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id="toc-1989–1991:_Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-CERN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CERN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 CERN </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CERN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1991–1994:_The_Web_goes_public,_early_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1991–1994:_The_Web_goes_public,_early_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 1991–1994: The Web goes public, early growth </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1991–1994:_The_Web_goes_public,_early_growth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1991–1994: The Web goes public, early growth subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1991–1994:_The_Web_goes_public,_early_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_launch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_launch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Initial launch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_launch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_browsers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_browsers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Early browsers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_browsers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_Gopher_to_the_WWW" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Gopher_to_the_WWW"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 From Gopher to the WWW </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Gopher_to_the_WWW-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-NCSA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NCSA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 NCSA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NCSA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Early growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1994–2004:_Open_standards,_going_global" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1994–2004:_Open_standards,_going_global"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 1994–2004: Open standards, going global </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1994–2004:_Open_standards,_going_global-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1994–2004: Open standards, going global subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1994–2004:_Open_standards,_going_global-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_Wide_Web_Conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Wide_Web_Conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 World Wide Web Conference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Wide_Web_Conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_Wide_Web_Consortium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Wide_Web_Consortium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 World Wide Web Consortium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Wide_Web_Consortium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercialization,_dot-com_boom_and_bust,_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercialization,_dot-com_boom_and_bust,_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Commercialization, dot-com boom and bust, aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercialization,_dot-com_boom_and_bust,_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_server_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_server_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Web server software </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_server_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Browser_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Browser_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Browser wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Browser_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_1.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_1.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Web 1.0 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_1.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2004–present:_The_Web_as_platform,_ubiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2004–present:_The_Web_as_platform,_ubiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 2004–present: The Web as platform, ubiquity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-2004–present:_The_Web_as_platform,_ubiquity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 2004–present: The Web as platform, ubiquity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-2004–present:_The_Web_as_platform,_ubiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Web_2.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_2.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Web 2.0 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_2.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security,_censorship_and_cybercrime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security,_censorship_and_cybercrime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Security, censorship and cybercrime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security,_censorship_and_cybercrime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Mobile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_3.0_and_Web3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_3.0_and_Web3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Web 3.0 and Web3 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_3.0_and_Web3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beyond_Web_3.0" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beyond_Web_3.0"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Beyond Web 3.0 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beyond_Web_3.0-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_services_before_the_World_Wide_Web" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_services_before_the_World_Wide_Web"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Online services before the World Wide Web </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_services_before_the_World_Wide_Web-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" > 9 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الشبكة العنكبوتية العالمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الشبكة العنكبوتية العالمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cmumd%C3%BCnya_h%C3%B6r%C3%BCm%C3%A7%C9%99k_torunun_tarixi" title="Ümumdünya hörümçək torunun tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ümumdünya hörümçək torunun tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ওয়ার্ল্ড ওয়াইড ওয়েবের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওয়ার্ল্ড ওয়াইড ওয়েবের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_World_Wide_Web" title="Historia de la World Wide Web – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la World Wide Web" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A8" title="تاریخچه وب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخچه وب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_World_Wide_Web" title="Storia del World Wide Web – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del World Wide Web" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="വേൾഡ് വൈഡ് വെബിന്റെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വേൾഡ് വൈഡ് വെബിന്റെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_World_Wide_Web" title="História da World Wide Web – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da World Wide Web" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Web history" redirects here. For the feature of web browsers, see <a href="/wiki/Web_browsing_history" title="Web browsing history">Web browsing history</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox hproduct"><caption class="infobox-title fn" style="padding-bottom:0.2em;">World Wide Web</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg/250px-WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg/375px-WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg/500px-WWW_logo_by_Robert_Cailliau.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div class="infobox-caption" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;">The Web's former logo by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cailliau" title="Robert Cailliau">Robert Cailliau</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 0.5em;">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35em;"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 0.5em;">Inception</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height: 1.35em;">12 March 1989; 35 years ago (1989-03-12)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff"><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/250px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/375px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/500px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">Hardware 1960s to present</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software" title="History of software">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_configuration_management" title="History of software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Unix" title="History of Unix">Unix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">Free software and open-source software</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_compiler_construction" title="History of compiler construction">Compiler construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Early computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">Operating systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">Programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">Prominent pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_software_engineering" title="History of software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">General-purpose CPUs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" title="History of the graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_laptops" title="History of laptops">Laptops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">Personal computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cloud_computing" title="History of cloud computing">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Quantum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Bulgaria" title="History of computer hardware in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Eastern_Bloc_countries" title="History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Poland" title="History of computing in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_Romania" title="History of computing in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_South_America" title="History of computing in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of computing in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Yugoslavia" title="History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">before 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979" title="Timeline of computing 1950–1979">1950–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989" title="Timeline of computing 1980–1989">1980–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999" title="Timeline of computing 1990–1999">1990–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Timeline of computing 2000–2009">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019" title="Timeline of computing 2010–2019">2010–2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020–present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computing_timelines" title="Category:Computing timelines">more timelines ...</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary of computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_computing" title="Category:History of 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Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> ("WWW", "W3" or simply "the Web") is a global <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> medium that users can access via <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> connected to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a> and <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a> do. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">history of the Internet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_hypertext" title="History of hypertext">history of hypertext</a> date back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web. <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> invented the World Wide Web while working at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> in 1989. He proposed a "universal linked information system" using several concepts and technologies, the most fundamental of which was the connections that existed between information.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-2">[2]</a> He developed the first <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a>, and a document formatting protocol, called <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">Hypertext Markup Language</a> (HTML). After publishing the markup language in 1991, and releasing the browser source code for public use in 1993, many other web browsers were soon developed, with <a href="/wiki/Marc_Andreessen" title="Marc Andreessen">Marc Andreessen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>), being particularly easy to use and install, and often credited with sparking the Internet boom of the 1990s. It was a graphical browser which ran on several popular office and home computers, bringing multimedia content to non-technical users by including images and text on the same page. Websites for use by the general public began to emerge in 1993–94. This spurred competition in server and browser software, highlighted in the <a href="/wiki/Browser_wars" title="Browser wars">Browser wars</a> which was initially dominated by Netscape Navigator and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a>. Following the complete removal of commercial restrictions on Internet use by 1995, commercialization of the Web amidst macroeconomic factors led to the <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Dot-com boom">dot-com boom</a> and bust in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The features of HTML evolved over time, leading to HTML version 2 in 1995, HTML3 and HTML4 in 1997, and <a href="/wiki/HTML5" title="HTML5">HTML5</a> in 2014. The language was extended with advanced formatting in <a href="/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascading Style Sheets">Cascading Style Sheets</a> (CSS) and with <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programming</a> capability by <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">AJAX programming</a> delivered dynamic content to users, which sparked a new era in <a href="/wiki/Web_design" title="Web design">Web design</a>, styled <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>. The use of <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>, becoming common-place in the 2010s, allowed users to compose multimedia content without programming skills, making the Web ubiquitous in every-day life. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_hypertext" title="History of hypertext">History of hypertext</a></div> The underlying concept of <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> as a <a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">user interface</a> paradigm originated in projects in the 1960s, from research such as the <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Editing_System" title="Hypertext Editing System">Hypertext Editing System</a> (HES) by <a href="/wiki/Andries_van_Dam" title="Andries van Dam">Andries van Dam</a> at Brown University, <a href="/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Markup_Language" title="IBM Generalized Markup Language">IBM Generalized Markup Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson's</a> <a href="/wiki/Project_Xanadu" title="Project Xanadu">Project Xanadu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart's</a> <a href="/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)" title="NLS (computer system)">oN-Line System</a> (NLS).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Microfilm" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfilm">microfilm</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Memex" title="Memex">memex</a>, which was described in the 1945 essay "<a href="/wiki/As_We_May_Think" title="As We May Think">As We May Think</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Conkling-4">[4]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">title missing</a>]<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Other precursors were <a href="/wiki/FRESS" class="mw-redirect" title="FRESS">FRESS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intermedia_(hypertext)" title="Intermedia (hypertext)">Intermedia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Otlet" title="Paul Otlet">Paul Otlet's</a> project <a href="/wiki/Mundaneum" title="Mundaneum">Mundaneum</a> has also been named as an early 20th-century precursor of the Web. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">European Organization for Nuclear Research</a> (CERN) in Switzerland, built <a href="/wiki/ENQUIRE" title="ENQUIRE">ENQUIRE</a>, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to experiment with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to another page.<a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> When Berners-Lee built ENQUIRE, the ideas developed by Bush, Engelbart, and Nelson did not influence his work, since he was not aware of them. However, as Berners-Lee began to refine his ideas, the work of these predecessors would later help to confirm the legitimacy of his concept.<a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-8">[8]</a> During the 1980s, many <a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet-switched</a> data networks emerged based on various <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocols</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Protocol_Wars" title="Protocol Wars">Protocol Wars</a>). One of these standards was the <a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a>, which is often referred to as TCP/IP. As the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> grew through the 1980s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize files and use information. By 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a> (upon which the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform Resource Locator">Uniform Resource Locator</a> is built) came into being.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Many small, self-contained hypertext systems were created, such as Apple Computer's <a href="/wiki/HyperCard" title="HyperCard">HyperCard</a> (1987). Berners-Lee's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software. Shortly after Berners-Lee's return to CERN, <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> protocols were installed on Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe. In 1988, the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was established and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> He was inspired by a book, <a href="/wiki/Enquire_Within_upon_Everything" title="Enquire Within upon Everything">Enquire Within upon Everything</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Online_service_provider" title="Online service provider">online services</a> existed before the creation of the World Wide Web, such as for example <a href="/wiki/CompuServe" title="CompuServe">CompuServe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin board systems">bulletin board systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1989–1991:_Origins">1989–1991: Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1989–1991: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CERN">CERN</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: CERN">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG/220px-NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG/330px-NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG/440px-NeXTcube_first_webserver.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4904" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/NeXT_Computer" title="NeXT Computer">NeXT Computer</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> became the first Web server.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CERN_web_corridor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/CERN_web_corridor.jpg/220px-CERN_web_corridor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/CERN_web_corridor.jpg/330px-CERN_web_corridor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/CERN_web_corridor.jpg/440px-CERN_web_corridor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>The corridor where the World Wide Web was born, on the ground floor of building No. 1 at CERN</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg/220px-Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg/330px-Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg/440px-Where_the_WEB_was_born.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Where the WEB was born</figcaption></figure> While working at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> became frustrated with the inefficiencies and difficulties posed by finding information stored on different computers.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> On 12 March 1989, he submitted a memorandum, titled "Information Management: A Proposal",<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> to the management at CERN. The proposal used the term "web" and was based on "a large hypertext database with typed links". It described a system called "Mesh" that referenced <a href="/wiki/ENQUIRE" title="ENQUIRE">ENQUIRE</a>, the database and software project he had built in 1980, with a more elaborate information management system based on links embedded as text: "Imagine, then, the references in this document all being associated with the <a href="/wiki/Network_address" title="Network address">network address</a> of the thing to which they referred, so that while reading this document, you could skip to them with a click of the mouse." Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the existing meanings of the word <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a>, a term that he says was coined in the 1950s. Berners-Lee notes the possibility of multimedia documents that include graphics, speech and video, which he terms <a href="/wiki/Hypermedia" title="Hypermedia">hypermedia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-2">[2]</a> Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners-Lee was encouraged by his manager, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired <a href="/wiki/NeXT" title="NeXT">NeXT</a> workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web. Berners-Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in his colleague and fellow hypertext enthusiast <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cailliau" title="Robert Cailliau">Robert Cailliau</a> who began to promote the proposed system throughout CERN. Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners-Lee's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision. Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book <a href="/wiki/Weaving_the_Web" title="Weaving the Web">Weaving The Web</a>, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested to members of both technical communities that a marriage between the two technologies was possible. But, when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies: <ul><li>a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier (UDI), later known as <a href="/wiki/Uniform_resource_locator" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform resource locator">uniform resource locator</a> (URL);</li> <li>the publishing language <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Markup_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Markup Language">Hypertext Markup Language</a> (HTML);</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a> (HTTP).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li></ul> With help from Cailliau he published a more formal proposal on 12 November 1990 to build a "hypertext project" called WorldWideWeb (abbreviated "W3") as a "web" of "hypertext documents" to be viewed by "browsers" using a <a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Client–server architecture">client–server architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-W90-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT21-17">[17]</a> The proposal was modelled after the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Generalized_Markup_Language" title="Standard Generalized Markup Language">Standard Generalized Markup Language</a> (SGML) reader <a href="/wiki/Dynatext" title="Dynatext">Dynatext</a> by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Research_in_Information_and_Scholarship" title="Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship">Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for about two months and the first <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a> was about a month from completing its first successful test. Berners-Lee's proposal estimated that a read-only Web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available". By December 1990, Berners-Lee and his work team had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the <a href="/wiki/HyperText_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="HyperText Transfer Protocol">HyperText Transfer Protocol</a> (HTTP), the <a href="/wiki/HyperText_Markup_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="HyperText Markup Language">HyperText Markup Language</a> (HTML), the first <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> (named <a href="/wiki/WorldWideWeb" title="WorldWideWeb">WorldWideWeb</a>, which was also a <a href="/wiki/HTML_editor" title="HTML editor">web editor</a>), the first <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a> (later known as <a href="/wiki/CERN_httpd" title="CERN httpd">CERN httpd</a>) and the first <a href="/wiki/Web_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Web site">web site</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://info.cern.ch/">https://info.cern.ch/</a>) containing the first <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">web pages</a> that described the project itself was published on 20 December 1990.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The browser could access <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a> newsgroups and <a href="/wiki/FTP" class="mw-redirect" title="FTP">FTP</a> files as well. A <a href="/wiki/NeXT_Computer" title="NeXT Computer">NeXT Computer</a> was used by Berners-Lee as the web server and also to write the web browser.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Working with Berners-Lee at CERN, <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Pellow" title="Nicola Pellow">Nicola Pellow</a> developed the first cross-platform web browser, the <a href="/wiki/Line_Mode_Browser" title="Line Mode Browser">Line Mode Browser</a>.<a href="#cite_note-C._Hempstead,_W._Worthington-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1991–1994:_The_Web_goes_public,_early_growth">1991–1994: The Web goes public, early growth</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1991–1994: The Web goes public, early growth">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_launch">Initial launch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Initial launch">edit</a>]</div> In January 1991, the first web servers outside CERN were switched on. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the <a href="/wiki/Newsgroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Newsgroup">newsgroup</a> alt.hypertext, inviting collaborators.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kunz" title="Paul Kunz">Paul Kunz</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator Center">Stanford Linear Accelerator Center</a> (SLAC) visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Louise_Addis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louise Addis (page does not exist)">Louise Addis</a> adapted it for the <a href="/wiki/VM/CMS" class="mw-redirect" title="VM/CMS">VM/CMS</a> operating system on the <a href="/wiki/IBM_mainframe" title="IBM mainframe">IBM mainframe</a> as a way to host the <a href="/wiki/SPIRES" class="mw-redirect" title="SPIRES">SPIRES</a>-HEP database and display SLAC's catalog of online documents.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> This was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The World Wide Web had several differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The Web required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn, presented the chronic problem of <a href="/wiki/Link_rot" title="Link rot">link rot</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_browsers">Early browsers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early browsers">edit</a>]</div> The WorldWideWeb browser only ran on <a href="/wiki/NeXTSTEP" title="NeXTSTEP">NeXTSTEP</a> operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992,<a href="#cite_note-Raggett21-28">[28]</a> and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of <a href="/wiki/Erwise" title="Erwise">Erwise</a>, an application developed at the <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_University_of_Technology" title="Helsinki University of Technology">Helsinki University of Technology</a>, and in May by <a href="/wiki/ViolaWWW" title="ViolaWWW">ViolaWWW</a>, created by <a href="/wiki/Pei-Yuan_Wei" title="Pei-Yuan Wei">Pei-Yuan Wei</a>, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for <a href="/wiki/HyperCard" title="HyperCard">HyperCard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-W3.org-29">[29]</a> Both programs ran on the <a href="/wiki/X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X Window System</a> for <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>. In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11-ported Mosaic browser. ViolaWWW became the recommended browser at CERN. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web—previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers. The Web was successful at CERN and spread to other scientific and academic institutions. Students at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a> adapted an existing text-only hypertext browser, <a href="/wiki/Lynx_(web_browser)" title="Lynx (web browser)">Lynx</a>, to access the web in 1992. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was not worth visiting. In these earliest browsers, images opened in a separate "helper" application. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Gopher_to_the_WWW">From Gopher to the WWW</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: From Gopher to the WWW">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher (protocol)</a></div> In the early 1990s, Internet-based projects such as <a href="/wiki/Archie_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Archie search engine">Archie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wide_Area_Information_Servers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide Area Information Servers">Wide Area Information Servers</a> (WAIS), and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Gopher was a document browsing system for the Internet, released in 1991 by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>. Invented by <a href="/wiki/Mark_P._McCahill" title="Mark P. McCahill">Mark P. McCahill</a>, it became the first commonly used hypertext interface to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]. In less than a year, there were hundreds of Gopher servers.<a href="#cite_note-minnPostGopher-30">[30]</a> It offered a viable alternative to the World Wide Web in the early 1990s and the consensus was that Gopher would be the primary way that people would interact with the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> However, in 1993, the University of Minnesota declared that Gopher was proprietary and would have to be licensed.<a href="#cite_note-minnPostGopher-30">[30]</a> In response, on 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due, and released <a href="/wiki/Libwww" title="Libwww">their code</a> into the public domain.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This made it possible to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Coming two months after the announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this spurred the development of <a href="/wiki/Libwww#Applications_using_libwww" title="Libwww">various browsers</a> which precipitated a rapid shift away from Gopher.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> By releasing Berners-Lee's invention for public use, CERN encouraged and enabled its widespread use.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Early websites intermingled links for both the <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> web protocol and the <a href="/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher protocol</a>, which provided access to content through <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> menus presented as a <a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">file system</a> rather than through <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What's New" page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text searches similar to the capability later provided by <a href="/wiki/Search_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Search engines">search engines</a>. After 1993 the World Wide Web saw many advances to indexing and ease of access through search engines, which often neglected Gopher and Gopherspace. As its popularity increased through ease of use, incentives for commercial investment in the Web also grew. By the middle of 1994, the Web was outcompeting Gopher and the other browsing systems for the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NCSA">NCSA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: NCSA">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic (web browser)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications" title="National Center for Supercomputing Applications">National Center for Supercomputing Applications</a> (NCSA) at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a> (UIUC) established a website in November 1992. After <a href="/wiki/Marc_Andreessen" title="Marc Andreessen">Marc Andreessen</a>, a student at UIUC, was shown ViolaWWW in late 1992,<a href="#cite_note-W3.org-29">[29]</a> he began work on <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a> with another UIUC student <a href="/wiki/Eric_Bina" title="Eric Bina">Eric Bina</a>, using funding from the <a href="/wiki/High_Performance_Computing_Act_of_1991" title="High Performance Computing Act of 1991">High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative</a>, a US-federal research and development program <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore_and_information_technology" title="Al Gore and information technology">initiated by US Senator Al Gore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated <a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">multimedia</a>, and the authors' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.<a href="#cite_note-W3.org-29">[29]</a> Historians generally agree that the 1993 introduction of the Mosaic web browser was a turning point for the World Wide Web.<a href="#cite_note-bloomberg-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-mosaic_and_th_w3-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-faq-42">[42]</a> Before the release of Mosaic in 1993, graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages, and the Web was less popular than older protocols such as Gopher and WAIS. Mosaic could display inline images<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and submit <a href="/wiki/Form_(HTML)" class="mw-redirect" title="Form (HTML)">forms</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> for Windows, Macintosh and X-Windows. NCSA also developed <a href="/wiki/NCSA_HTTPd" title="NCSA HTTPd">HTTPd</a>, a Unix web server that used the <a href="/wiki/Common_Gateway_Interface" title="Common Gateway Interface">Common Gateway Interface</a> to process forms and <a href="/wiki/Server_Side_Includes" title="Server Side Includes">Server Side Includes</a> for dynamic content. Both the client and server were free to use with no restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Mosaic was an immediate hit;<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> its graphical user interface allowed the Web to become by far the most popular protocol on the Internet. Within a year, web traffic surpassed Gopher's.<a href="#cite_note-minnPostGopher-30">[30]</a> Wired declared that Mosaic made non-Internet online services obsolete,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and the Web became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_growth">Early growth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early growth">edit</a>]</div> The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularising use of the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Although the two terms are sometimes <a href="/wiki/Conflation" title="Conflation">conflated</a> in popular use, World Wide Web is not <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonymous</a> with Internet.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Web is an <a href="/wiki/Information_space" title="Information space">information space</a> containing hyperlinked documents and other <a href="/wiki/Web_resource" title="Web resource">resources</a>, identified by their URIs.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> It is implemented as both client and server software using Internet protocols such as <a href="/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a> and <a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a>. In keeping with its origins at CERN, early adopters of the Web were primarily university-based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as <a href="/wiki/SLAC" class="mw-redirect" title="SLAC">SLAC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>. By January 1993 there were fifty web servers across the world.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> By October 1993 there were over five hundred servers online, including some <a href="/wiki/List_of_websites_founded_before_1995" title="List of websites founded before 1995">notable websites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-53">[53]</a> Practical media distribution and <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a> over the Web was made possible by advances in <a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a>, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media. Following the introduction of the Web, several media formats based on <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT) were introduced for practical media distribution and streaming over the Web, including the <a href="/wiki/MPEG" class="mw-redirect" title="MPEG">MPEG</a> <a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video format</a> in 1991 and the <a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a> <a href="/wiki/Image_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Image format">image format</a> in 1992. The high level of <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image compression</a> made JPEG a good format for compensating slow <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Internet access</a> speeds, typical in the age of <a href="/wiki/Dial-up_Internet_access" title="Dial-up Internet access">dial-up Internet access</a>. JPEG became the most widely used image format for the World Wide Web. A DCT variation, the <a href="/wiki/Modified_discrete_cosine_transform" title="Modified discrete cosine transform">modified discrete cosine transform</a> (MDCT) algorithm, led to the development of <a href="/wiki/MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a>, which was introduced in 1991 and became the first popular <a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio format</a> on the Web. In 1992 the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed by David Williams, withdrew support of Berners-Lee's work. A two-page email sent by Williams stated that the work of Berners-Lee, with the goal of creating a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners-Lee left CERN for the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), where he continued to develop HTTP.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> browser was <a href="/wiki/Cello_(web_browser)" title="Cello (web browser)">Cello</a>, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_Law_School" title="Cornell Law School">Cornell Law School</a> to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1994–2004:_Open_standards,_going_global">1994–2004: Open standards, going global</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1994–2004: Open standards, going global">edit</a>]</div> The rate of web site deployment increased sharply around the world, and fostered development of international standards for protocols and content formatting.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Berners-Lee continued to stay involved in guiding web standards, such as the <a href="/wiki/Markup_language" title="Markup language">markup languages</a> to compose web pages, and he advocated his vision of a <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> (sometimes known as Web 3.0) based around machine-readability and interoperability standards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_Wide_Web_Conference">World Wide Web Conference</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: World Wide Web Conference">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Web_Conference" title="The Web Conference">The Web Conference</a></div> In May 1994, the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Conference_1" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wide Web Conference 1">first International WWW Conference</a>, organized by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cailliau" title="Robert Cailliau">Robert Cailliau</a>, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png/220px-Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png/330px-Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png/440px-Cailliau_Abramatic_Berners-Lee_10_years_WWW_consortium.png 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cailliau" title="Robert Cailliau">Robert Cailliau</a>, Jean-François Abramatic, and <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> at the tenth anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_Wide_Web_Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: World Wide Web Consortium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_standards" title="Web standards">Web standards</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Internet_Information_Services" title="Internet Information Services">Internet Information Services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Browser_extension" title="Browser extension">Browser extension</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acid1" title="Acid1">Acid1</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">World Wide Web Consortium</a> (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in September/October 1994 in order to create open standards for the Web.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> It was founded at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet. A year later, a second site was founded at <a href="/wiki/INRIA" class="mw-redirect" title="INRIA">INRIA</a> (a French national computer research lab) with support from the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>; and in 1996, a third continental site was created in Japan at <a href="/wiki/Keio_University" title="Keio University">Keio University</a>. W3C comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone. Netscape and Microsoft, in the middle of a <a href="/wiki/Browser_wars" title="Browser wars">browser war</a>, ignored the W3C and added elements to HTML ad hoc (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Blink_element" title="Blink element">blink</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marquee_element" title="Marquee element">marquee</a>). Finally, in 1995, Netscape and Microsoft came to their senses and agreed to abide by the W3C's standard.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The W3C published the standard for <a href="/wiki/HTML#HTML_4" title="HTML">HTML 4</a> in 1997, which included <a href="/wiki/CSS" title="CSS">Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)</a>, giving designers more control over the appearance of web pages without the need for additional HTML tags. The W3C could not enforce compliance so none of the browsers were fully compliant. This frustrated web designers who formed the <a href="/wiki/Web_Standards_Project" title="Web Standards Project">Web Standards Project</a> (WaSP) in 1998 with the goal of cajoling compliance with standards.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/A_List_Apart" title="A List Apart">A List Apart</a> and <a href="/wiki/CSS_Zen_Garden" title="CSS Zen Garden">CSS Zen Garden</a> were influential websites that promoted good design and adherence to standards.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Nevertheless, AOL halted development of Netscape<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and Microsoft was slow to update IE.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> both released browsers that aimed to be more standards compliant (<a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari</a>), but were unable to dislodge IE as the dominant browser.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Get_on_the_%27Net%27,_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_(IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403)_(page_62_crop).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg/220px-Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg/330px-Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg/440px-Get_on_the_%27Net%27%2C_State_Magazine_1997-03-_Iss_403_%28IA_sim_state-magazine_1997-03_403%29_%28page_62_crop%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="527" /></a><figcaption>1997 advertisement in <a href="/wiki/State_Magazine" title="State Magazine">State Magazine</a> by the US <a href="/wiki/Ralph_J._Bunche_Library" title="Ralph J. Bunche Library">State Department Library</a> for sessions introducing the then-unfamiliar Web</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercialization,_dot-com_boom_and_bust,_aftermath">Commercialization, dot-com boom and bust, aftermath</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Commercialization, dot-com boom and bust, aftermath">edit</a>]</div> As the Web grew in the mid-1990s, <a href="/wiki/Web_directory" title="Web directory">web directories</a> and primitive <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_web_search_engines" title="Timeline of web search engines">search engines</a> were created to index pages and allow people to find things. Commercial use restrictions on the Internet were lifted in 1995 when <a href="/wiki/NSFNET" class="mw-redirect" title="NSFNET">NSFNET</a> was shut down. In the US, the online service <a href="/wiki/America_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="America Online">America Online</a> (AOL) offered their users a connection to the Internet via their own internal browser, using a dial-up Internet connection. In January 1994, <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo!">Yahoo!</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Yang" title="Jerry Yang">Jerry Yang</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Filo" title="David Filo">David Filo</a>, then students at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!_Directory" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo! Directory">Yahoo! Directory</a> became the first popular <a href="/wiki/Web_directory" title="Web directory">web directory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!_Search" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahoo! Search">Yahoo! Search</a>, launched the same year, was the first popular search engine on the World Wide Web. Yahoo! became the quintessential example of a <a href="/wiki/First-mover_advantage" title="First-mover advantage">first mover</a> on the Web. <a href="/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Online shopping</a> began to emerge with the launch of <a href="/wiki/Amazon_(company)" title="Amazon (company)">Amazon</a>'s shopping site by <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> in 1995 and <a href="/wiki/EBay" title="EBay">eBay</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Omidyar" title="Pierre Omidyar">Pierre Omidyar</a> the same year. By 1994, Marc Andreessen's <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a> superseded Mosaic in popularity, holding the position for some time. Bill Gates outlined <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft's</a> strategy to dominate the Internet in his Tidal Wave memo in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> With the release of <a href="/wiki/Windows_95" title="Windows 95">Windows 95</a> and the popular <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> browser, many public companies began to develop a Web presence. At first, people mainly anticipated the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information. By the late 1990s, the directory model had given way to search engines, corresponding with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google Search</a>, which developed new approaches to <a href="/wiki/Relevance_(information_retrieval)" title="Relevance (information retrieval)">relevancy ranking</a>. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines. Netscape had a very successful IPO valuing the company at $2.9 billion despite the lack of profits and triggering the <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com bubble</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Increasing familiarity with the Web led to the growth of direct Web-based commerce (<a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a>) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. Many <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_company" title="Dot-com company">dot-com companies</a>, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web. Over the next 5 years, over a trillion dollars was raised to fund thousands of startups consisting of little more than a website. During the <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com boom</a>, many companies vied to create a dominant <a href="/wiki/Web_portal" title="Web portal">web portal</a> in the belief that such a website would best be able to attract a large audience that in turn would attract <a href="/wiki/Online_advertising" title="Online advertising">online advertising</a> revenue. While most of these portals offered a search engine, they were not interested in encouraging users to find other websites and leave the portal and instead concentrated on "sticky" content.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In contrast, Google was a stripped-down search engine that delivered superior results.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> It was a hit with users who switched from portals to Google. Furthermore, with <a href="/wiki/Google_Ads" title="Google Ads">AdWords</a>, Google had an effective business model.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> AOL bought Netscape in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In spite of their early success, Netscape was unable to fend off Microsoft.<a href="#cite_note-msBeatNS-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> and a variety of other browsers almost completely replaced it. Faster <a href="/wiki/Broadband_internet" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadband internet">broadband internet</a> connections replaced many dial-up connections from the beginning of the 2000s. With the bursting of the dot-com bubble, many web portals either scaled back operations, floundered,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> or shut down entirely.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> AOL disbanded Netscape in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_server_software">Web server software</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Web server software">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_web_server_software" title="Comparison of web server software">Comparison of web server software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_server-side_web_frameworks" title="Comparison of server-side web frameworks">Comparison of server-side web frameworks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_content_management_systems" title="List of content management systems">List of content management systems</a></div> Web server software was developed to allow computers to act as <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web servers</a>. The first web servers supported only static files, such as HTML (and images), but now they commonly allow embedding of server side applications. <a href="/wiki/Web_framework" title="Web framework">Web framework</a> software enabled building and deploying web applications. <a href="/wiki/Content_management_system" title="Content management system">Content management systems</a> (CMS) were developed to organize and facilitate collaborative content creation. Many of them were built on top of separate <a href="/wiki/Content_management_framework" class="mw-redirect" title="Content management framework">content management frameworks</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Robert_McCool" title="Robert McCool">Robert McCool</a> joined Netscape, development on the <a href="/wiki/NCSA_HTTPd" title="NCSA HTTPd">NCSA HTTPd</a> server languished. In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Behlendorf" title="Brian Behlendorf">Brian Behlendorf</a> and Cliff Skolnick created a mailing list to coordinate efforts to fix bugs and make improvements to <a href="/wiki/Httpd" title="Httpd">HTTPd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> They called their version of HTTPd, <a href="/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server" title="Apache HTTP Server">Apache</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Apache quickly became the dominant server on the Web.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> After adding support for modules, Apache was able to allow developers to handle web requests with a variety of languages including <a href="/wiki/Mod_perl" title="Mod perl">Perl</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mod_python" title="Mod python">Python</a>. Together with <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> and <a href="/wiki/MySQL" title="MySQL">MySQL</a>, it became known as the <a href="/wiki/LAMP_(software_bundle)" title="LAMP (software bundle)">LAMP</a> platform. Following the success of Apache, <a href="/wiki/The_Apache_Software_Foundation" title="The Apache Software Foundation">the Apache Software Foundation</a> was founded in 1999 and produced many <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Apache_Software_Foundation_projects" title="List of Apache Software Foundation projects">web software projects</a> in the same collaborative spirit. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Browser_wars">Browser wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Browser wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Browser_wars" title="Browser wars">Browser wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_web_browser" title="History of the web browser">History of the web browser</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_web_browsers" title="Comparison of web browsers">Comparison of web browsers</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_web_browsers" title="List of web browsers">List of web browsers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_web_browsers" title="Usage share of web browsers">Usage share of web browsers</a></div> After graduating from UIUC, Andreessen and <a href="/wiki/James_H._Clark" title="James H. Clark">Jim Clark</a>, former CEO of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Graphics" title="Silicon Graphics">Silicon Graphics</a>, met and formed <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Communications_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Communications Corporation">Mosaic Communications Corporation</a> in April 1994 to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a>, and the browser was developed further as <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>, which soon became the dominant web client. They also released the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_iPlanet_Web_Server" title="Oracle iPlanet Web Server">Netsite Commerce web server</a> which could handle <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">SSL</a> requests, thus enabling <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a> on the Web.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> SSL became the standard method to encrypt web traffic. Navigator 1.0 also introduced <a href="/wiki/HTTP_cookie" title="HTTP cookie">cookies</a>, but Netscape did not publicize this feature. Netscape followed up with <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator_2" title="Netscape Navigator 2">Navigator 2</a> in 1995 introducing <a href="/wiki/Frame_(World_Wide_Web)" title="Frame (World Wide Web)">frames</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_applet" title="Java applet">Java applets</a> and <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>. In 1998, Netscape made Navigator open source and launched <a href="/wiki/Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Microsoft licensed Mosaic from <a href="/wiki/Spyglass,_Inc." title="Spyglass, Inc.">Spyglass</a> and released <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer#Internet_Explorer_1" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer 1.0</a> that year and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_2" title="Internet Explorer 2">IE2</a> later the same year. IE2 added features pioneered at Netscape such as cookies, SSL, and JavaScript. The <a href="/wiki/Browser_wars" title="Browser wars">browser wars</a> became a competition for dominance when Explorer was bundled with Windows.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> This led to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Microsoft Corporation">United States v. Microsoft Corporation</a> antitrust lawsuit. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_3" title="Internet Explorer 3">IE3</a>, released in 1996, added support for Java applets, <a href="/wiki/ActiveX" title="ActiveX">ActiveX</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CSS" title="CSS">CSS</a>. At this point, Microsoft began bundling IE with Windows. IE3 managed to increase Microsoft's share of the browser market from under 10% to over 20%.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_4" title="Internet Explorer 4">IE4</a>, released the following year, introduced <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_HTML" title="Dynamic HTML">Dynamic HTML</a> setting the stage for the Web 2.0 revolution. By 1998, IE was able to capture the majority of the desktop browser market.<a href="#cite_note-msBeatNS-68">[68]</a> It would be the dominant browser for the next fourteen years. <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> released their <a href="/wiki/Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Chrome browser</a> in 2008 with the first <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">JIT</a> <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a>. Chrome overtook IE to become the dominant desktop browser in four years,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> and overtook Safari to become the dominant mobile browser in two.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> At the same time, Google open sourced Chrome's <a href="/wiki/Codebase" title="Codebase">codebase</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ryan_Dahl" title="Ryan Dahl">Ryan Dahl</a> used Chromium's V8 engine in 2009 to power an <a href="/wiki/Event-driven_architecture" title="Event-driven architecture">event driven</a> <a href="/wiki/Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a>, which allowed JavaScript code to be used on servers as well as browsers. This led to the development of new software stacks such as <a href="/wiki/MEAN_(solution_stack)" title="MEAN (solution stack)">MEAN</a>. Thanks to frameworks such as <a href="/wiki/Electron_(software_framework)" title="Electron (software framework)">Electron</a>, developers can bundle up node applications as standalone desktop applications such as <a href="/wiki/Slack_(software)" title="Slack (software)">Slack</a>. Acer and Samsung began selling <a href="/wiki/Chromebook" title="Chromebook">Chromebooks</a>, cheap laptops running <a href="/wiki/ChromeOS" title="ChromeOS">ChromeOS</a> capable of running web apps, in 2011. Over the next decade, more companies offered Chromebooks. Chromebooks outsold MacOS devices in 2020 to become the second most popular OS in the world.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Other notable web browsers emerged including <a href="/wiki/Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla's</a> <a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opera_(company)" title="Opera (company)">Opera's</a> <a href="/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)" title="Opera (web browser)">Opera browser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple's</a> <a href="/wiki/Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_1.0">Web 1.0</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Web 1.0">edit</a>]</div> Web 1.0 is a <a href="/wiki/Retronym" title="Retronym">retronym</a> referring to the first stage of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>'s evolution, from roughly 1989 to 2004. According to Graham Cormode and Balachander Krishnamurthy, "content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content".<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_web_page" title="Personal web page">Personal web pages</a> were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on <a href="/wiki/Internet_Service_Provider" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Service Provider">ISP</a>-run <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web servers</a>, or on <a href="/wiki/Free_web_hosting_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Free web hosting service">free web hosting services</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tripod_(web_hosting)" title="Tripod (web hosting)">Tripod</a> and the now-defunct <a href="/wiki/GeoCities" title="GeoCities">GeoCities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Some common design elements of a Web 1.0 site include:<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <ul><li>Static pages rather than <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_HTML" title="Dynamic HTML">dynamic HTML</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li> <li>Content provided from the server's <a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">filesystem</a> rather than a relational database management system (<a href="/wiki/RDBMS" class="mw-redirect" title="RDBMS">RDBMS</a>).</li> <li>Pages built using <a href="/wiki/Server_Side_Includes" title="Server Side Includes">Server Side Includes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Common_Gateway_Interface" title="Common Gateway Interface">Common Gateway Interface</a> (CGI) instead of a <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web application</a> written in a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">dynamic programming language</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]</li> <li>The use of <a href="/wiki/HTML_3.2" class="mw-redirect" title="HTML 3.2">HTML 3.2</a>-era elements such as <a href="/wiki/Framing_(World_Wide_Web)" class="mw-redirect" title="Framing (World Wide Web)">frames</a> and tables to position and align elements on a page. These were often used in combination with <a href="/wiki/Spacer_GIF" title="Spacer GIF">spacer GIFs</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Proprietary <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> extensions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Blink_element" title="Blink element"><blink></a> and <a href="/wiki/Marquee_tag" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquee tag"><marquee></a> tags, introduced during the <a href="/wiki/First_Browser_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Browser War">first browser war</a>.</li> <li>Online <a href="/wiki/Guestbook" title="Guestbook">guestbooks</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIF" title="GIF">GIF</a> buttons, graphics (typically 88×31 <a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixels</a> in size) promoting <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_editor" title="Text editor">text editors</a> and various other products.</li> <li>HTML forms sent via <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>. Support for <a href="/wiki/Server_side_scripting" class="mw-redirect" title="Server side scripting">server side scripting</a> was rare on <a href="/wiki/Shared_server" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared server">shared servers</a> during this period. To provide a feedback mechanism for web site visitors, <a href="/wiki/Mailto" title="Mailto">mailto</a> forms were used. A user would fill in a form, and upon clicking the form's submit button, their <a href="/wiki/Email_client" title="Email client">email client</a> would launch and attempt to send an email containing the form's details. The popularity and complications of the mailto protocol led browser developers to incorporate <a href="/wiki/Email_client" title="Email client">email clients</a> into their browsers.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Terry_Flew" title="Terry Flew">Terry Flew</a>, in his third edition of New Media, described the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 as a <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"move from personal websites to blogs and blog site aggregation, from publishing to participation, from web content as the outcome of large up-front investment to an ongoing and interactive process, and from content management systems to links based on "tagging" website content using <a href="/wiki/Keyword_(Internet_search)" class="mw-redirect" title="Keyword (Internet search)">keywords</a> (<a href="/wiki/Folksonomy" title="Folksonomy">folksonomy</a>)."</blockquote> Flew believed these factors formed the trends that resulted in the onset of the Web 2.0 "craze".<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2004–present:_The_Web_as_platform,_ubiquity">2004–present: The Web as platform, ubiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 2004–present: The Web as platform, ubiquity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_2.0">Web 2.0</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Web 2.0">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">Web application</a>, <a href="/wiki/Single-page_application" title="Single-page application">Single-page application</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_web_page" title="Dynamic web page">Dynamic web page</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rich_web_application" class="mw-redirect" title="Rich web application">Rich web application</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_framework" title="Web framework">Web framework</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Web_platform" title="Web platform">Web platform</a></div> Web pages were initially conceived as structured documents based upon HTML. They could include images, video, and other content, although the use of media was initially relatively limited and the content was mainly static. By the mid-2000s, new approaches to sharing and exchanging content, such as <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a> and <a href="/wiki/RSS" title="RSS">RSS</a>, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. The video-sharing website <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> launched the concept of user-generated content.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> As new technologies made it easier to create websites that behaved dynamically, the Web attained greater ease of use and gained a sense of interactivity which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. This new era also brought into existence <a href="/wiki/Social_network_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Social network service">social networking websites</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Friendster" title="Friendster">Friendster</a>, <a href="/wiki/MySpace" class="mw-redirect" title="MySpace">MySpace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, and photo- and video-sharing websites such as <a href="/wiki/Flickr" title="Flickr">Flickr</a> and, later, <a href="/wiki/Instagram" title="Instagram">Instagram</a> which gained users rapidly and became a central part of <a href="/wiki/Youth_culture" title="Youth culture">youth culture</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">user-edited content</a> quickly displaced the professionally-written <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Encarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Encarta">Microsoft Encarta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The popularity of these sites, combined with developments in the technology that enabled them, and the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. This new media-rich model for information exchange, featuring user-generated and user-edited websites, was dubbed <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>, a term coined in 1999 by Darcy DiNucci<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> and popularized in 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Web 2.0 Conference">Web 2.0 Conference</a>. The Web 2.0 boom drew investment from companies worldwide and saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a newly "democratized" Web.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han2012-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> made the development of interactive <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web applications</a> possible. Web pages could run JavaScript and respond to user input, but they could not interact with the network. Browsers could submit data to servers via forms and receive new pages, but this was slow compared to traditional desktop applications. Developers that wanted to offer sophisticated applications over the Web used Java or nonstandard solutions such as <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash" title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a> or Microsoft's <a href="/wiki/ActiveX" title="ActiveX">ActiveX</a>. Microsoft added a little-noticed feature called <a href="/wiki/XMLHttpRequest" title="XMLHttpRequest">XMLHttpRequest</a> to Internet Explorer in 1999, which enabled a web page to communicate with the server while remaining visible. Developers at <a href="/wiki/Oddpost" title="Oddpost">Oddpost</a> used this feature in 2002 to create the first <a href="/wiki/Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a> application, a <a href="/wiki/Webmail" title="Webmail">webmail</a> client that performed as well as a desktop application.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Ajax apps were revolutionary. Web pages evolved beyond static documents to full-blown applications. Websites began offering <a href="/wiki/Web_API" title="Web API">APIs</a> in addition to webpages. Developers created a plethora of Ajax apps including <a href="/wiki/Web_widget" title="Web widget">widgets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">mashups</a> and new types of <a href="/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">social apps</a>. Analysts called it <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Browser vendors improved the performance of their JavaScript engines<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> and dropped support for Flash and Java.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Traditional <a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model">client server applications</a> were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud apps</a>. Amazon reinvented itself as a <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">cloud service provider</a>. The use of <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> on the Web has become ubiquitous in everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The 2010s also saw the rise of streaming services, such as <a href="/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a>. In spite of the success of Web 2.0 applications, the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">W3C</a> forged ahead with their plan to replace HTML with <a href="/wiki/XHTML" title="XHTML">XHTML</a> and represent all data in <a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a>. In 2004, representatives from Mozilla, <a href="/wiki/Opera_(company)" title="Opera (company)">Opera</a>, and Apple formed an opposing group, the <a href="/wiki/WHATWG" title="WHATWG">Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group</a> (WHATWG), dedicated to improving HTML while maintaining backward compatibility.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> For the next several years, websites did not transition their content to XHTML; browser vendors did not adopt XHTML2; and developers eschewed XML in favor of <a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> By 2007, the W3C conceded and announced they were restarting work on HTML<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> and in 2009, they officially abandoned XHTML.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In 2019, the W3C ceded control of the HTML specification, now called the HTML Living Standard, to WHATWG.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Microsoft rewrote their <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Edge browser</a> in 2021 to use Chromium as its code base in order to be more compatible with Chrome.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security,_censorship_and_cybercrime">Security, censorship and cybercrime</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Security, censorship and cybercrime">edit</a>]</div> The increasing use of encrypted connections (<a href="/wiki/HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a>) enabled <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Online_banking" title="Online banking">online banking</a>. Nonetheless, the 2010s saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">internet censorship</a> and the growth of <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">cybercrime</a>, including web-based <a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">cyberattacks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">ransomware</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobile">Mobile</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mobile">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mobile_web" title="Mobile web">Mobile web</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mobile_browser" title="Mobile browser">Mobile browser</a></div> Early attempts to allow wireless devices to access the Web used simplified formats such as <a href="/wiki/I-mode" title="I-mode">i-mode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wireless_Application_Protocol" title="Wireless Application Protocol">WAP</a>. <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> introduced the first <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphone</a> in 2007 with a full-featured browser. Other companies followed suit and in 2011, smartphone sales overtook PCs.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Since 2016, most visitors access websites with mobile devices<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> which led to the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Responsive_web_design" title="Responsive web design">responsive web design</a>. Apple, Mozilla, and Google have taken different approaches to integrating smartphones with modern web apps. Apple initially promoted web apps for the iPhone, but then encouraged developers to make <a href="/wiki/Mobile_app#Native_app" title="Mobile app">native apps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Mozilla announced Web APIs in 2011 to allow webapps to access hardware features such as audio, camera or GPS.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Frameworks such as <a href="/wiki/Apache_Cordova" title="Apache Cordova">Cordova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_(mobile_app_framework)" title="Ionic (mobile app framework)">Ionic</a> allow developers to build <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_app" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid app">hybrid apps</a>. Mozilla released a <a href="/wiki/Firefox_OS" title="Firefox OS">mobile OS</a> designed to run web apps in 2012,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> but discontinued it in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Google announced specifications for <a href="/wiki/Accelerated_Mobile_Pages" title="Accelerated Mobile Pages">Accelerated Mobile Pages</a> (AMP),<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progressive_web_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive web applications">progressive web applications</a> (PWA) in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> AMPs use a combination of HTML, JavaScript, and <a href="/wiki/Web_Components" title="Web Components">Web Components</a> to optimize web pages for mobile devices; and PWAs are web pages that, with a combination of <a href="/wiki/Web_worker" title="Web worker">web workers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manifest_file" title="Manifest file">manifest files</a>, can be saved to a mobile device and opened like a native app. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_3.0_and_Web3">Web 3.0 and Web3</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Web 3.0 and Web3">edit</a>]</div> The extension of the Web to facilitate data exchange was explored as an approach to create a <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> (sometimes called Web 3.0). This involved using machine-readable information and interoperability standards to enable context-understanding programs to intelligently select information for users.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_Device_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent Device Management">Intelligent Device Management</a>. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access a lot of new content.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> This phenomenon has led to the rise of the Internet of Things (IoT),<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> where modern devices are connected through sensors, software, and other technologies that exchange information with other devices and systems on the Internet. This creates an environment where data can be collected and analyzed instantly, providing better insights and improving the decision-making process. Additionally, the integration of AI with IoT devices continues to improve their capabilities, allowing them to predict customer needs and perform tasks, increasing efficiency and user satisfaction. <a href="/wiki/Web3" title="Web3">Web3</a> (sometimes also referred to as Web 3.0) is an idea for a <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_web" title="Decentralized web">decentralized Web</a> based on public <a href="/wiki/Blockchain" title="Blockchain">blockchains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smart_contract" title="Smart contract">smart contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_token" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital token">digital tokens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_wallet" title="Digital wallet">digital wallets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beyond_Web_3.0">Beyond Web 3.0</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Beyond Web 3.0">edit</a>]</div> The next generation of the Web is often termed Web 4.0, but its definition is not clear. According to some sources, it is a Web that involves <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">internet of things</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pervasive_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Pervasive computing">pervasive computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Things" title="Web of Things">Web of Things</a> among other concepts.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> According to the European Union, Web 4.0 is "the expected fourth generation of the World Wide Web. Using advanced artificial and ambient intelligence, the internet of things, trusted blockchain transactions, virtual worlds and XR capabilities, digital and real objects and environments are fully integrated and communicate with each other, enabling truly intuitive, immersive experiences, seamlessly blending the physical and digital worlds".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> Historiography of the Web poses specific challenges, including disposable data, missing links, lost content and archived websites, which have consequences for web historians. Sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> aim to preserve content.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/42px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/56px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fediverse" title="Fediverse">Fediverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_email" title="History of email">History of email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hypertext" title="History of hypertext">History of hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_web_syndication_technology" title="History of web syndication technology">History of web syndication technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_websites_founded_before_1995" title="List of websites founded before 1995">List of websites founded before 1995</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webring" title="Webring">Webring</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_services_before_the_World_Wide_Web">Online services before the World Wide Web</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Online services before the World Wide Web">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minitel" title="Minitel">Minitel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NABU_Network" title="NABU Network">NABU Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Link" title="Quantum Link">Quantum Link</a> / <a href="/wiki/AOL" title="AOL">AOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CompuServe" title="CompuServe">CompuServe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEnie" title="GEnie">GEnie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system">Bulletin board system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestel" title="Prestel">Prestel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)#Scrapbook" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">Scrapbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pre%E2%80%93World_Wide_Web_online_services" title="Category:Pre–World Wide Web online services">Category:Pre–World Wide Web online services</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBerners-Lee" class="citation web cs1">Berners-Lee, Tim. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html">"Information Management: A Proposal"</a>. w3.org. The World Wide Web Consortium. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100401051011/https://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=w3.org&rft.atitle=Information+Management%3A+A+Proposal&rft.aulast=Berners-Lee&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FHistory%2F1989%2Fproposal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerners-LeeCailliauGroffPollermann1992" class="citation journal cs1">Berners-Lee, T.; Cailliau, R.; Groff, J.-F.; Pollermann, B. 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Retrieved 13 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WhatIs&rft.atitle=What+is+Web+2.0%3F+%7C+Definition+from+TechTarget&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techtarget.com%2Fwhatis%2Fdefinition%2FWeb-20-or-Web-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-is-web-20/">"What Is Web 2.0?"</a>. CBS News. 1 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220416214900/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-is-web-20/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2022. Retrieved 16 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=What+Is+Web+2.0%3F&rft.date=2008-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Fwhat-is-web-20%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118461274162567845">"The Good, the Bad, And the 'Web 2.0'"</a>. Wall Street Journal. 19 July 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220416214405/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118461274162567845">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2022. Retrieved 16 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Good%2C+the+Bad%2C+And+the+%27Web+2.0%27&rft.date=2007-07-19&rft.issn=0099-9660&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB118461274162567845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2016" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Paul (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrOBQAAQBAJ&dq=web+2.0&pg=PA257">"14.2.1 AJAX: The Key to Web 2.0"</a>. Web 2.0 and Beyond: Principles and Technologies. CRC Press. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-2868-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-2868-7"><bdi>978-1-4398-2868-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14.2.1+AJAX%3A+The+Key+to+Web+2.0&rft.btitle=Web+2.0+and+Beyond%3A+Principles+and+Technologies&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-2868-7&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrRrOBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dweb%2B2.0%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Han2012-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Han2012_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHan2012" class="citation book cs1">Han, Sam (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6151399">Web 2.0</a>. Routledge. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99606-1"><bdi>978-1-136-99606-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Web+2.0&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-99606-1&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6151399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/how-companies-are-benefiting-from-web-20-mckinsey-global-survey-results">"How companies are benefiting from Web 2.0"</a>. McKinsey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220327045147/https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/how-companies-are-benefiting-from-web-20-mckinsey-global-survey-results">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 16 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McKinsey&rft.atitle=How+companies+are+benefiting+from+Web+2.0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Fbusiness-functions%2Fmckinsey-digital%2Four-insights%2Fhow-companies-are-benefiting-from-web-20-mckinsey-global-survey-results&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info.cern.ch/NextBrowser.html">"Tim Berners-Lee's original World Wide Web browser"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717031115/http://info.cern.ch/NextBrowser.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2011. <q>With recent phenomena like blogs and wikis, the Web is beginning to develop the kind of collaborative nature that its inventor envisaged from the start.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tim+Berners-Lee%27s+original+World+Wide+Web+browser&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfo.cern.ch%2FNextBrowser.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs2004" class="citation news cs1">Gibbs, Mark (12 April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.networkworld.com/article/2332063/there-s-nothing-odd-about-the-slickness-of-oddpost.html">"There's nothing odd about the slickness of Oddpost"</a>. Network Word. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215184135/https://www.networkworld.com/article/2332063/there-s-nothing-odd-about-the-slickness-of-oddpost.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=There%27s+nothing+odd+about+the+slickness+of+Oddpost&rft.date=2004-04-12&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2332063%2Fthere-s-nothing-odd-about-the-slickness-of-oddpost.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingel2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Singel, Ryan (6 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2005/10/are-you-ready-for-web-2-0/">"Are You Ready for Web 2.0?"</a>. Wired. 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CNet. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220220125739/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/browser-war-centers-on-once-obscure-javascript/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Browser+war+centers+on+once-obscure+JavaScript&rft.date=2009-03-20&rft.aulast=Shankland&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Ftech%2Fservices-and-software%2Fbrowser-war-centers-on-once-obscure-javascript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkuse2021" class="citation news cs1">Skuse, Cole (12 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thetartan.org/2021/1/13/scitech/flash">"Gone in a flash: Adobe Flash removed from online browsers"</a>. The Tartan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220127135557/https://thetartan.org/2021/1/13/scitech/flash">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2022. 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MUO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216154505/https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/web-just-became-secure-google-drops-support-java/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2022. 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IGI Global. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4666-0204-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4666-0204-5"><bdi>978-1-4666-0204-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technologies+and+Protocols+for+the+Future+of+Internet+Design%3A+Reinventing+the+Web%3A+Reinventing+the+Web&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=IGI+Global&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4666-0204-5&rft.aulast=Deo&rft.aufirst=Prakash+Vidyarthi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNNmgaJizZAC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuster2016" class="citation web cs1">Schuster, Jenna (10 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428045452/https://www.exede.com/blog/brief-history-internet-service-providers/">"A brief history of internet service providers"</a>. 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TechCrunch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220218165657/https://techcrunch.com/2012/07/02/mozillas-boot-to-gecko-becomes-firefox-os-scores-support-from-sprint-deutsche-telekom-zte-and-more/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2022. 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Springer Science & Business Media. p. 481. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04329-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-04329-1"><bdi>978-3-642-04329-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semantic+Web+Information+Management%3A+A+Model-Based+Perspective&rft.pages=481&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-642-04329-1&rft.aulast=Virgilio&rft.aufirst=Roberto+de&rft.au=Giunchiglia%2C+Fausto&rft.au=Tanca%2C+Letizia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPapGAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottinger2017" class="citation book cs1">Gottinger, Hans W. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-63920-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-63920-3"><bdi>978-0-429-63920-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blockchain+and+Web+3.0%3A+Social%2C+Economic%2C+and+Technological+Challenges&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-63920-3&rft.aulast=Ragnedda&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft.au=Destefanis%2C+Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIHKhDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.rsisinternational.org/IJRSI/Issue31/75-78.pdf">https://www.rsisinternational.org/IJRSI/Issue31/75-78.pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Almeida, F. (2017). Concept and dimensions of web 4.0. International journal of computers and technology, 16(7). </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/the-commission-wants-the-eu-to-lead-in-web-4-0-come-again/">"The Commission wants the EU to lead on 'Web 4.0' — whatever that is"</a>. 11 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Commission+wants+the+EU+to+lead+on+%27Web+4.0%27+%E2%80%94+whatever+that+is&rft.date=2023-07-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fthe-commission-wants-the-eu-to-lead-in-web-4-0-come-again%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrügger2013" class="citation journal cs1">Brügger, Niels (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444812462852">"Web historiography and Internet Studies: Challenges and perspectives"</a>. New Media & Society. 15 (5): 752–764. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461444812462852">10.1177/1461444812462852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-4448">1461-4448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32892005">32892005</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214202516/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444812462852">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Web+historiography+and+Internet+Studies%3A+Challenges+and+perspectives&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E752-%3C%2Fspan%3E764&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32892005%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1461-4448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1461444812462852&rft.aulast=Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Niels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1461444812462852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig" class="citation web cs1">Craig, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webfx.com/blog/web-design/the-importance-of-historiography-on-the-web/">"The Importance of Historiography on the Web"</a>. WebFX. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214202907/https://www.webfx.com/blog/web-design/the-importance-of-historiography-on-the-web/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebFX&rft.atitle=The+Importance+of+Historiography+on+the+Web&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webfx.com%2Fblog%2Fweb-design%2Fthe-importance-of-historiography-on-the-web%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerners-LeeFischetti1999" class="citation book cs1">Berners-Lee, Tim; Fischetti, Mark (1999). Weaving the Web : the original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web by its inventor. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-251586-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-251586-1"><bdi>0-06-251586-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41238513">41238513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weaving+the+Web+%3A+the+original+design+and+ultimate+destiny+of+the+World+Wide+Web+by+its+inventor&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=HarperSanFrancisco&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41238513&rft.isbn=0-06-251586-1&rft.aulast=Berners-Lee&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Fischetti%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrügger2017" class="citation book cs1">Brügger, Niels (2017). Web 25 : histories from the first 25 years of the World Wide Web. New York, NY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-3269-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-3269-8"><bdi>978-1-4331-3269-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/976036138">976036138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Web+25+%3A+histories+from+the+first+25+years+of+the+World+Wide+Web&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F976036138&rft.isbn=978-1-4331-3269-8&rft.aulast=Br%C3%BCgger&rft.aufirst=Niels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilliesCailliau2000" class="citation book cs1">Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Web was born : the story of the World Wide Web. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-286207-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-286207-3"><bdi>0-19-286207-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43377073">43377073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Web+was+born+%3A+the+story+of+the+World+Wide+Web&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43377073&rft.isbn=0-19-286207-3&rft.aulast=Gillies&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Cailliau%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHermanSwiss2000" class="citation book cs1">Herman, Andrew; Swiss, Thomas (2000). The World Wide Web and contemporary cultural theory. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92501-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92501-0"><bdi>0-415-92501-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44446371">44446371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Wide+Web+and+contemporary+cultural+theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44446371&rft.isbn=0-415-92501-0&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Swiss%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaferThierry2018" class="citation journal cs1">Schafer, Valérie; Thierry, Benjamin G. (2018). "The 90s as a turning decade for Internet and the Web". <a href="/wiki/Internet_Histories" title="Internet Histories">Internet Histories</a>. 2 (3–4): 225–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F24701475.2018.1521060">10.1080/24701475.2018.1521060</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Histories&rft.atitle=The+90s+as+a+turning+decade+for+Internet+and+the+Web&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F24701475.2018.1521060&rft.aulast=Schafer&rft.aufirst=Val%C3%A9rie&rft.au=Thierry%2C+Benjamin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaughton2016" class="citation journal cs1">Naughton, John (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23738871.2016.1157619">"The evolution of the Internet: from military experiment to General Purpose Technology"</a>. Journal of Cyber Policy. 1 (1): 5–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23738871.2016.1157619">10.1080/23738871.2016.1157619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cyber+Policy&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+the+Internet%3A+from+military+experiment+to+General+Purpose+Technology&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23738871.2016.1157619&rft.aulast=Naughton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F23738871.2016.1157619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+World+Wide+Web" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web30.web.cern.ch/web-history.html">Web History: first 30 years</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.w3.org/History.html">"A Little History of the World Wide Web: from 1945 to 1995"</a>, Dan Connolly, <a href="/wiki/W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a>, 2000</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/1996/ppf.html">"The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future"</a>, Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehistoryoftheweb.com/">The History of the Web</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webdevelopmenthistory.com/">Web Development History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bkardell.com/blog/Brief-ish-History-of-The-Web-Part-1.html">A Brief(ish) History of the Web Universe</a>, Brian Kardell</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w3.org/community/webhistory/">Web History Community Group</a>, W3C</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w3.org/wiki/The_history_of_the_Web">The history of the Web</a>, W3C</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info.cern.ch">info.cern.ch</a>, the first website</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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