiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram, Thiruppananthal and Kundrakudi. <a href="/wiki/Meenakshi_Sundaram_Pillai" title="Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai">Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai</a> (1815–1876) was a Tamil scholar who taught Tamil at one of these monasteries. He wrote more than eighty books consisting of over 200,000 poems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He is more famous however for encouraging <a href="/wiki/U.V.Swaminatha_Iyer" class="mw-redirect" title="U.V.Swaminatha Iyer">U.V.Swaminatha Iyer</a> to go search for Tamil books that have been lost for centuries. <a href="/wiki/Gopalakrishna_Bharathi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gopalakrishna Bharathi">Gopalakrishna Bharathi</a> lived during the early 19th century. He wrote numerous poems and lyrics set to tune in <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a>. His most famous work is the <i>Nandan Charitam</i> on the life of Nandanar who having been born in a sociologically lower caste, faces and overcomes the social obstacles in achieving his dream of visiting the <a href="/wiki/Chidambaram" title="Chidambaram">Chidambaram</a> temple. This work is a revolutionary social commentary considering the period in which it was written, although Gopalakrishna Bharati expanded on the story in <i><a href="/wiki/Periyapuranam" class="mw-redirect" title="Periyapuranam">Periyapuranam</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Jothi_Ramalinga_Swamigal" class="mw-redirect" title="Jothi Ramalinga Swamigal">Ramalinga Adigal</a> (Vallalar) (1823–1874) wrote the devotional poem <i>Tiruvarutpa</i> is considered to be a work of great beauty and simplicity. <a href="/wiki/Maraimalai_Adigal" title="Maraimalai Adigal">Maraimalai Adigal</a> (1876–1950) advocated for the purity of Tamil and wanted to clean it of words with Sanskrit influences. One of the great Tamil poets of this period was <a href="/wiki/Subramanya_Bharathi" class="mw-redirect" title="Subramanya Bharathi">Subramanya Bharathi</a>. His works are stimulating in their progressive themes like freedom and feminism. Bharathy introduced a new poetic style into the somewhat rigid style of Tamil poetry writing, which had followed the rules set down in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tolkaappiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolkaappiyam">Tolkaappiyam</a></i>. His <i>puthukkavithai</i> (Lit.:new poetry) broke the rules and gave poets the freedom to express themselves. He also wrote Tamil prose in the form of commentaries, editorials, short stories and novels. Some of these were published in the Tamil daily <i><a href="/wiki/Swadesamitran" title="Swadesamitran">Swadesamitran</a></i> and in his Tamil weekly <i>India</i>. Inspired by Bharathi, many poets resorted to poetry as a means of reform. <a href="/wiki/Bharathidasan" title="Bharathidasan">Bharathidasan</a> was one such poet. <a href="/wiki/U.V.Swaminatha_Iyer" class="mw-redirect" title="U.V.Swaminatha Iyer">U.V.Swaminatha Iyer</a>, was instrumental in the revival of interest in the Sangam age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil country, collecting, deciphering and publishing ancient books such as <i><a href="/wiki/Cilappatikaram" title="Cilappatikaram">Cilappatikaram</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kuruntokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuruntokai">Kuruntokai</a></i>, etc. He published over 90 books and wrote <i>En caritham</i>, an autobiography. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tamil_novel">Tamil novel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tamil novel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The novel as a genre of literature arrived in Tamil in the third quarter of the 19th century, more than a century after it became popular with <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> writers. Its emergence was perhaps facilitated by the growing population of Tamils with a western education and exposure to popular English fiction. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Vedanayagam_Pillai" title="Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai">Mayavaram Vedanayagam Pillai</a> wrote the first Tamil novel <i><a href="/wiki/Prathapa_Mudaliar_Charithram" title="Prathapa Mudaliar Charithram">Prathapa Mudaliar Charithram</a></i> in 1879. This was a romance with an assortment of fables, folk tales and even Greek and Roman stories, written with the entertainment of the reader as the principal motive. It was followed by <i>Kamalambal Charitram</i> by B. R. Rajam Iyer in 1893 and <i>Padmavathi Charitram</i> by A. Madhaviah in 1898. These two portray the life of <a href="/wiki/Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmins">Brahmins</a> in 19th-century rural Tamil Nadu, capturing their customs and habits, beliefs and rituals. Although it was primarily a powerful narration of the common man's life in a realistic style spiced with natural humour, Rajam Iyer's novel has a spiritual and philosophical undertone. Madhaviah tells the story in a more realistic way with a searching criticism of the upper caste society, particularly the sexual exploitation of girls by older men. <a href="/wiki/Jayakanthan" title="Jayakanthan">D. Jayakanthan</a> has enriched the high traditions of literary traditions of Tamil language and contributed towards the shaping of Indian literature. His literature presents a deep and sensitive understanding of complex human nature and is an authentic and vivid index of Indian reality. One famous novel of his is <i><a href="/wiki/Sila_Nerangalil_Sila_Manithargal_(novel)" title="Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal (novel)">Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal</a></i>. Since the 1990s the post-modernist writers emerged as a major figures, including <a href="/wiki/Jeyamohan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeyamohan">Jeyamohan</a>, <a href="/wiki/S.Ramakrishnan" class="mw-redirect" title="S.Ramakrishnan">S.Ramakrishnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charu_Nivedita" title="Charu Nivedita">Charu Nivedita</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Konangi" title="Konangi">Konangi</a>, who mixes classical Tamil inflections with experimental sound poets. </p><p>There are other less appreciated works involving those translated from other languages, which are often unrecognized by Tamil pundits. The works include "Urumaatram" (translation of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Metamorphosis" title="The Metamorphosis">The Metamorphosis</a></i>), <i>Siluvayil Thongum Saathaan</i> (translation of "<a href="/wiki/Devil_on_the_Cross" title="Devil on the Cross">Devil on the Cross</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Ng%C5%A9g%C4%A9_wa_Thiong%27o" title="Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o">Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o</a>), <i>Thoongum azhagigalin Illam</i> (translation of "<a href="/wiki/The_House_of_the_Sleeping_Beauties" title="The House of the Sleeping Beauties">The House of the Sleeping Beauties</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Yasunari_Kawabata" title="Yasunari Kawabata">Yasunari Kawabata</a>). Writers like Amarantha, Latha Ramakrishnan are responsible for these works.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_fiction">Popular fiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Popular fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">Crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">detective fiction</a> has enjoyed wide popularity in Tamil Nadu since the 1930s. Popular authors in the years before independence included Kurumbur Kuppusami and <a href="/wiki/Vaduvur_Duraisami_Iyengar" title="Vaduvur Duraisami Iyengar">Vaduvur Duraisami Iyengar</a>. In the 1950s and 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Tamilvanan" title="Tamilvanan">Tamilvanan</a>'s detective hero Shankarlal carried readers to a variety of foreign locales, while using a pure Tamil with very few Hindi or English loan words. These writers are often extremely prolific, with hundreds or even thousands of short novels to their credit, and one or more short novel published in a monthly periodical. <a href="/wiki/Indra_Soundar_Rajan" title="Indra Soundar Rajan">Indra Soundar Rajan</a>, another popular modern author, writes supernatural crime thrillers usually based around Hindu mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tamil_Novel_Writers">Tamil Novel Writers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tamil Novel Writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1940s and 1950s <a href="/wiki/Kalki_Krishnamurthy" title="Kalki Krishnamurthy">Kalki Krishnamurthy</a> was notable for his historical and social fiction. </p><p>In the 1950s and 60s, <a href="/wiki/Chandilyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandilyan">Chandilyan</a> wrote a number of very popular historical romance novels set in medieval India or on medieval trade routes with Malaysia, Indonesia and Europe. </p><p>From the 1950s, spanning six decades, <a href="/wiki/Jayakanthan" title="Jayakanthan">Jayakanthan</a> authored around 40 novels, 200 short stories, apart from two autobiographies. Outside literature, he made two films. In addition, four of his other novels were adapted into films by others. His works revolve around the lives of underclass people like rickshaw-pullers, prostitutes and rag-pickers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arunaa_Nandhini" title="Arunaa Nandhini">Arunaa Nandhini</a> is one of recent Tamil novelists who has entered the hearts of many Tamil readers, and her story covers family subject, romance, reality, with some humor added for the readers to enjoy their leisure. </p><p>Modern romance novels are represented by the current bestselling author in the Tamil language, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramanichandran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramanichandran (page does not exist)">Ramanichandran</a>. </p><p>Though sales of Tamil pulp fiction have declined since the hey-day of the mid-1990s, and many writers have turned to the more lucrative television serial market, there remains a thriving scene. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodicals">Periodicals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Periodicals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. <i>Rajavritti Bodhini</i> and <i>Dina Varthamani</i> in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem <i>Desabhimini</i> in 1878 and <i>Coimbatore Kalanidhi</i> in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals. In 1882, G. Subramaniya Iyer started the newspaper <i>Swadesamitran</i>. It became the first Tamil daily in 1889. This was the start of many journals to follow and many novelists began to serialise their stories in these journal. The humour magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Vikatan" title="Ananda Vikatan">Ananda Vikatan</a></i> started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. <a href="/wiki/Kalki_Krishnamurthy" title="Kalki Krishnamurthy">Kalki Krishnamurthy</a> (1899–1954) serialised his short stories and novels in <i>Ananda Vikatan</i> and eventually started his own weekly <i>Kalki</i> for which he wrote the enduringly popular novels <i><a href="/wiki/Parthiban_Kanavu" title="Parthiban Kanavu">Parthiban Kanavu</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sivagamiyin_Sabadham" class="mw-redirect" title="Sivagamiyin Sabadham">Sivagamiyin Sabadham</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ponniyin_Selvan" title="Ponniyin Selvan">Ponniyin Selvan</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Pudhumaipithan" title="Pudhumaipithan">Pudhumaipithan</a> (1906–1948) was a great writer of short stories and provided the inspiration for a number of authors who followed him. The 'new poetry or <i>pudukkavithai</i> pioneered by Bharathi in his prose-poetry was further developed by the literary periodicals <i>manikkodi</i> and <i>ezhuttu</i> (edited by Si Su Chellappa). Poets such as <a href="/wiki/Mu._Metha" title="Mu. Metha">Mu. Metha</a> contributed to these periodicals. <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Muslim" title="Tamil Muslim">Tamil Muslim</a> poets like <a href="/wiki/S._Abdul_Rahman" title="S. Abdul Rahman">Kavikko Abdul Rahman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inkulab" title="Inkulab">Pavalar Inqulab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manushyaputhiran" title="Manushyaputhiran">Manushyaputhiran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salma_(writer)" title="Salma (writer)">Rajathi Salma</a> too have made significant contributions to social reforms. The pioneering fortnightly journal <i>Samarasam</i> was established in 1981 to highlight and cater to the ethnic Tamil Muslim community's issues. Another remarkable work was done in Tamil novel field by Mu.Varatharasanar.[Agal vilakku] [Karithundu]. And last but not least <a href="/wiki/Akilan" title="Akilan">Akilan</a> the unique Tamil novelist, short story writer and a social activist is famous for his works like 'Chithirapavai' 'Vengayinmaindan' 'Pavaivilaku'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tamil_journalism">Tamil journalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tamil journalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first Tamil periodical was published by the Christian Religious Tract Society in 1831 – <i>The Tamil Magazine</i>. </p><p>The increasing demand of the literate public caused a number of journals and periodicals to be published and these in turn provided a platform for authors to publish their work. Rajavritti Bodhini and Dina Varthamani in 1855 and Salem Pagadala Narasimhalu Naidu's fortnightlies, Salem Desabhimini in 1878 and Coimbatore Kalanidhi in 1880, were the earliest Tamil journals. </p><p>The first regular newspaper in Tamil was Swadesamitran in 1882, started by G.Subramaniya Iyer, editor and sponsor of The Hindu and founding member of the Indian National Congress. He created a whole new Tamil political vocabulary. He was conscious that those with a knowledge of English are fewer in number and those with a knowledge of Indian languages make the vast majority. He felt that unless the people were told about the objectives of British rule and its merits and defects in the Indian languages, their political knowledge would never develop. When Subramania Aiyer quit The Hindu 1898, he made the Swadesamitran his full-time business. In 1899, the first Tamil daily. It was to enjoy this status for 17 years. </p><p>Subramania Aiyer's "pugnacious style, never qualifying words to soften the sharp tenor of a sentence," his use of words "dipped in a paste of extra pungent green chillies," made the Swadesamitran sought by Tamils wherever they lived in the world. And the daily became even more popular when Subramania Bharati joined it in 1904. The next year, when Lala Lajpat Rai was arrested and agitation followed in the Punjab, Subramania Aiyer's attitude to the British changed and he became a trenchant political critic of the Raj. His whole political mantra can be summed up in these words: `Peaceful but tireless and unceasing effort.' Let us sweat ourselves into Swaraj, he would seem to say." Swadesamitran is credited for coining new Tamil words to deal with science, politics and administration. It had the most comprehensive budget of news among all the regional language papers of that time. </p><p>In 1917, <i>Desabhaktan</i>, another Tamil daily began with T.V. Kalyansundara Menon as editor. He was succeeded by V.V.S. Iyer, a colleague of the Savarkar brothers. These two editors were scholars with a natural, highly readable but polished style of writing. </p><p>The freedom movement and the advent of Gandhi also impacted Tamil journalism. Navasakthi, a Tamil periodical edited by Tamil scholar and freedom fighter V. Kalyanasundaram. <a href="/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">C.Rajagopalachari</a> began Vimochanam, a Tamil journal devoted to propagating prohibition at the Gandhi Ashram in Tiruchengode in Salem district. </p><p>In 1926, <a href="/wiki/P._Varadarajulu_Naidu" title="P. Varadarajulu Naidu">P. Varadarajulu Naidu</a>, who was conducting a Tamil news-cum-views weekly 'Tamil Nadu' started a daily with the same name. Its forceful and colloquial style gained it a wide readership but after the paper failed to take sides with the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, the Congress Party decided to bring out a new Tamil daily – India, edited by renowned poet Subramania Bharati. India showed great promise but could not establish itself financially, and folded up soon after Bharati was exiled to Pondicherry. All these papers were published from Madras. </p><p>In 1933, the first Tamil tabloid – the 8 page Jayabharati began at a price of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> anna. It closed in 1940 as the price could not sustain even its postage. </p><p>In September 1934, <a href="/wiki/S._Sadanand" title="S. Sadanand">S. Sadanand</a> (who was running <a href="/wiki/The_Free_Press_Journal" title="The Free Press Journal">The Free Press Journal</a>) started the Tamil daily Dinamani with T.S. Chockalingam as editor. It was priced at 6 pies, contained bright features and was fearlessly critical. It was highly successful and its circulation eclipsed the total circulation of all other Tamil dailies. Soon 'India' was incorporated into Dinamani. Dinamani made a studied and conscious effort to make the contents of a newspaper intelligible even to the newly literate. In 1935, <a href="/wiki/Viduthalai_(Tamil_daily)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viduthalai (Tamil daily)">Viduthalai</a> was begun, but it was more of a views-paper than a newspaper. The Non-Brahman Movement also gave an impetus to Tamil journalism. Newspapers like the <i>Bharat Devi</i> were strong supporters of this movement. </p><p>Many magazines began in Tamil Nadu during the 1920s and '30s. The humour magazine Ananda Vikatan started by S.S. Vasan in 1929 was to help create some of the greatest Tamil novelists. It is still running successfully after 80 years and the Vikatan group today also publishes Chutti Vikatan, Junior Vikatan, Motor Vikatan and other special interest magazines. R. Krishnamurthy serialised his short stories and novels in Ananda Vikatan and eventually started his own weekly Kalki. The name Kalki denotes the impending tenth Avatar of Lord Vishnu in the Hindu religion, who it is said, will bring to an end the Kali Yuga and reinstate Dharma or righteousness among the worldly beings. He used the name because he wanted to bring about liberation of India. </p><p>In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Dina_Thanthi" title="Dina Thanthi">Dina Thanthi</a> (<i>Daily Telegraph</i>) was started in Madurai with simultaneous editions in Madras, Salem and Tiruchirappalli. It was founded by S.P. Adithanar, a lawyer trained in Britain. He modeled Thanthi on the style of an English tabloid- The Daily Mirror. He aimed to bring out a newspaper that ordinary people would read, and which would encourage a reading habit even among the newly literate. In the past, the daily newspaper which was printed in Madras reached the southern Tamil region after at least one day. Thanthi used the public bus system to distribute the paper throughout the south Tamil region and capitalized on the hunger for war news that arose after Singapore fell to the Japanese. Due to financial constraints, its Salem and Tiruchirappalli editions had to be closed down for a while. Thanthi emphasized local news, especially crime and the courts. It used photographs extensively and brought banner headlines to Tamil journalism. It could fit one story on an entire broadsheet page, mainly filled with large easy-to-read headlines. One of its biggest scoops was the murder of the editor of a scandalous film magazine by two actors. Thanthi covered the trial in Madras in detail, and its reporters phoned the daily account to the printing centre in Madurai. Thanthi was the first Tamil paper to understand the people’s fascination with crime and film stars. The paper was popular and it was said that Tamils learned to read in order to read the newspaper. </p><p>Dina Thanthi became one of the largest Tamil language dailies by circulation within a few years; it has been a leading Tamil daily since the 1960s. It has today 14 editions. It is the highest circulated Tamil daily in Bangalore and Pondicherry. It issues a book called 10th, +2 Vina Vidai Book, on every Wednesday during the second part of the year. The model question papers of all the subjects of Standard 10 and 12 are provided with answers along with the question papers of board exams that are conducted previous year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tamil_Novels_Writers_Name">Tamil Novels Writers Name</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tamil Novels Writers Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> has triggered a dramatic growth in the number of Tamil <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a> and specialist portals catering to political and social issues.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tamil literature is even available in the form of e-books. Tamil literature boasts a rich tradition of novel writing, with many talented authors contributing to the literary landscape. Here are ten prominent Tamil novel writers: </p><p>1. **<a href="/wiki/Kalki_Krishnamurthy" title="Kalki Krishnamurthy">Kalki Krishnamurthy</a> (1899–1954):** Renowned for historical novels like "Ponniyin Selvan," Kalki is considered a pioneer in Tamil literature. </p><p>2. **S. <a href="/wiki/Ramakrishnan" title="Ramakrishnan">Ramakrishnan</a> (1937–):** Known for his realistic portrayal of social issues, Ramakrishnan has penned impactful novels such as "Oru Manithanin Kathai." </p><p>3. **<a href="/wiki/Jayakanthan" title="Jayakanthan">Jayakanthan</a> (1934–2015):** A prolific writer and Sahitya Akademi Award winner, Jayakanthan explored various themes in his novels, including social and existential issues. </p><p>4. **<a href="/wiki/Akilan" title="Akilan">Akilan</a> (1922–1988):** Famous for historical novels like "Chitralekha" and "Vengayin Maindhan," Akilan made significant contributions to Tamil literature. </p><p>5. **<a href="/wiki/R._K._Narayan" title="R. K. Narayan">R. K. Narayan</a> (1906–2001):** Though born in Madras (now Chennai), R. K. Narayan wrote in English. His works, such as "Malgudi Days," have left an indelible mark on Indian literature. </p><p>6. **<a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Muhammad_Basheer" title="Vaikom Muhammad Basheer">Vaikom Muhammad Basheer</a> (1908–1994):** Another author who wrote in Malayalam but had a significant impact on Tamil literature, Basheer's works often explored social issues and human relationships. </p><p>7. **C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972):** A multifaceted personality, Rajagopalachari, also known as Rajaji, was a statesman, politician, and writer. His novel "Chandralekha" gained popularity. </p><p>8. **Pudhumaipithan (1906–1948):** An influential short story writer, Pudhumaipithan also made notable contributions to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.novelstamil.com">Tamil novels</a>, exploring social and psychological themes. </p><p>9. **Sivasankari (1942–):** With a focus on women's issues, Sivasankari has authored numerous novels like "Paalangal" and "Piriyatha Varam Vendum." </p><p>10. **R. Chudamani (1941–):** Known for her novels exploring the lives of women in rural Tamil Nadu, Chudamani has made a significant impact on contemporary Tamil literature. </p><p>These writers have played a crucial role in shaping Tamil literature through their diverse themes and narrative styles. </p><p>read More: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.novelstamil.com/top-10-tamil-novel-writers/">Tamil Novel Writers</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Madurai" title="Project Madurai">Project Madurai</a>: open access Tamil literature repository</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_poets#Tamil" title="List of Indian poets">List of Tamil poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Tamil Literature">Sri Lankan Tamil Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Heritage_Foundation" title="Tamil Heritage Foundation">Tamil Heritage Foundation</a>, digitalization of ancient Tamil literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_historical_novels" title="Tamil historical novels">Tamil historical novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_mythology" title="Tamil mythology">Tamil mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_Tamil_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where Tamil is an official language">List of countries where Tamil is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_literature#Dalit_literature_in_Tamil" title="Dalit literature">§ Dalit literature in Tamil</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Neild, S. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40874203">A Select Bibliography of Books and Articles on Tamil Literature in English</a>. <i>Mahfil</i>, <i>4</i>(3/4), pp. 107–112</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sangam_before_300_bc-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sangam_before_300_bc_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kurunthogai (11), and Natrinai (14, 75) are dated before 300 BCE.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-majumdar193-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-majumdar193_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-majumdar193_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Majumdar, p 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Kuruntokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuruntokai">Kuruntokai</a></i> for a commentary on this poem.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Zvelebil, pp. 45–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a></i>. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, p. 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197448–49-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil197448–49_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1974">Zvelebil 1974</a>, pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardy_156-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hardy_156_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHardy2015" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Friedhelm (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XY42EAAAQBAJ&dq=mayon+mullai&pg=PA156"><i>Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3816-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3816-1"><bdi>978-81-208-3816-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viraha+Bhakti%3A+The+Early+History+of+Krsna+Devotion&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-208-3816-1&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Friedhelm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXY42EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dmayon%2Bmullai%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clothey_34-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clothey_34_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClothey2019" class="citation book cs1">Clothey, Fred W. (20 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PC2aDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tirum%C4%81l&pg=PA34"><i>The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080410-2"><bdi>978-3-11-080410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Many+Faces+of+Murukan%3A+The+History+and+Meaning+of+a+South+Indian+God.+With+the+Poem+Prayers+to+Lord+Murukan&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2019-05-20&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080410-2&rft.aulast=Clothey&rft.aufirst=Fred+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPC2aDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DTirum%25C4%2581l%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr.C.R.Krishnamurti" class="citation web cs1">Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ckrishnamurti.tripod.com/chap2a.html">"2. The Sangam Period"</a>. <i>tripod.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tripod.com&rft.atitle=2.+The+Sangam+Period&rft.au=Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fckrishnamurti.tripod.com%2Fchap2a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973123–124-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZvelebil1973123–124_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1973">Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/in-praise-of-vishnu/article6245959.ece">"In praise of Vishnu"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. 24 July 2014 – via www.thehindu.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=In+praise+of+Vishnu&rft.date=2014-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffriday-review%2Freligion%2Fin-praise-of-vishnu%2Farticle6245959.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadmaja2002" class="citation book cs1">Padmaja, T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pzgaS1wRnl8C&dq=mayon+sangam&pg=PA27"><i>Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-398-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-398-4"><bdi>978-81-7017-398-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Temples+of+Kr%CC%A5%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a+in+South+India%3A+History%2C+Art%2C+and+Traditions+in+Tamiln%C4%81%E1%B8%8Du&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-398-4&rft.aulast=Padmaja&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpzgaS1wRnl8C%26dq%3Dmayon%2Bsangam%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sangam-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sangam_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Journal_of_Tamil_Studies,_Volume_1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna"><i>Journal of Tamil Studies, Volume 1</i></a>. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 1969. p. 131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060321/https://books.google.no/books?id=ZjoRAAAAYAAJ&q=tolkappiyam+varuna&dq=tolkappiyam+varuna&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiloMXV6bnXAhXiDZoKHXyuDMAQ6AEILTAB">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+Tamil+Studies%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Tamil+Studies&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZjoRAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dtolkappiyam%2Bvaruna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paripāṭal Poem 1 Line 50 to 56 ஐந்தலை உயிரிய அணங்குடை அருந்திறல் மைந்துடை ஒருவனும்– you are the one with five heads who causes great fear and is one of great ability and strength – Sivan, மடங்கலும்நீ – one where all lives end, நலம் முழுது அளைஇய – with all benefits, புகர்அறு காட்சிப் புலமும்– faultless learning – Vēdās, பூவனும் – you are Brahman who appeared on a flower, நாற்றமும்நீ – you are creation created by Brahman, வலன் உயர் எழிலியும் – clouds that rise up with strength, மாக விசும்பும் – wide sky, நிலனும்– land, நீடிய இமயமும்– and the tall Himalayas, நீ– you, அதனால் – so, இன்னோர் அனையை– like so and so, இனையையால்– like somebody, என– thus, அன்னோர் – those, யாம் இவண் காணாமையின் – I have not seen here, பொன் அணி நேமி – wheels decorated with gold, வலம் கொண்டு ஏந்திய – lifting on your right side or lifting with strength, மன்னுயிர் முதல்வனை – you are supreme to all the living beings on the Earth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kz49-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kz49_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kz49_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZvelebil1974">Zvelebil 1974</a>, p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kur_al423-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kur_al423_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThiruvalluvar" class="citation web cs1">Thiruvalluvar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230225516/http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/cgi-bin/show_kural_ad.pl?43">"Text of Tirukkural: Adhikaram 43"</a>. <i>IITM Software and Multilingual Application Development</i>. Rev. G.U. Pope (translation). IIT Madras. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/cgi-bin/show_kural_ad.pl?43">the original</a> on 30 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IITM+Software+and+Multilingual+Application+Development&rft.atitle=Text+of+Tirukkural%3A+Adhikaram+43&rft.au=Thiruvalluvar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facharya.iitm.ac.in%2Fcgi-bin%2Fshow_kural_ad.pl%3F43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-majumdar194-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-majumdar194_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Majumdar, p 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubrahmanyam2002" class="citation web cs1">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (10 August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.international.ucla.edu/cisa/article/27779">"The Diversity in Indian Islam"</a>. <i>The Times of India</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2020</span> – via UCLA Center for India and South Asia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Times+of+India&rft.atitle=The+Diversity+in+Indian+Islam&rft.date=2002-08-10&rft.aulast=Subrahmanyam&rft.aufirst=Sanjay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.international.ucla.edu%2Fcisa%2Farticle%2F27779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKala_Krishnan_Ramesh2008" class="citation web cs1">Kala Krishnan Ramesh (20 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tehelka.com/story_main41.asp?filename=hub201208style_as.asp">"Style as Substance"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Style+as+Substance&rft.date=2008-12-20&rft.au=Kala+Krishnan+Ramesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftehelka.com%2Fstory_main41.asp%3Ffilename%3Dhub201208style_as.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakravarthy2008" class="citation book cs1">Chakravarthy, Pritham (2008). <i>The Blaft Anthology of Tamil Pulp Fiction</i>. Chennai, India: Blaft Publications. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-906056-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-906056-0-1"><bdi>978-81-906056-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blaft+Anthology+of+Tamil+Pulp+Fiction&rft.place=Chennai%2C+India&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Blaft+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-906056-0-1&rft.aulast=Chakravarthy&rft.aufirst=Pritham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071019020558/http://hindu.com/2007/08/04/stories/2007080450970200.htm">"The Hindu : Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Tamil bloggers' 'unconference' to take place on Sunday"</a>. 19 October 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hindu.com/2007/08/04/stories/2007080450970200.htm">the original</a> on 19 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+%3A+Tamil+Nadu+%2F+Chennai+News+%3A+Tamil+bloggers%27+%27unconference%27+to+take+place+on+Sunday&rft.date=2007-10-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhindu.com%2F2007%2F08%2F04%2Fstories%2F2007080450970200.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1975" class="citation book cs1">Hart, George L. (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/poemsofancientta00hart"><i>The poems of ancient Tamil: their milieu and their Sanskrit counterparts</i></a></span>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-02672-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-02672-1"><bdi>0-520-02672-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+poems+of+ancient+Tamil%3A+their+milieu+and+their+Sanskrit+counterparts&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-520-02672-1&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoemsofancientta00hart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdar1987" class="citation book cs1">Majumdar, R. C. (1987). <i>Ancient India</i>. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0436-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0436-8"><bdi>81-208-0436-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+India&rft.place=India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=81-208-0436-8&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuthiah2003" class="citation web cs1">Muthiah, S. (23 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030819174748/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2003/07/23/stories/2003072300090200.htm">"The beginning of Tamil journalism"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. Archived from the original on 19 August 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=The+beginning+of+Tamil+journalism&rft.date=2003-07-23&rft.aulast=Muthiah&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduonnet.com%2Fthehindu%2Fmp%2F2003%2F07%2F23%2Fstories%2F2003072300090200.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNilakanta_Sastri2000" class="citation book cs1">Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (2000). <i>A History of South India</i>. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-560686-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-560686-8"><bdi>0-19-560686-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+South+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-560686-8&rft.aulast=Nilakanta+Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNilakanta_SastriSrinivasachari2000" class="citation book cs1">Nilakanta Sastri, K. A.; Srinivasachari, G. (2000). <i>Advanced History of India</i>. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+History+of+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Nilakanta+Sastri&rft.aufirst=K.+A.&rft.au=Srinivasachari%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViswanathan2005" class="citation journal cs1">Viswanathan, S. (13–26 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061130085216/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2217/stories/20050826000807700.htm">"Portrait of a novelist as a social reformer"</a>. <i>Frontline</i>. <b>22</b> (17). Archived from the original on 30 November 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Portrait+of+a+novelist+as+a+social+reformer&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=17&rft.date=2005-08-13%2F2005-08-26&rft.aulast=Viswanathan&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduonnet.com%2Ffline%2Ffl2217%2Fstories%2F20050826000807700.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1973" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1973). <i>The smile of Murugan: on Tamil literature of South India</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03591-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03591-5"><bdi>90-04-03591-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+smile+of+Murugan%3A+on+Tamil+literature+of+South+India&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=90-04-03591-5&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZvelebil1974" class="citation book cs1">Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1974). Jan Gonda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC"><i>Tamil Literature</i></a>. A History of Indian Literature. Vol. X. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3447015829" title="Special:BookSources/3447015829"><bdi>3447015829</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.series=A+History+of+Indian+Literature&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=3447015829&rft.aulast=Zvelebil&rft.aufirst=Kamil+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQ33i496MsIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATamil+literature" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamil_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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title="Old Tamil">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Tamil" title="Middle Tamil">Middle Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Tamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Tamil">Modern Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipravalam" title="Manipravalam">Manipravalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian_language" title="Proto-Dravidian language">Proto-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-South_Dravidian_language" title="Proto-South Dravidian language">Proto-South Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Sangams" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Sangams">Tamil Sangams</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sangam">First Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Sangam">Second Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sangam" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Sangam">Third Sangam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangalore_Tamil_dialects" title="Bangalore Tamil dialects">Bangalore Tamil dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tamil_dialect" title="Central Tamil dialect">Central Tamil dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongu_Tamil" title="Kongu Tamil">Kongu Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madras_Bashai" title="Madras Bashai">Madras Bashai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai_Tamil" title="Madurai Tamil">Madurai Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nellai_Tamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Nellai Tamil">Nellai Tamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_dialects" title="Sri Lankan Tamil dialects">Sri Lankan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negombo_Tamil_dialect" title="Negombo Tamil dialect">Negombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batticaloa_Tamil_dialect" title="Batticaloa Tamil dialect">Batticaloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaffna_Tamil_dialect" title="Jaffna Tamil dialect">Jaffna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southeast Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Tamil" title="Malaysian Tamil">Malaysian Tamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Sociolects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin_Tamil" title="Brahmin Tamil">Brahmin Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Tamil_Conference" title="World Tamil Conference">World Tamil Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Classical_Tamil_Conference_2010" title="World Classical Tamil Conference 2010">World Classical Tamil Conference 2010</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Classics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_books_of_Law" title="Tamil books of Law">Tamil books of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Five_Great_Epics_of_Tamil_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponniyin_Selvan" title="Ponniyin Selvan">Ponniyin Selvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sangam_poets" title="List of Sangam poets">List of Sangam poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_in_Tamil_literary_tradition" title="Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition">Commentaries in Tamil literary tradition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Devotional<br />literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umaru_Pulavar#Literary_works" title="Umaru Pulavar">Cīrappurānam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramavataram" title="Ramavataram">Kampa Irāmāyaṉam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabhandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Naalayira Divya Prabhandham">Nālāyira Tivviya Pirapantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thembavani" title="Thembavani">Tēmpāvaṉi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tamil_literature_works_about_Ganesha" title="List of Tamil literature works about Ganesha">Tamil Ganaptya texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Poetry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kural_(poetic_form)" title="Kural (poetic form)">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venpa" title="Venpa">Venpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraichchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraichchi">Iraichchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akam_(poetry)" title="Akam (poetry)">Akam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puram_(poetry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Puram (poetry)">Puram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Thinai">Thinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullurai" title="Ullurai">Ullurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ula_(poetry)" title="Ula (poetry)">Ulā</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Grammars and<br />dictionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agattiyam" title="Agattiyam">Agattiyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nann%C5%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Nannūl">Nannūl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purapporul_Venbamaalai" title="Purapporul Venbamaalai">Purapporul Venbamaalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Vijayanagar_and_Nayak_period">Caturakarāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Lexicon_dictionary" title="Tamil Lexicon dictionary">Tamil Lexicon dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalpana_Vaipava_Malai" title="Yalpana Vaipava Malai">Yāḻpāna Vaipava Mālai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mathematics and<br />natural science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthana_Kolahalam" title="Asthana Kolahalam">Asthana Kolahalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87akkatik%C4%81ram" title="Kaṇakkatikāram">Kaṇakkatikāram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87ita_T%C4%ABpikai" title="Kaṇita Tīpikai">Kaṇita Tīpikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerambam" title="Yerambam">Yerambam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tamil and<br /> other languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Tamil_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="List of English words of Tamil origin">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sinhala_words_of_Tamil_origin" title="List of Sinhala words of Tamil origin">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_loanwords_in_Tamil" title="Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil">Indo-Aryan languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Malay" title="List of loanwords in Malay">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_graffiti_symbols" title="Megalithic graffiti symbols">Megalithic graffiti symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Koleḻuttu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatteluttu alphabet">Vatteluttu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_grantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallava grantha">Pallava grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Modern script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lexis and<br /> grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_honorifics" title="Tamil honorifics">Tamil honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_numerals" title="Tamil numerals">Tamil numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_onomatopoeia" title="Tamil onomatopoeia">Tamil onomatopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_prosody" title="Tamil prosody">Tamil prosody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transliteration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozhi_(transliteration)" title="Mozhi (transliteration)">Moḻi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standardisation_of_Tamil_script" title="Standardisation of Tamil script">Standardisation of Tamil script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanittamil_Iyakkam" title="Tanittamil Iyakkam">Tanittamil Iyakkam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Tamil_script" title="Simplified Tamil script">Simplified Tamil script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_in_Tamil_language" title="Printing in Tamil language">Printing in Tamil language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Heritage_Foundation" title="Tamil Heritage Foundation">Ancient manuscript digitalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Institute_of_Classical_Tamil" title="Central Institute of Classical Tamil">Formation of CICT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Madurai" title="Project Madurai">Project Madurai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_State_of_Tamil_Nadu" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tamil_Nadu" title="Template:Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tamil_Nadu" title="Template talk:Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tamil_Nadu" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tamil Nadu"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_State_of_Tamil_Nadu" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tamil_Nadu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">State</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_and_union_territory_capitals_in_India" title="List of state and union territory capitals in India">Capital</a>: <b><a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tamil_Nadu_state_symbols" title="List of Tamil Nadu state symbols">State <br />symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Seal: <a href="/wiki/Srivilliputhur_Andal_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Srivilliputhur Andal temple">Srivilliputhur Andal temple tower</a></li> <li>Animal: <a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_tahr" title="Nilgiri tahr">Nilgiri tahr</a></li> <li>Bird: <a href="/wiki/Common_emerald_dove" title="Common emerald dove">Emerald dove</a></li> <li>Flower: <a href="/wiki/Gloriosa_superba" title="Gloriosa superba">Gloriosa lily</a></li> <li>Fruit: <a href="/wiki/Jackfruit" title="Jackfruit">Jackfruit</a></li> <li>Tree: <a href="/wiki/Borassus_flabellifer" title="Borassus flabellifer">Palm tree</a></li> <li>Butterfly: <a href="/wiki/Cirrochroa_thais" title="Cirrochroa thais">Cirrochroa Thais</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:TamilNadu_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/TamilNadu_Logo.svg/80px-TamilNadu_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/TamilNadu_Logo.svg/120px-TamilNadu_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/TamilNadu_Logo.svg/160px-TamilNadu_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="867" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Government of Tamil Nadu">Governance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="List of governors of Tamil Nadu">Governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chief_ministers_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="List of chief ministers of Tamil Nadu">Chief ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deputy_chief_ministers_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="List of deputy chief ministers of Tamil Nadu">Deputy chief ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly" title="Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly">Legislative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_parties_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Category:Political parties in Tamil Nadu">Political parties</a></li> <li>Raj Bhavan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raj_Bhavan,_Chennai" title="Raj Bhavan, Chennai">Chennai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_Bhavan,_Ooty" title="Raj Bhavan, Ooty">Ooty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madras_High_Court" title="Madras High Court">High Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Police" title="Tamil Nadu Police">Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Tamil_Nadu" title="Category:Tamil Nadu">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_cinema" title="Tamil cinema">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_cuisine" title="Tamil cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Government of Tamil Nadu">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu#History" title="Tamil Nadu">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_music" title="Ancient Tamil music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamils" title="Tamils">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Education in Tamil Nadu">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Sports in Tamil Nadu">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Politics of Tamil Nadu">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_temples_in_Tamil_Nadu" class="mw-redirect" title="List of temples in Tamil Nadu">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="List of protected areas of Tamil Nadu">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_radio_on_internet" title="Tamil radio on internet">Radio on Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doddabetta" title="Doddabetta">Highest point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Wildlife of Tamil Nadu">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_sexual_minorities" title="Tamil sexual minorities">Sexual minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Tourism in Tamil Nadu">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaveri_River_water_dispute" title="Kaveri River water dispute">Kaveri River water dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Day" title="Tamil Nadu Day">State Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Tamil_Nadu_by_population" title="List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population">Major cities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coimbatore" title="Coimbatore">Coimbatore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruchirappalli" title="Tiruchirappalli">Tiruchirappalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruppur" title="Tiruppur">Tiruppur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salem,_Tamil_Nadu" title="Salem, Tamil Nadu">Salem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="List of districts of Tamil Nadu">Districts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ariyalur_district" title="Ariyalur district">Ariyalur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chengalpattu_district" title="Chengalpattu district">Chengalpattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chennai_district" title="Chennai district">Chennai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coimbatore_district" title="Coimbatore district">Coimbatore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuddalore_district" title="Cuddalore district">Cuddalore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmapuri_district" title="Dharmapuri district">Dharmapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dindigul_district" title="Dindigul district">Dindigul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erode_district" title="Erode district">Erode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kallakurichi_district" title="Kallakurichi district">Kallakurichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanchipuram_district" title="Kanchipuram district">Kanchipuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari_district" title="Kanyakumari district">Kanyakumari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karur_district" title="Karur district">Karur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishnagiri_district" title="Krishnagiri district">Krishnagiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai_district" title="Madurai district">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayiladuthurai_district" title="Mayiladuthurai district">Mayiladuthurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagapattinam_district" title="Nagapattinam district">Nagapattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namakkal_district" title="Namakkal district">Namakkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilgiris_district" title="Nilgiris district">Nilgiris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perambalur_district" title="Perambalur district">Perambalur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudukkottai_district" title="Pudukkottai district">Pudukkottai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanathapuram_district" title="Ramanathapuram district">Ramanathapuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranipet_district" title="Ranipet district">Ranipet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salem_district" title="Salem district">Salem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivaganga_district" title="Sivaganga district">Sivaganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenkasi_district" title="Tenkasi district">Tenkasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_district" title="Thanjavur district">Thanjavur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theni_district" title="Theni district">Theni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoothukudi_district" title="Thoothukudi district">Thoothukudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruchirappalli_district" title="Tiruchirappalli district">Tiruchirappalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirunelveli_district" title="Tirunelveli district">Tirunelveli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirupathur_district" title="Tirupathur district">Tirupathur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruppur_district" title="Tiruppur district">Tiruppur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruvallur_district" title="Tiruvallur district">Tiruvallur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruvannamalai_district" title="Tiruvannamalai district">Tiruvannamalai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruvarur_district" title="Tiruvarur district">Tiruvarur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellore_district" title="Vellore district">Vellore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viluppuram_district" title="Viluppuram district">Viluppuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virudhunagar_district" title="Virudhunagar district">Virudhunagar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Tamil_Nadu-related_lists" title="Category:Tamil Nadu-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_Tamil_Nadu_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of districts in Tamil Nadu by Human Development Index">Districts in Tamil Nadu by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Tamil_Nadu_by_population" title="List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population">Cities in Tamil Nadu by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_Tamil_Nadu_by_population" title="List of towns in Tamil Nadu by population">Towns in Tamil Nadu by population</a></li> <li><a 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