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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Binary logic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Binary_logic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Binary logic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Binary_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_a_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_a_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Emergence of a discipline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_a_discipline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence of a discipline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_a_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Charles_Babbage_and_Ada_Lovelace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Babbage_and_Ada_Lovelace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Babbage_and_Ada_Lovelace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_post-Analytical_Engine_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_post-Analytical_Engine_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Early post-Analytical Engine designs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_post-Analytical_Engine_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_and_electrical_switching_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_Sanders_Peirce_and_electrical_switching_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Charles Sanders Peirce and electrical switching circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_and_electrical_switching_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alan_Turing_and_the_Turing_machine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alan_Turing_and_the_Turing_machine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Alan Turing and the Turing machine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alan_Turing_and_the_Turing_machine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kathleen_Booth_and_the_first_assembly_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kathleen_Booth_and_the_first_assembly_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Kathleen Booth and the first assembly language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kathleen_Booth_and_the_first_assembly_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_computer_hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_computer_hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Early computer hardware</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_computer_hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shannon_and_information_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shannon_and_information_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Shannon and information theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shannon_and_information_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wiener_and_cybernetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wiener_and_cybernetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Wiener and cybernetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wiener_and_cybernetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_von_Neumann_and_the_von_Neumann_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_von_Neumann_and_the_von_Neumann_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>John von Neumann and the von Neumann architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_von_Neumann_and_the_von_Neumann_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_McCarthy,_Marvin_Minsky_and_artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_McCarthy,_Marvin_Minsky_and_artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and artificial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_McCarthy,_Marvin_Minsky_and_artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of computer science</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="تاريخ علم الحاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ علم الحاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komp%C3%BCter_elminin_tarixi" title="Kompüter elminin tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kompüter elminin tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_inform%C3%A0tica" title="Història de la informàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la informàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_informatiky" title="Dějiny informatiky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny informatiky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Informatik" title="Geschichte der Informatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Informatik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_las_ciencias_de_la_computaci%C3%B3n" title="Historia de las ciencias de la computación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de las ciencias de la computación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="تاریخ علوم رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ علوم رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27informatique" title="Histoire de l'informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'informatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տեղեկատվական տեխնոլոգիաների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղեկատվական տեխնոլոգիաների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="कम्प्यूटर विज्ञान का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कम्प्यूटर विज्ञान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27informatica" title="Storia dell'informatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'informatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_informatyki" title="Historia informatyki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia informatyki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="История информационных технологий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История информационных технологий" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිගණක විද්‍යාවේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණක විද්‍යාවේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_bilimi_tarihi" title="Bilgisayar bilimi tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar bilimi tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Історія інформаційних технологій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія інформаційних технологій" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="電腦科學史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦科學史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff"><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/250px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/375px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/500px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950"> Hardware before 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">Hardware 1960s to present</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_configuration_management" title="History of software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Unix" title="History of Unix">Unix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">Free software and open-source software</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_compiler_construction" title="History of compiler construction">Compiler construction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">Operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">Programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">Prominent pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_engineering" title="History of software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">General-purpose CPUs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" title="History of the graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_laptops" title="History of laptops">Laptops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">Personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cloud_computing" title="History of cloud computing">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Quantum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Bulgaria" title="History of computer hardware in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Eastern_Bloc_countries" title="History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Poland" title="History of computing in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Romania" title="History of computing in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_South_America" title="History of computing in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of computing in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Yugoslavia" title="History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">before 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979" title="Timeline of computing 1950–1979">1950–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989" title="Timeline of computing 1980–1989">1980–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999" title="Timeline of computing 1990–1999">1990–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Timeline of computing 2000–2009">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019" title="Timeline of computing 2010–2019">2010–2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020–present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computing_timelines" title="Category:Computing timelines"><i>more timelines</i> ...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary of computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_computing" title="Template:History of computing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_computing" title="Template talk:History of computing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_computing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of computing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of computer science</b> began long before the modern discipline of <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, usually appearing in forms like <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. Developments in previous centuries alluded to the discipline that we now know as computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014b_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tedre2014b-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This progression, from mechanical inventions and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> theories towards <a href="/wiki/Universal_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Machine">modern computer concepts and machines</a>, led to the development of a major <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic field</a>, massive technological advancement across the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, and the basis of a massive worldwide trade and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Napier.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/John_Napier.JPG/220px-John_Napier.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/John_Napier.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (1550–1617), the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Logarithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Logarithms">logarithms</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest known tool for use in computation was the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, developed in the period between 2700 and 2300 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sumerians' abacus consisted of a table of successive columns which delimited the successive <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">orders of magnitude</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> number system.<sup id="cite_ref-Ifrah2001_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ifrah2001-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci of a more modern design are still used as calculation tools today, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_abacus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese abacus">Chinese abacus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 5th century BC in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">ancient India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philologist">grammarian</a> <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> formulated the <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> in 3959 rules known as the <a href="/wiki/Ashtadhyayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashtadhyayi">Ashtadhyayi</a> which was highly systematized and technical. Panini used metarules, <a href="/wiki/Transformational_grammar" title="Transformational grammar">transformations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> is believed to be an early mechanical analog computer.<sup id="cite_ref-antikythera-mechanism_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antikythera-mechanism-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera" title="Antikythera">Antikythera</a> wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between <a href="/wiki/Kythira" title="Kythira">Kythera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, and has been dated to <i>circa</i> 100 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-antikythera-mechanism_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antikythera-mechanism-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mechanical analog computer devices appeared again a thousand years later in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>. They were developed by <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Muslim astronomers</a>, such as the mechanical geared <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-usc_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usc-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Torquetum" title="Torquetum">torquetum</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Aflah" title="Jabir ibn Aflah">Jabir ibn Aflah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Simon_Singh" title="Simon Singh">Simon Singh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">Muslim mathematicians</a> also made important advances in <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, such as the development of <a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frequency_analysis" title="Frequency analysis">frequency analysis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Alkindus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)">Programmable</a> machines were also invented by <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in medieval Islam">Muslim engineers</a>, such as the automatic <a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a> player by the <a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Banū Mūsā">Banū Mūsā</a> brothers.<sup id="cite_ref-Koetsier_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koetsier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technological artifacts of similar complexity appeared in 14th century <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, with mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-insearchoflosttime_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insearchoflosttime-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a> for computational purposes in the early 17th century,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there followed a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools. In 1623 <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schickard" title="Wilhelm Schickard">Wilhelm Schickard</a> designed a calculating machine as a commission for <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> which he named the Calculating Clock, but abandoned the project, when the prototype he had started building was destroyed by a fire in 1624.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1640, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, a leading French mathematician, constructed a mechanical adding device based on a design described by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> mathematician <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then in 1672 <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepped Reckoner">Stepped Reckoner</a> which he completed in 1694.<sup id="cite_ref-Meyer1925_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyer1925-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1837 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> first described his <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a> which is accepted as the first design for a modern computer. The analytical engine had expandable memory, an arithmetic unit, and logic processing capabilities able to interpret a <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> with loops and conditional branching. Although never built, the design has been studied extensively and is understood to be <a href="/wiki/Turing_complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing complete">Turing equivalent</a>. The analytical engine would have had a memory capacity of less than 1 <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">kilobyte</a> of memory and a <a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">clock speed</a> of less than 10 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">Hertz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Considerable advancement in mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> theory was required before the first modern computers could be designed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Binary_logic">Binary logic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Binary logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_(ca._1695).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/162px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/243px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/324px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> (1646–1716) developed <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary number</a> system and has been called the "founder of computer science".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1702, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> in a formal, mathematical sense with his writings on the binary numeral system. Leibniz simplified the binary system and articulated logical properties such as conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, inclusion, and the empty set.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He anticipated <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_polynomial" title="Lagrange polynomial">Lagrangian interpolation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic information theory">algorithmic information theory</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">calculus ratiocinator</a> anticipated aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a>. In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> suggested that Leibniz should be considered the patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wiener is quoted with "Indeed, the general idea of a computing machine is nothing but a mechanization of Leibniz's Calculus Ratiocinator."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it took more than a century before <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean algebra (logic)">Boolean algebra</a> in 1854 with a complete system that allowed computational processes to be mathematically modeled.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tedre2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By this time, the first mechanical devices driven by a binary pattern had been invented. The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and this included <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a>. <a href="/wiki/Punched_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Punched cards">Punched cards</a> controlled <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a>'s loom in 1801, where a hole punched in the card indicated a binary <i>one</i> and an unpunched spot indicated a binary <i>zero</i>. Jacquard's loom was far from being a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could be driven by binary systems and stored binary information.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tedre2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_a_discipline">Emergence of a discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Emergence of a discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_(4672397).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg/232px-Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg/349px-Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg/465px-Portrait_of_Charles_Babbage_%284672397%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="1455" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> (1791–1871), one of the pioneers of computing</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_Babbage_and_Ada_Lovelace">Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> is often regarded as one of the first pioneers of computing. Beginning in the 1810s, Babbage had a vision of mechanically computing numbers and tables. Putting this into reality, Babbage designed a calculator to compute numbers up to 8 decimal points long. Continuing with the success of this idea, Babbage worked to develop a machine that could compute numbers with up to 20 decimal places. By the 1830s, Babbage had devised a plan to develop a machine that could use punched cards to perform arithmetical operations. The machine would store numbers in memory units, and there would be a form of sequential control. This means that one operation would be carried out before another in such a way that the machine would produce an answer and not fail. This machine was to be known as the "Analytical Engine", which was the first true representation of what is the modern computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Charles_Babbage_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Babbage-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png/220px-Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png/330px-Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png/440px-Ada_Byron_daguerreotype_by_Antoine_Claudet_1843_or_1850_-_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a> (1815–1852) predicted the use of computers in symbolic manipulation</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a> (Augusta Ada Byron) is credited as the pioneer of computer programming and is regarded as a mathematical genius. Lovelace began working with Charles Babbage as an assistant while Babbage was working on his "Analytical Engine", the first mechanical computer. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201816_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201816-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During her work with Babbage, Ada Lovelace became the designer of the first computer algorithm, which could compute <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernoulli numbers">Bernoulli numbers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201821_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201821-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this is arguable as Charles was the first to design the difference engine and consequently its corresponding difference based algorithms, making him the first computer algorithm designer. Moreover, Lovelace's work with Babbage resulted in her prediction of future computers to not only perform mathematical calculations but also manipulate symbols, mathematical or not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201820_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201820-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While she was never able to see the results of her work, as the "Analytical Engine" was not created in her lifetime, her efforts in later years, beginning in the 1840s, did not go unnoticed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ada_Lovelace_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ada_Lovelace-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_post-Analytical_Engine_designs">Early post-Analytical Engine designs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early post-Analytical Engine designs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png/180px-Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png/270px-Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo_1912.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> (1852–1936) proposed a consistent manner to store <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point numbers</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following Babbage, although at first unaware of his earlier work, was <a href="/wiki/Percy_Ludgate" title="Percy Ludgate">Percy Ludgate</a>, a clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two other inventors, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, also did follow on research based on Babbage's work. In his <i>Essays on Automatics</i> (1914), Torres designed an analytical electromechanical machine that was controlled by a <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only</a> program and introduced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point arithmetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LTQ1914es_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LTQ1914es-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a>, he presented in Paris the <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_y_Quevedo#Analytical_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonardo Torres y Quevedo"> Electromechanical Arithmometer</a>, which consisted of an arithmetic unit connected to a (possibly remote) typewriter, on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically.<sup id="cite_ref-Randell1982p109_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randell1982p109-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bush's paper <i>Instrumental Analysis</i> (1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.<sup id="cite_ref-RANDELL_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RANDELL-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_Sanders_Peirce_and_electrical_switching_circuits">Charles Sanders Peirce and electrical switching circuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Charles Sanders Peirce and electrical switching circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/162px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/243px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/324px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> (1839–1914) described how logical operations could be carried out by <a href="/wiki/Switching_circuit_theory" title="Switching circuit theory">electrical switching circuits</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In an 1886 letter, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-P2M_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P2M-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 1880–81 he showed that <a href="/wiki/NOR_logic" title="NOR logic">NOR gates alone</a> (or alternatively <a href="/wiki/NAND_logic" title="NAND logic">NAND gates alone</a>) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a>, but this work on it was unpublished until 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first published proof was by <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Sheffer" title="Henry M. Sheffer">Henry M. Sheffer</a> in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Sheffer_stroke" title="Sheffer stroke">Sheffer stroke</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Logical_NOR" title="Logical NOR">logical NOR</a> is sometimes called <i>Peirce's arrow</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-BüningLettmann1999_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BüningLettmann1999-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, these gates are sometimes called <i>universal logic gates</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird2007_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird2007-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eventually, <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> replaced relays for logic operations. <a href="/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a>'s modification, in 1907, of the <a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a> can be used as a logic gate. <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> introduced a version of the 16-row <a href="/wiki/Truth_table" title="Truth table">truth table</a> as proposition 5.101 of <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> (1921). <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a>, inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Coincidence_circuit" title="Coincidence circuit">coincidence circuit</a>, got part of the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer <a href="/wiki/Z1_(computer)" title="Z1 (computer)">Z1</a> (from 1935 to 1938). </p><p>Up to and during the 1930s, electrical engineers were able to build electronic circuits to solve mathematical and logic problems, but most did so in an <i>ad hoc</i> manner, lacking any theoretical rigor. This changed with <a href="/wiki/Switching_circuit_theory" title="Switching circuit theory">switching circuit theory</a> in the 1930s. From 1934 to 1936, <a href="/wiki/Akira_Nakashima" title="Akira Nakashima">Akira Nakashima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>, and Viktor Shetakov published a series of papers showing that the <a href="/wiki/Two-element_Boolean_algebra" title="Two-element Boolean algebra">two-valued</a> <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>, can describe the operation of switching circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-historical_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historical-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanković-Astola_2008_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanković-Astola_2008-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept, of utilizing the properties of electrical switches to do logic, is the basic concept that underlies all electronic <a href="/wiki/Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computers</a>. Switching circuit theory provided the mathematical foundations and tools for <a href="/wiki/Digital_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital system">digital system</a> design in almost all areas of modern technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanković-Astola_2008_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanković-Astola_2008-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While taking an undergraduate philosophy class, Shannon had been exposed to <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">Boole's</a> work, and recognized that it could be used to arrange electromechanical relays (then used in telephone routing switches) to solve logic problems. His thesis became the foundation of practical digital circuit design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alan_Turing_and_the_Turing_machine">Alan Turing and the Turing machine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alan Turing and the Turing machine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg/220px-Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg/330px-Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg/440px-Alan_Turing_az_1930-as_%C3%A9vekben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, English computer scientist, mathematician, logician, and cryptanalyst. (circa 1930)</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the 1920s, <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_(job_description)" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer (job description)">computers</a></i> (sometimes <i>computors</i>) were human clerks that performed computations. They were usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands of computers were employed in commerce, government, and research establishments. Many of these clerks who served as human computers were women.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some performed astronomical calculations for calendars, others ballistic tables for the military.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrier2013138_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2013138-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1920s, the expression <i>computing machine</i> referred to any machine that performed the work of a human computer, especially those in accordance with effective methods of the <a href="/wiki/Church-Turing_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Church-Turing thesis">Church-Turing thesis</a>. The thesis states that a mathematical method is effective if it could be set out as a list of instructions able to be followed by a human clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight. </p><p>Machines that computed with continuous values became known as the <i>analog</i> kind. They used machinery that represented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of a shaft rotation or difference in electrical potential. </p><p>Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to render a state of a numeric value and store each individual digit. Digital machinery used difference engines or relays before the invention of faster memory devices. </p><p>The phrase <i>computing machine</i> gradually gave way, after the late 1940s, to just <i>computer</i> as the onset of electronic digital machinery became common. These computers were able to perform the calculations that were performed by the previous human clerks. </p><p>Since the values stored by digital machines were not bound to physical properties like analog devices, a logical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to do anything that could be described "purely mechanical." The theoretical <a href="/wiki/Turing_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing Machine">Turing Machine</a>, created by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, is a hypothetical device theorized in order to study the properties of such hardware. </p><p>The mathematical foundations of modern computer science began to be laid by <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a> with his <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">incompleteness theorem</a> (1931). In this theorem, he showed that there were limits to what could be proved and disproved within a <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal system</a>. This led to work by Gödel and others to define and describe these formal systems, including concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Mu-recursive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu-recursive function">mu-recursive functions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lambda-definable_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambda-definable functions">lambda-definable functions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936 Alan Turing and <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a> independently, and also together, introduced the formalization of an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>, with limits on what can be computed, and a "purely mechanical" model for computing.<sup id="cite_ref-church-turing-thesis_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-church-turing-thesis-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the <a href="/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis" title="Church–Turing thesis">Church–Turing thesis</a>, a hypothesis about the nature of mechanical calculation devices, such as electronic computers. The thesis states that any calculation that is possible can be performed by an algorithm running on a computer, provided that sufficient time and storage space are available.<sup id="cite_ref-church-turing-thesis_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-church-turing-thesis-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> also published his seminal work on the <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machines</a>, an abstract digital computing machine which is now simply referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">Universal Turing machine</a>. This machine invented the principle of the modern computer and was the birthplace of the <a href="/wiki/Stored_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Stored program">stored program</a> concept that almost all modern day computers use.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hypothetical machines were designed to formally determine, mathematically, what can be computed, taking into account limitations on computing ability. If a Turing machine can complete the task, it is considered <a href="/wiki/Turing_computable" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing computable">Turing computable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Turing_–_Stanford_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turing_–_Stanford-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Frankel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley Frankel">Stanley Frankel</a>, has described <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>'s view of the fundamental importance of Turing's 1936 paper, in a letter:<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> I know that in or about 1943 or ‘44 von Neumann was well aware of the fundamental importance of Turing's paper of 1936… Von Neumann introduced me to that paper and at his urging I studied it with care. Many people have acclaimed von Neumann as the "father of the computer" (in a modern sense of the term) but I am sure that he would never have made that mistake himself. He might well be called the midwife, perhaps, but he firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing...</p></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg/255px-ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg" decoding="async" width="255" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg/383px-ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg/510px-ATANASOFF_Pic%5E5_-_Flickr_-_Eye_Steel_Film.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1912" data-file-height="1561" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Vincent_Atanasoff" title="John Vincent Atanasoff">John V. Atanasoff</a> (1903–1995) created the first electric digital computer, known as the <a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer" title="Atanasoff–Berry computer">Atanasoff–Berry computer</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kathleen_Booth_and_the_first_assembly_language">Kathleen Booth and the first assembly language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kathleen Booth and the first assembly language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Booth" title="Kathleen Booth">Kathleen Booth</a> wrote the first <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a> and designed the assembler and autocode for the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Relay_Calculator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Automatic Relay Calculator (page does not exist)">Automatic Relay Calculator</a> (ARC) at <a href="/wiki/Birkbeck,_University_of_London" title="Birkbeck, University of London">Birkbeck College, University of London</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She helped design three different machines including the ARC, SEC (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_Electronic_Computer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple Electronic Computer (page does not exist)">Simple Electronic Computer</a>), and <a href="/wiki/APEXC" title="APEXC">APE(X)C</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_computer_hardware">Early computer hardware</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early computer hardware"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The world's first electronic digital computer, the <a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer" title="Atanasoff–Berry computer">Atanasoff–Berry computer</a>, was built on the Iowa State campus from 1939 through 1942 by <a href="/wiki/John_Vincent_Atanasoff" title="John Vincent Atanasoff">John V. Atanasoff</a>, a professor of physics and mathematics, and <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Berry" title="Clifford Berry">Clifford Berry</a>, an engineering graduate student. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konrad_Zuse_(1992).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/133px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/199px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/265px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>, inventor of the modern computer<sup id="cite_ref-Bellis_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellis-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> developed the world's first functional program-controlled computer, the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>. In 1998, it was shown to be <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a> in principle.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zuse also developed the S2 computing machine, considered the first <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a> computer. He founded one of the earliest computer businesses in 1941, producing the <a href="/wiki/Z4_(computer)" title="Z4 (computer)">Z4</a>, which became the world's first commercial computer. In 1946, he designed the first <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plankalk%C3%BCl" title="Plankalkül">Plankalkül</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HZ2010-11-18_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HZ2010-11-18-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a> was completed; it was the world's first electronic digital computer that ran programs stored in its memory, like almost all modern computers.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence on <a href="/wiki/Max_Newman" title="Max Newman">Max Newman</a> of Turing's seminal 1936 paper on the <a href="/wiki/Turing_Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing Machines">Turing Machines</a> and of his logico-mathematical contributions to the project, were both crucial to the successful development of the Baby.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, Britain's <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a> completed <a href="/wiki/Pilot_ACE" title="Pilot ACE">Pilot ACE</a>, a small scale programmable computer, based on Turing's philosophy. With an operating speed of 1 MHz, the Pilot Model ACE was for some time the fastest computer in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turing's design for <a href="/wiki/Automatic_Computing_Engine" title="Automatic Computing Engine">ACE</a> had much in common with today's <a href="/wiki/RISC" class="mw-redirect" title="RISC">RISC</a> architectures and it called for a high-speed memory of roughly the same capacity as an early <a href="/wiki/Macintosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh">Macintosh</a> computer, which was enormous by the standards of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Had Turing's ACE been built as planned and in full, it would have been in a different league from the other early computers.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_52-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later in the 1950s, the first <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>, <a href="/wiki/GM-NAA_I/O" title="GM-NAA I/O">GM-NAA I/O</a>, supporting <a href="/wiki/Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch processing</a> to allow jobs to be run with less operator intervention, was developed by <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aviation" title="North American Aviation">North American Aviation</a> for the <a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a>. </p><p>In 1969, an experiment was conducted by two research teams at UCLA and Stanford to create a network between 2 computers although the system crashed during the initial attempt to connect to the other computer but was a huge step towards the Internet. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg/142px-C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg/213px-C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg/283px-C.E._Shannon._Tekniska_museet_43069.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1942" data-file-height="2427" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> (1916–2001) created the field of <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first actual computer bug was a <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moth</a>. It was stuck in between the relays on the Harvard Mark II.<sup id="cite_ref-mark-ii-bug_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mark-ii-bug-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the invention of the term 'bug' is often but erroneously attributed to <a href="/wiki/Grace_Hopper" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a>, a future rear admiral in the U.S. Navy, who supposedly logged the "bug" on September 9, 1945, most other accounts conflict at least with these details. According to these accounts, the actual date was September 9, 1947 when operators filed this 'incident' — along with the insect and the notation "First actual case of bug being found" (see <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">software bug</a> for details).<sup id="cite_ref-mark-ii-bug_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mark-ii-bug-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shannon_and_information_theory">Shannon and information theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Shannon and information theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> went on to found the field of <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a> with his 1948 paper titled <a href="/wiki/A_Mathematical_Theory_of_Communication" title="A Mathematical Theory of Communication">A Mathematical Theory of Communication</a>, which applied <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> to the problem of how to best encode the information a sender wants to transmit. This work is one of the theoretical foundations for many areas of study, including <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norbert_Wiener.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Norbert_Wiener.png/132px-Norbert_Wiener.png" decoding="async" width="132" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Norbert_Wiener.png/198px-Norbert_Wiener.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Norbert_Wiener.png/264px-Norbert_Wiener.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> (1894–1964) created the term <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wiener_and_cybernetics">Wiener and cybernetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Wiener and cybernetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From experiments with anti-aircraft systems that interpreted radar images to detect enemy planes, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a> from the Greek word for "steersman." He published "Cybernetics" in 1948, which influenced <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. Wiener also compared <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>, computing machinery, <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> devices, and other cognitive similarities with his analysis of brain waves.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif/199px-JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif" decoding="async" width="199" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif/299px-JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif/399px-JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> (1903–1957) introduced the computer architecture known as <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann architecture</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_von_Neumann_and_the_von_Neumann_architecture">John von Neumann and the von Neumann architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: John von Neumann and the von Neumann architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann architecture</a></div> <p>In 1946, a model for computer architecture was introduced and became known as <i><a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann architecture</a></i>. Since 1950, the von Neumann model provided uniformity in subsequent computer designs. The von Neumann architecture was considered innovative as it introduced an idea of allowing machine instructions and data to share memory space.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The von Neumann model is composed of three major parts, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the memory, and the instruction processing unit (IPU). In von Neumann machine design, the IPU passes addresses to memory, and memory, in turn, is routed either back to the IPU if an instruction is being fetched or to the ALU if data is being fetched.<sup id="cite_ref-Von_Neumann_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Von_Neumann-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Von Neumann's machine design uses a RISC (Reduced instruction set computing) architecture,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="neologism, reduced from what? (April 2014)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_computer_science#Dubious" title="Talk:History of computer science">discuss</a></i>]</sup> which means the instruction set uses a total of 21 instructions to perform all tasks. (This is in contrast to CISC, <a href="/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex instruction set computing">complex instruction set computing</a>, instruction sets which have more instructions from which to choose.) With von Neumann architecture, main memory along with the accumulator (the register that holds the result of logical operations)<sup id="cite_ref-Dictionary_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are the two memories that are addressed. Operations can be carried out as simple arithmetic (these are performed by the ALU and include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), conditional branches (these are more commonly seen now as <code>if</code> statements or <code>while</code> loops. The branches serve as <code>go to</code> statements), and logical moves between the different components of the machine, i.e., a move from the accumulator to memory or vice versa. Von Neumann architecture accepts fractions and instructions as data types. Finally, as the von Neumann architecture is a simple one, its register management is also simple. The architecture uses a set of seven registers to manipulate and interpret fetched data and instructions. These registers include the "IR" (instruction register), "IBR" (instruction buffer register), "MQ" (multiplier quotient register), "MAR" (memory address register), and "MDR" (memory data register)."<sup id="cite_ref-Von_Neumann_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Von_Neumann-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The architecture also uses a program counter ("PC") to keep track of where in the program the machine is.<sup id="cite_ref-Von_Neumann_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Von_Neumann-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg/220px-John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg/330px-John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg/440px-John_McCarthy_Stanford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2013" data-file-height="2332" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a> (1927–2011) is considered one of the founding fathers of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_McCarthy,_Marvin_Minsky_and_artificial_intelligence"><span id="John_McCarthy.2C_Marvin_Minsky_and_artificial_intelligence"></span>John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and artificial intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and artificial intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy (computer scientist)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></div> <p>The term artificial intelligence was credited by John McCarthy to explain the research that they were doing for a proposal for the <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_Summer_Research_Project_on_Artificial_Intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence">Dartmouth Summer Research</a>. The naming of artificial intelligence also led to the birth of a new field in computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 31, 1955, a research project was proposed consisting of John McCarthy, Marvin L. Minsky, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Rochester_(computer_scientist)" title="Nathaniel Rochester (computer scientist)">Nathaniel Rochester</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a>. The official project began in 1956 that consisted of several significant parts they felt would help them better understand artificial intelligence's makeup. </p><p>McCarthy and his colleagues' ideas behind automatic computers was while a machine is capable of completing a task, then the same should be confirmed with a computer by compiling a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> to perform the desired results. They also discovered that the human brain was too complex to replicate, not by the machine itself but by the program. The knowledge to produce a program that sophisticated was not there yet. </p><p>The concept behind this was looking at how humans understand our own language and structure of how we form sentences, giving different meaning and rule sets and comparing them to a machine process. The way computers can understand is at a hardware level. This language is written in <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary</a> (1s and 0's). This has to be written in a specific format that gives the computer the ruleset to run a particular hardware piece.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Minsky's process determined how these <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a> could be arranged to have similar qualities to the human brain. However, he could only produce partial results and needed to further the research into this idea. </p><p>McCarthy and Shannon's idea behind this theory was to develop a way to use complex problems to determine and measure the machine's efficiency through <a href="/wiki/A_Mathematical_Theory_of_Communication" title="A Mathematical Theory of Communication">mathematical theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they were only to receive partial test results. </p><p>The idea behind self-improvement is how a machine would use <a href="/wiki/Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">self-modifying code</a> to make itself smarter. This would allow for a machine to grow in intelligence and increase calculation speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group believed they could study this if a machine could improve upon the process of completing a task in the abstractions part of their research. </p><p>The group thought that research in this category could be broken down into smaller groups. This would consist of sensory and other forms of information about artificial intelligence. <a href="/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">Abstractions</a> in computer science can refer to mathematics and programming language.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their idea of <a href="/wiki/Computational_creativity" title="Computational creativity">computational creativity</a> is how the program or a machine can be seen in having similar ways of human thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They wanted to see if a machine could take a piece of incomplete information and improve upon it to fill in the missing details as the human mind can do. If this machine could do this; they needed to think of how did the machine determine the outcome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_museum" title="Computer museum">Computer museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_term_etymologies" title="List of computer term etymologies">List of computer term etymologies</a>, the origins of computer science words</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">History of software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">History of personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms" title="Timeline of algorithms">Timeline of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_computing" title="Timeline of women in computing">Timeline of women in computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">Timeline of computing 2020–present</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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Springer. pp. 109–120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540113195" title="Special:BookSources/9783540113195"><bdi>9783540113195</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electromechanical+Calculating+Machine&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Digital+Computers&rft.pages=109-120&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9783540113195&rft.aulast=Randell&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDwj4RmcZ1AoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RANDELL-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RANDELL_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandell" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Randell" title="Brian Randell">Randell, Brian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf">"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Peirce</i>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BüningLettmann1999-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BüningLettmann1999_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_Kleine_BüningTheodor_Lettmann1999" class="citation book cs1">Hans Kleine Büning; Theodor Lettmann (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3oJE9yczr3EC&pg=PA2"><i>Propositional logic: deduction and algorithms</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63017-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63017-7"><bdi>978-0-521-63017-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Propositional+logic%3A+deduction+and+algorithms&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63017-7&rft.au=Hans+Kleine+B%C3%BCning&rft.au=Theodor+Lettmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3oJE9yczr3EC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bird2007-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bird2007_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Bird2007" class="citation book cs1">John Bird (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-fBmsEBNUoC&pg=PA532"><i>Engineering mathematics</i></a>. Newnes. p. 532. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8555-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8555-9"><bdi>978-0-7506-8555-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+mathematics&rft.pages=532&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-8555-9&rft.au=John+Bird&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1-fBmsEBNUoC%26pg%3DPA532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamada2004" class="citation journal cs1">Yamada, Akihiko (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ieejfms/124/8/124_8_720/_article">"History of Research on Switching Theory in Japan"</a>. <i>IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials</i>. <b>124</b> (8). <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers_of_Japan" title="Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan">Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan</a>: 720–726. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004IJTFM.124..720Y">2004IJTFM.124..720Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1541%2Fieejfms.124.720">10.1541/ieejfms.124.720</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEJ+Transactions+on+Fundamentals+and+Materials&rft.atitle=History+of+Research+on+Switching+Theory+in+Japan&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=720-726&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1541%2Fieejfms.124.720&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004IJTFM.124..720Y&rft.aulast=Yamada&rft.aufirst=Akihiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fieejfms%2F124%2F8%2F124_8_720%2F_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0002.html">"Switching Theory/Relay Circuit Network Theory/Theory of Logical Mathematics"</a>. <i>IPSJ Computer Museum</i>. <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_Society_of_Japan" title="Information Processing Society of Japan">Information Processing Society of Japan</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IPSJ+Computer+Museum&rft.atitle=Switching+Theory%2FRelay+Circuit+Network+Theory%2FTheory+of+Logical+Mathematics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseum.ipsj.or.jp%2Fen%2Fcomputer%2Fdawn%2F0002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-historical-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-historical_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radomir S. Stanković (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Ni%C5%A1" title="University of Niš">University of Niš</a>), Jaakko T. Astola (<a href="/wiki/Tampere_University_of_Technology" title="Tampere University of Technology">Tampere University of Technology</a>), Mark G. Karpovsky (<a href="/wiki/Boston_University" title="Boston University">Boston University</a>), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.66.1248">Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory</a>, 2007, DOI 10.1.1.66.1248</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanković-Astola_2008-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanković-Astola_2008_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanković-Astola_2008_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStankovićAstola2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radomir_S._Stankovi%C4%87" class="extiw" title="de:Radomir S. 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Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-450010-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-450010-2"><bdi>0-12-450010-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/911282256">911282256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+intelligence+and+mathematical+theory+of+computation+%3A+papers+in+honor+of+John+McCarthy&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F911282256&rft.isbn=0-12-450010-2&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Lifschitz%2C+Vladimir&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F911282256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaenleinKaplan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Haenlein, Michael; Kaplan, Andreas (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0008125619864925">"A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: On the Past, Present, and Future of Artificial Intelligence"</a>. <i>California Management Review</i>. <b>61</b> (4): 5–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0008125619864925">10.1177/0008125619864925</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-1256">0008-1256</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199866730">199866730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Management+Review&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Artificial+Intelligence%3A+On+the+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future+of+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=5-14&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199866730%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0008-1256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0008125619864925&rft.aulast=Haenlein&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Andreas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0008125619864925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaetenBallde_Boer2012" class="citation book cs1">Baeten, Jos C. M.; Ball, Tom; de Boer, Frank S., eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-33475-7"><i>Theoretical Computer Science: 7th IFIP TC 1/WG 2.2 International Conference, TCS 2012, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, September 26-28, 2012. Proceedings</i></a>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 7604. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-33475-7">10.1007/978-3-642-33475-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-33474-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-33474-0"><bdi>978-3-642-33474-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36796448">36796448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Computer+Science%3A+7th+IFIP+TC+1%2FWG+2.2+International+Conference%2C+TCS+2012%2C+Amsterdam%2C+the+Netherlands%2C+September+26-28%2C+2012.+Proceedings&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36796448%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-33475-7&rft.isbn=978-3-642-33474-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-33475-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.creativitypost.com/article/what_is_computational_creativity">"The Creativity Post | What is Computational Creativity?"</a>. <i>The Creativity Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Creativity+Post&rft.atitle=The+Creativity+Post+%7C+What+is+Computational+Creativity%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.creativitypost.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat_is_computational_creativity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2018" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Claire L. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C8ouDwAAQBAJ&q=9780735211759&pg=PP1"><i>Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet</i></a>. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780735211759" title="Special:BookSources/9780735211759"><bdi>9780735211759</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broad+Band%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+the+Women+Who+Made+the+Internet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Portfolio%2FPenguin&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780735211759&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Claire+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC8ouDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D9780735211759%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrier2013" class="citation book cs1">Grier, David Alan (2013). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whencomputerswer00davi"><i>When Computers Were Human</i></a></span>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400849369" title="Special:BookSources/9781400849369"><bdi>9781400849369</bdi></a> – via Project MUSE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Computers+Were+Human&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781400849369&rft.aulast=Grier&rft.aufirst=David+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhencomputerswer00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedre2014" class="citation book cs1">Tedre, Matti (2014). <i>The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline</i>. Taylor and Francis / CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-1769-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-1769-8"><bdi>978-1-4822-1769-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Computing%3A+Shaping+a+Discipline&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis+%2F+CRC+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4822-1769-8&rft.aulast=Tedre&rft.aufirst=Matti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kak, Subhash : Computing Science in Ancient India; Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd (2001)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cs.joensuu.fi/pub/Dissertations/tedre.pdf">The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective</a> Matti Tedre's Ph.D. Thesis, University of Joensuu (2006)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeruzzi1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Ceruzzi" title="Paul E. Ceruzzi">Ceruzzi, Paul E.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru"><i>A History of a Modern Computing</i></a>. The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03255-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03255-1"><bdi>978-0-262-03255-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+a+Modern+Computing&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03255-1&rft.aulast=Ceruzzi&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernc00ceru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopeland" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Copeland, B. Jack. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-history/">"The Modern History of Computing"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Modern+History+of+Computing&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Copeland&rft.aufirst=B.+Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcomputing-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+computer+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_computer_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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