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<span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Influence of climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diseases_by_type_of_pathogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diseases_by_type_of_pathogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Diseases by type of pathogen</span> 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viruses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Viruses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viruses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasitic_worms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitic_worms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Parasitic worms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitic_worms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6_%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D9%87%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87" title="أمراض تنقلها المياه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أمراض تنقلها المياه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="পানিবাহিত রোগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পানিবাহিত রোগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserb%C3%BCrtige_Krankheiten" title="Wasserbürtige Krankheiten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasserbürtige Krankheiten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%AC%DE%82%DE%AA%DE%8E%DE%AC_%DE%92%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%A2%DE%A7%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0_%DE%8A%DE%AC%DE%8C%DE%AA%DE%83%DE%AD_%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A8%DE%8C%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%B0" title="ފެނުގެ ޒަރީޢާއިން ފެތުރޭ ބަލިތައް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފެނުގެ ޒަރީޢާއިން ފެތުރޭ ބަލިތައް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfermedades_de_origen_h%C3%ADdrico" title="Enfermedades de origen hídrico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Enfermedades de origen hídrico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="بیماری آب‌زاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیماری آب‌زاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladie_hydrique" title="Maladie hydrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Maladie hydrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EC%9D%B8%EC%84%B1_%EC%A7%88%EB%B3%91" title="수인성 질병 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수인성 질병" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cr%E1%BB%8Ba_a_na-ebute_na_mmiri" title="Ọrịa a na-ebute na mmiri – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọrịa a na-ebute na mmiri" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_bawaan_air" title="Penyakit bawaan air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyakit bawaan air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B3%BB%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93%E7%97%87" title="水系感染症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="水系感染症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassborne_sjukdommar" title="Vassborne sjukdommar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vassborne sjukdommar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%90_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8D" title="د اوبو له لارې ناروغۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اوبو له لارې ناروغۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="నీటి ద్వారా వ్యాపించు వ్యాధులు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నీటి ద్వారా వ్యాపించు వ్యాధులు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_yoluyla_bula%C5%9Fan_hastal%C4%B1klar" title="Su yoluyla bulaşan hastalıklar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Su yoluyla bulaşan hastalıklar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%87nh_l%C3%A2y_truy%E1%BB%81n_qua_%C4%91%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="Bệnh lây truyền qua đường nước – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bệnh lây truyền qua đường nước" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%AA%92%E5%82%B3%E6%9F%93%E7%97%85" title="水媒傳染病 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="水媒傳染病" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2006636#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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diseases</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms transmitted by waters</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Waterborne diseases</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/300px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/450px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/600px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="411" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Waterborne diseases can be spread via groundwater which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from pit latrines.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Waterborne diseases</b> are conditions (meaning adverse effects on human health, such as death, disability, illness or disorders)<sup id="cite_ref-Marcos_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcos-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup> caused by <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic">pathogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">micro-organisms</a> that are transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> can be spread while bathing, washing, drinking water, or by eating food exposed to contaminated water.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are a pressing issue in rural areas amongst <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> all over the world. While <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> and vomiting are the most commonly reported symptoms of waterborne illness, other symptoms can include skin, ear, respiratory, or eye problems.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lack of clean <a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">water supply, sanitation and hygiene</a> (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community. Therefore, reliable access to clean <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> is the main method to prevent waterborne diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a> causing diseases that characteristically are waterborne prominently include <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, many of which are <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal parasites">intestinal parasites</a>, or invade the tissues or circulatory system through walls of the digestive tract. Various other waterborne diseases are caused by <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. </p><p>Yet other important classes of waterborne diseases are caused by <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">metazoan</a> parasites. Typical examples include certain <a href="/wiki/Nematoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematoda">Nematoda</a>, that is to say "roundworms". As an example of waterborne Nematode infections, one important waterborne nematode disease is <a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a>. It is acquired by swallowing water in which certain <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepoda</a> occur that act as vectors for the Nematoda. Anyone swallowing a copepod that happens to be infected with Nematode <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <a href="/wiki/Dracunculus_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dracunculus (animal)">Dracunculus</a>, becomes liable to infection. The larvae cause <a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">guinea worm disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-697-26071-2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-697-26071-2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another class of waterborne <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">metazoan</a> pathogens are certain members of the <a href="/wiki/Schistosomatidae" title="Schistosomatidae">Schistosomatidae</a>, a family of blood <a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">flukes</a>. They usually infect people that make skin contact with the water.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-697-26071-2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-697-26071-2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Schistosoma" title="Schistosoma">Blood flukes</a> are pathogens that cause <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a> of various forms, more or less seriously affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term waterborne disease is reserved largely for infections that predominantly are transmitted through contact with or consumption of microbially <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted water</a>. Many infections may be transmitted by microbes or parasites that accidentally, possibly as a result of exceptional circumstances, have entered the water. However, the fact that there might be an occasional infection need not mean that it is useful to categorize the resulting disease as "waterborne". Nor is it common practice to refer to diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> as "waterborne" just because <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a> have aquatic phases in their life cycles, or because treating the water they inhabit happens to be an effective strategy in control of the mosquitoes that are the <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A related term is "water-related disease" which is defined as "any significant or widespread adverse effects on human health, such as death, disability, illness or disorders, caused directly or indirectly by the condition, or changes in the quantity or quality of any water".<sup id="cite_ref-Marcos_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcos-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup> Water-related diseases are grouped according to their transmission mechanism: water borne, water hygiene, water based, water related.<sup id="cite_ref-Marcos_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcos-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup> The main transmission mode for waterborne diseases is <a href="/wiki/Ingestion" title="Ingestion">ingestion</a> of contaminated water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></div> <p>Lack of clean <a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">water supply, sanitation and hygiene</a> (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community. The <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral route</a> is a disease transmission pathway for waterborne diseases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a> also increases the risk of communities to be affected by waterborne diseases. For example, the economic level of a community impacts their ability to have access to clean water.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Less developed countries might be more at risk for potential outbreaks of waterborne diseases but more developed regions also are at risk to waterborne disease outbreaks.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_climate_change">Influence of climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influence of climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change and infectious diseases</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p> Global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has increased the occurrence of some <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example, <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a> like <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">tick-borne diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">zika fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects (or <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">disease vectors</a>) that can carry the diseases. Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">food-borne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne diseases</a> has increased (very high confidence)."<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> </p> Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a> etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria through water), and food-borne diseases.(spread through pathogens via food)<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:16_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:16-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1107">: 1107 </span></sup> Climate change affects the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_Romanello2021_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_Romanello2021-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases"><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup></a> Like other ways climate change affects <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">human health</a>, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diseases_by_type_of_pathogen">Diseases by type of pathogen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diseases by type of pathogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protozoa">Protozoa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Protozoa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease and transmission<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Microbial agent </th> <th>Sources of agent in water supply </th> <th>General symptoms </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">Acanthamoeba keratitis</a> (cleaning of contact lenses with contaminated water) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba" title="Acanthamoeba"><i>Acanthamoeba</i> spp.</a> (<i>A. castellanii</i> and <i>A. polyphaga</i>) </td> <td>widely distributed free-living amoebae found in many types of aquatic environments, including surface water, tap water, swimming pools, and contact lens solutions </td> <td>Eye pain, eye redness, blurred vision, sensitivity to light, sensation of something in the eye, and excessive tearing </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">Amoebiasis</a> (hand-to-mouth) </td> <td>Protozoan (<i><a href="/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica" title="Entamoeba histolytica">Entamoeba histolytica</a></i>) (Cyst-like appearance) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">non-treated drinking water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a> in water supply, saliva transfer(if the other person has the disease) </td> <td>Abdominal discomfort, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a>, weight loss, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bloating" title="Bloating">bloating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a> (oral) </td> <td>Protozoan (<i><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium_parvum" title="Cryptosporidium parvum">Cryptosporidium parvum</a></i>) </td> <td>Collects on water filters and membranes that cannot be <a href="/wiki/Disinfected" class="mw-redirect" title="Disinfected">disinfected</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">animal manure</a>, seasonal <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> of water. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flu-like_symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu-like symptoms">Flu-like symptoms</a>, watery diarrhea, loss of appetite, substantial loss of weight, <a href="/wiki/Bloating" title="Bloating">bloating</a>, increased gas, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a> </td> <td>Protozoan parasite (<i><a href="/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis" title="Cyclospora cayetanensis">Cyclospora cayetanensis</a></i>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">non-treated drinking water</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cramps" class="mw-redirect" title="Cramps">cramps</a>, nausea, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, muscle aches, fever, and fatigue </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a> (fecal-oral) (hand-to-mouth) </td> <td>Protozoan (<i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a></i>) Most common intestinal parasite </td> <td>Untreated water, poor disinfection, pipe breaks, leaks, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> contamination, <a href="/wiki/Campgrounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Campgrounds">campgrounds</a> where humans and wildlife use same source of water. <a href="/wiki/Beavers" class="mw-redirect" title="Beavers">Beavers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muskrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskrats">muskrats</a> create <a href="/wiki/Ponds" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponds">ponds</a> that act as <a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">reservoirs</a> for Giardia. </td> <td>Diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, <a href="/wiki/Bloating" title="Bloating">bloating</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flatulence" title="Flatulence">flatulence</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Microsporidiosis" title="Microsporidiosis">Microsporidiosis</a> </td> <td>Protozoan phylum (<i><a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidia</a></i>), but closely related to <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Encephalitozoon_intestinalis" title="Encephalitozoon intestinalis">Encephalitozoon intestinalis</a></i> has been detected in <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>, the origin of drinking water<sup id="cite_ref-ewpcw_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ewpcw-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Diarrhea and <a href="/wiki/Wasting" title="Wasting">wasting</a> in <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> individuals. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Naegleriasis" title="Naegleriasis">Naegleriasis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Primary_amebic_meningoencephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary amebic meningoencephalitis">primary amebic meningoencephalitis</a> [PAM]) (nasal) </td> <td>Protozoan (<i><a href="/wiki/Naegleria_fowleri" title="Naegleria fowleri">Naegleria fowleri</a></i>) (Cyst-like appearance) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Watersport" class="mw-redirect" title="Watersport">Watersports</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">non-chlorinated water</a> </td> <td>Headache, vomiting, confusion, loss of balance, light sensitivity, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a>, weight loss, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, and coma </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease and transmission<sup id="cite_ref-swdo_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swdo-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mmuawg_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmuawg-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Microbial agent </th> <th>Sources of agent in water supply </th> <th>General symptoms </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">Clostridium botulinum</a></i> </td> <td>Bacteria can enter an open wound from contaminated water sources. Can enter the gastrointestinal tract through consumption of contaminated <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> or (more commonly) food </td> <td>Dry mouth, <a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">blurred</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">double vision</a>, difficulty swallowing, muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, slurred speech, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>. Death is usually caused by <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_failure" title="Respiratory failure">respiratory failure</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Campylobacteriosis" title="Campylobacteriosis">Campylobacteriosis</a> </td> <td>Most commonly caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a></i> </td> <td>Drinking water contaminated with <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> </td> <td>Produces <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>-like symptoms along with a <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">high fever</a>. Usually lasts 2–10 days. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a> </td> <td>Spread by the bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></i> </td> <td>Drinking water contaminated with the bacterium </td> <td>In severe forms it is known to be one of the most rapidly fatal illnesses known. Symptoms include very watery diarrhea, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cramps" class="mw-redirect" title="Cramps">cramps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nosebleed" title="Nosebleed">nosebleed</a>, rapid <a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">pulse</a>, vomiting, and <a href="/wiki/Hypovolemic_shock" title="Hypovolemic shock">hypovolemic shock</a> (in severe cases), at which point death can occur in 12–18 hours. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli"><i>E. coli</i> Infection</a> </td> <td>Certain strains of <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i> (commonly <i>E. coli</i>) </td> <td>Water contaminated with the bacteria </td> <td>Mostly diarrhea. Can cause death in <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> individuals, the very young, and the elderly due to <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a> from prolonged illness. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_marinum" title="Mycobacterium marinum"><i>M. marinum</i> infection</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_marinum" title="Mycobacterium marinum">Mycobacterium marinum</a></i> </td> <td>Naturally occurs in water, most cases from exposure in <a href="/wiki/Swimming_pools" class="mw-redirect" title="Swimming pools">swimming pools</a> or more frequently <a href="/wiki/Aquariums" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquariums">aquariums</a>; rare infection since it mostly infects <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> individuals </td> <td>Symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Lesions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesions">lesions</a> typically located on the elbows, knees, and feet (from <a href="/wiki/Swimming_pools" class="mw-redirect" title="Swimming pools">swimming pools</a>) or lesions on the hands (<a href="/wiki/Aquariums" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquariums">aquariums</a>). Lesions may be painless or painful. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">Dysentery</a> </td> <td>Caused by a number of species in the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Shigella" title="Shigella">Shigella</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i> with the most common being <i><a href="/wiki/Shigella_dysenteriae" title="Shigella dysenteriae">Shigella dysenteriae</a></i> </td> <td>Water contaminated with the bacterium </td> <td>Frequent passage of <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> with <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> and in some cases vomiting of blood. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Legionellosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionellosis">Legionellosis</a> (two distinct forms: Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever) </td> <td>Caused by bacteria belonging to genus <i><a href="/wiki/Legionella" title="Legionella">Legionella</a></i> (90% of cases caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Legionella_pneumophila" title="Legionella pneumophila">Legionella pneumophila</a></i>) </td> <td>Legionella is a very common organism that reproduces to high numbers in warm water;<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only causes severe disease when aerosolized.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Pontiac fever produces milder symptoms resembling acute <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> without <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. Legionnaires' disease has severe symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chills" title="Chills">chills</a>, pneumonia (with cough that sometimes produces <a href="/wiki/Sputum" title="Sputum">sputum</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">ataxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">anorexia</a>, muscle aches, <a href="/wiki/Malaise" title="Malaise">malaise</a> and occasionally diarrhea and vomiting </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">Leptospirosis</a> </td> <td>Caused by bacterium of genus <i><a href="/wiki/Leptospira" title="Leptospira">Leptospira</a></i> </td> <td>Water contaminated by the animal urine carrying the bacteria </td> <td>Begins with <a href="/wiki/Flu-like_symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu-like symptoms">flu-like symptoms</a> then resolves. The second phase then occurs involving <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> damage (causes <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Otitis_Externa" class="mw-redirect" title="Otitis Externa">Otitis Externa</a> (swimmer's ear) </td> <td>Caused by a number of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungal</a> species. </td> <td>Swimming in water contaminated by the responsible pathogens </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ear_canal" title="Ear canal">Ear canal</a> swells, causing pain and tenderness to the touch </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">Salmonellosis</a> </td> <td>Caused by many bacteria of genus <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i> </td> <td>Drinking water contaminated with the bacteria. More common as a <a href="/wiki/Food_borne_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Food borne illness">food borne illness</a>. </td> <td>Symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, vomiting, and abdominal cramps </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salmonella_enterica" title="Salmonella enterica"><i>Salmonella typhi</i></a> </td> <td>Ingestion of water contaminated with <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> of an infected person </td> <td>Characterized by sustained fever up to 40 °C (104 °F), profuse <a href="/wiki/Sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating">sweating</a>; diarrhea, muscle aches, fatigue, and constipation may occur. Symptoms progress to <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> enlarge if untreated. In this case, it can last up to four weeks and cause death. Some people with typhoid fever develop a rash called "rose spots", small red spots on the abdomen and chest. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrio Illness</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_vulnificus" title="Vibrio vulnificus">Vibrio vulnificus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_alginolyticus" title="Vibrio alginolyticus">Vibrio alginolyticus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_parahaemolyticus" title="Vibrio parahaemolyticus">Vibrio parahaemolyticus</a></i> </td> <td>Can enter <a href="/wiki/Wounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Wounds">wounds</a> from contaminated water. Also acquired by drinking contaminated water or eating undercooked <a href="/wiki/Oysters" class="mw-redirect" title="Oysters">oysters</a>. </td> <td>Symptoms include abdominal tenderness, agitation, bloody stools, chills, confusion, difficulty paying attention (attention deficit), delirium, fluctuating mood, hallucination, nosebleeds, severe fatigue, slow, sluggish, lethargic feeling, weakness. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viruses">Viruses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Hepatitis A is one of waterborne diseases and its symptoms are only acute. Symptoms include fatigue, fever, etc." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg/197px-Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="197" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg/296px-Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg/394px-Hepatitis_A_virus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1815" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption><b>Hepatitis A virus</b>Hepatitis A is one of waterborne diseases and its symptoms are only acute. Symptoms include fatigue, fever, etc.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease and transmission<sup id="cite_ref-ewpcw_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ewpcw-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ciasuv_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ciasuv-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Viral agent </th> <th>Sources of agent in water supply </th> <th>General symptoms </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a> </td> <td>Hepatitis A virus (HAV) </td> <td>Can manifest itself in water (and food) </td> <td>Symptoms are only <a href="/wiki/Acute_(medicine)" title="Acute (medicine)">acute</a> (no <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a> stage to the virus) and include <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">Fatigue</a>, fever, <a href="/wiki/Malaise" title="Malaise">malaise</a>, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, weight loss, itching, <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hepatitis E (<a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal-oral</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatitis E virus">Hepatitis E virus</a> (HEV) </td> <td>Enters water through the <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> of infected individuals </td> <td>Symptoms of acute <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a> (liver disease), including <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>, loss of appetite, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, vomiting, abdominal pain, <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, dark urine, clay-colored stool, and joint pain </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acute gastrointestinal illness [AGI] (<a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal-oral</a>; spread by food, water, person-to-person, and fomites) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Norovirus" title="Norovirus">Norovirus</a> </td> <td>Enters water through the <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> of infected individuals </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a>, vomiting, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, stomach pain </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">Poliomyelitis</a> (Polio) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Poliovirus" title="Poliovirus">Poliovirus</a> </td> <td>Enters water through the <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> of infected individuals </td> <td>90-95% of patients show no symptoms, 4-8% have minor symptoms (comparatively) with <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, and occasional <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spastic_paralysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spastic paralysis">spastic paralysis</a>, 1% have symptoms of non-paralytic <a href="/wiki/Aseptic_meningitis" title="Aseptic meningitis">aseptic meningitis</a>. The rest have serious symptoms resulting in <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a> or death </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Polyomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyomavirus">Polyomavirus infection</a> </td> <td>Two of <a href="/wiki/Polyomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyomavirus">Polyomavirus</a>: <a href="/wiki/JC_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="JC virus">JC virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/BK_virus" title="BK virus">BK virus</a> </td> <td>Very widespread, can manifest itself in water, ~80% of the population has <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> to Polyomavirus </td> <td>BK virus produces a mild <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory infection">respiratory infection</a> and can infect the <a href="/wiki/Kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidneys">kidneys</a> of <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressed" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressed">immunosuppressed</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplant</a> patients. JC virus infects the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, kidneys or can cause <a href="/wiki/Progressive_multifocal_leukoencephalopathy" title="Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy">progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> (which is fatal). </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Algae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease and transmission<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Microbial agent </th> <th>Sources of agent in water supply </th> <th>General symptoms </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Desmodesmus" title="Desmodesmus">Desmodesmus</a> infection </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Desmodesmus" title="Desmodesmus">desmodesmus</a> armatus </td> <td>Naturally occurs in water. Can enter open wounds. </td> <td>Similar to fungal infection. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasitic_worms">Parasitic worms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Parasitic worms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease and transmission<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-697-26071-2_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-697-26071-2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Agent </th> <th>Sources of agent in water supply </th> <th>General symptoms </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a> [Guinea worm disease] (ingestion of contaminated water) </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Dracunculus_medinensis" title="Dracunculus medinensis">Dracunculus medinensis</a></i> </td> <td>Female worm emerges from host skin and releases larvae in water. </td> <td>Slight <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, itchy <a href="/wiki/Rash" title="Rash">rash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, dizziness, followed by formation of painful blister (typically on lower body parts) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/WASH#Health_aspects" title="WASH">WASH § Health aspects</a></div> <p>Reliable access to clean <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> is the main method to prevent waterborne diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim is to break the <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral route</a> of disease transmission.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/WASH#Health_aspects" title="WASH">WASH § Health aspects</a></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, waterborne diseases account for an estimated 3.6% of the total <a href="/wiki/DALY" class="mw-redirect" title="DALY">DALY</a> <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">(disability- adjusted life year) global burden of disease</a>, and cause about 1.5 million human deaths annually. The World Health Organization estimates that 58% of that burden, or 842,000 deaths per year, is attributable to a lack of safe drinking water supply, sanitation and hygiene (summarized as <a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_Disease_and_Outbreak_Reporting_System" title="Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Reporting System">Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS)</a> is the principal database used to identify the causative agents, deficiencies, water systems, and sources associated with waterborne disease and outbreaks in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</a>, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</a> have maintained this surveillance system for collecting and reporting data on "waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water, drinking water, environmental, and undetermined exposures to water."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Data from WBDOSS have supported EPA efforts to develop drinking water regulations and have provided guidance for CDC's recreational water activities."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>WBDOSS relies on complete and accurate data from public health departments in individual states, territories, and other U.S. jurisdictions regarding waterborne disease and outbreak activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009, reporting to the WBDOSS transitioned from a paper form to the electronic <a href="/wiki/National_Outbreak_Reporting_System" title="National Outbreak Reporting System">National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Annual or biennial surveillance reports of the data collected by the WBDOSS have been published in CDC reports from 1971 to 1984; since 1985, surveillance data have been published in the <a href="/wiki/Morbidity_and_Mortality_Weekly_Report" title="Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report">Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>WBDOSS and the public health community work together to look into the causes of contaminated water leading to waterborne disease outbreaks and maintaining those outbreaks.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do so by having the public health community investigating the outbreaks and WBDOSS receiving the reports.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomic_impact">Socioeconomic impact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy. People who are infected by a waterborne disease are usually confronted with related healthcare costs. This is especially the case in developing countries. On average, a family spends about 10% of the monthly households income per person infected.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation#Understanding_of_health_aspects" title="History of water supply and sanitation">History of water supply and sanitation § Understanding of health aspects</a></div><p>Waterborne diseases were once wrongly explained by the <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma theory</a>, the theory that bad air causes the spread of diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Juuti_20072_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juuti_20072-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, people started to find a correlation between <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a> and waterborne diseases, which led to different <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a> methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Sand_filter" title="Sand filter">sand filtering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">chlorinating</a> their drinking water. Founders of <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, used the newly invented <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> to observe for the first time small material particles that were suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens and waterborne diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Airborne disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diseases_caused_by_water_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of diseases caused by water pollution">List of diseases caused by water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector (epidemiology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Marcos-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marcos_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marcos_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marcos_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVon_Sperling2015" class="citation journal cs1">Von Sperling, M. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/72/">"Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal"</a>. <i>Water Intelligence Online</i>. <b>6</b>: 9781780402086. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2166%2F9781780402086">10.2166/9781780402086</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-1777">1476-1777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Intelligence+Online&rft.atitle=Wastewater+Characteristics%2C+Treatment+and+Disposal&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=9781780402086&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2166%2F9781780402086&rft.issn=1476-1777&rft.aulast=Von+Sperling&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiwaponline.com%2Febooks%2Fbook%2F72%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWaterborne+disease" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/Water-Borne-Diseases.aspx">"Water-Borne Diseases"</a>. <i>News-Medical.net</i>. 2018-05-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News-Medical.net&rft.atitle=Water-Borne+Diseases&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.news-medical.net%2Fhealth%2FWater-Borne-Diseases.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWaterborne+disease" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Guidelines for drinking-water quality</i>. World Health Organization (Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum ed.). Geneva. 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789241549950" title="Special:BookSources/9789241549950"><bdi>9789241549950</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/975491910">975491910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+drinking-water+quality.&rft.place=Geneva&rft.edition=Fourth+edition+incorporating+the+first+addendum&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F975491910&rft.isbn=9789241549950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWaterborne+disease" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140213190013/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/burden/en/index.html">"Burden of disease and cost-effectiveness estimates"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. 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IWA Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84339-110-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84339-110-4"><bdi>978-1-84339-110-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+History+of+Water&rft.pub=IWA+Publishing&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft.isbn=978-1-84339-110-4&rft.aulast=Juuti&rft.aufirst=PS&rft.au=Katko%2C+T&rft.au=Vuorinen%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpZDbCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWaterborne+disease" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dc.cod.edu/essai/">"ESSAI | College Publications | College of DuPage"</a>. <i>dc.cod.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" title="Zoonosis">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection#Pathophysiology" title="Infection">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a><br />/Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment-<br />to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to<br />Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence<br />in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical <br />location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention<br />and Control<br />measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non-<br />pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_glove" title="Medical glove">Gloves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_nursing" title="Barrier nursing">Barrier nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay-at-home_order" title="Stay-at-home order">Lockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">Protective sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a> services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreak_response" title="Outbreak response">Outbreak response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Respiratory source control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">Surgical mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">Screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging <br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Genomic reassortment</a></li> <li>Re-emerging disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure#Antibiotic_resistance" title="Evolutionary pressure">Selection pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phylodynamics" title="Viral phylodynamics">Viral phylodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication</a></li> <li>Economics of Infectious Diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease (medical specialty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_informatics" title="Disease informatics">Infectious disease informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Microbial bioterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plumbing" style="vertical-align: middle;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plumbing" title="Template:Plumbing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plumbing" title="Template talk:Plumbing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plumbing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plumbing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plumbing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_gap_(plumbing)" title="Air gap (plumbing)">Air gap (plumbing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backflow" title="Backflow">Backflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibility_(chemical)" title="Compatibility (chemical)">Compatibility (chemical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drain_(plumbing)" title="Drain (plumbing)">Drain (plumbing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">Fuel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction_loss" title="Friction loss">Friction loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grade_(slope)" title="Grade (slope)">Grade (slope)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywater" title="Greywater">Greywater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_trap" title="Heat trap">Heat trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_loop" title="Hydrostatic loop">Hydrostatic loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leak" title="Leak">Leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_axis" title="Neutral axis">Neutral axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onsite_sewage_facility" title="Onsite sewage facility">Onsite sewage facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewer_gas" title="Sewer gas">Sewer gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">Sewerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siphon" title="Siphon">Siphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_sewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm sewer">Storm sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">Surface tension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tap_water" title="Tap water">Tap water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">Thermal expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">Thermosiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trap_(plumbing)" title="Trap (plumbing)">Trap (plumbing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venturi_effect" title="Venturi effect">Venturi effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_hammer" title="Water hammer">Water hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_network" title="Water supply network">Water supply network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazing" title="Brazing">Brazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Standard_Pipe" title="British Standard Pipe">British Standard Pipe</a> (BSP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron_pipe" title="Cast iron pipe">Cast iron pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_drain_cleaners" title="Chemical drain cleaners">Chemical drain cleaners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_fitting" title="Compression fitting">Compression fitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_tubing" title="Copper tubing">Copper tubing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimp_(joining)" title="Crimp (joining)">Crimp (joining)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drain-waste-vent_system" title="Drain-waste-vent system">Drain-waste-vent system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron_pipe" title="Ductile iron pipe">Ductile iron pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flare_fitting" title="Flare fitting">Flare fitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_hose_thread" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden hose thread">Garden Hose Thread</a> (GHT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasket" title="Gasket">Gasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronics" title="Hydronics">Hydronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leak_detection" title="Leak detection">Leak detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pipe_Thread" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pipe Thread">National Pipe Thread</a> (NPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_Pipe_Size" title="Nominal Pipe Size">Nominal Pipe Size</a> (NPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-ring" title="O-ring">O-ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oakum" title="Oakum">Oakum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)" title="Pipe (fluid conveyance)">Pipe (fluid conveyance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe_dope" title="Pipe dope">Pipe dope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe_support" title="Pipe support">Pipe support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pipework" title="Plastic pipework">Plastic pipework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push-to-pull_compression_fittings" title="Push-to-pull compression fittings">Push-to-pull compression fittings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putty" title="Putty">Putty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealant" title="Sealant">Sealant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_pumping" title="Sewage pumping">Sewage pumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">Soldering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvent_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent welding">Solvent welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaging" title="Swaging">Swaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thread_seal_tape" title="Thread seal tape">Thread seal tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threaded_pipe" title="Threaded pipe">Threaded pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tube_bending" title="Tube bending">Tube bending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_vacuum_breaker" title="Atmospheric vacuum breaker">Atmospheric vacuum breaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_bleeding_valve" title="Automatic bleeding valve">Automatic bleeding valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_faucet" title="Automatic faucet">Automatic faucet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backflow_prevention_device" title="Backflow prevention device">Backflow prevention device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_valve" title="Ball valve">Ball valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleed_screw" title="Bleed screw">Bleed screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_pump" title="Booster pump">Booster pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_valve" title="Butterfly valve">Butterfly valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Check_valve" title="Check valve">Check valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemigation_valve" title="Chemigation valve">Chemigation valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Chopper pump">Chopper pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulator_pump" title="Circulator pump">Circulator pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closet_flange" title="Closet flange">Closet flange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_reducer" title="Concentric reducer">Concentric reducer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensate_pump" title="Condensate pump">Condensate pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupling_(piping)" title="Coupling (piping)">Coupling (piping)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphragm_valve" title="Diaphragm valve">Diaphragm valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dielectric_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Dielectric union">Dielectric union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_check_valve" title="Double check valve">Double check valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentric_reducer" title="Eccentric reducer">Eccentric reducer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faucet_aerator" title="Faucet aerator">Faucet aerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Float_switch" title="Float switch">Float switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Float_valve" class="mw-redirect" title="Float valve">Float valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floor_drain" title="Floor drain">Floor drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_limiter" title="Flow limiter">Flow limiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flushing_trough" title="Flushing trough">Flushing trough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flushometer" title="Flushometer">Flushometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_valve" title="Gate valve">Gate valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_valve" title="Globe valve">Globe valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_trap" title="Grease trap">Grease trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinder_pump" title="Grinder pump">Grinder pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hose_coupling" title="Hose coupling">Hose coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifold_(fluid_mechanics)" title="Manifold (fluid mechanics)">Manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_valve" title="Needle valve">Needle valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple_(plumbing)" title="Nipple (plumbing)">Nipple (plumbing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinch_valve" title="Pinch valve">Pinch valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piping_and_plumbing_fitting" title="Piping and plumbing fitting">Piping and plumbing fitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_(sanitation)" title="Plug (sanitation)">Plug (sanitation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_regulator" title="Pressure regulator">Pressure regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_vacuum_breaker" title="Pressure vacuum breaker">Pressure vacuum breaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure-balanced_valve" title="Pressure-balanced valve">Pressure-balanced valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_(heating)" title="Radiator (heating)">Radiator (heating)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_pressure_zone_device" title="Reduced pressure zone device">Reduced pressure zone device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducer" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducer">Reducer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_valve" title="Relief valve">Relief valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riser_clamp" title="Riser clamp">Riser clamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_water_tower" title="Rooftop water tower">Rooftop water tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_valve" title="Safety valve">Safety valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewage pump">Sewage pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_elbow" title="Street elbow">Street elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pump" title="Submersible pump">Submersible pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tap_(valve)" title="Tap (valve)">Tap (valve)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_mixing_valve" title="Thermostatic mixing valve">Thermostatic mixing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_drain" title="Trench drain">Trench drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_breaker" title="Vacuum breaker">Vacuum breaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_ejector" title="Vacuum ejector">Vacuum ejector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">Valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_tank" title="Water tank">Water tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_valve" title="Zone valve">Zone valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plumbing_fixture" title="Plumbing fixture">Plumbing fixtures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessible_bathtub" title="Accessible bathtub">Accessible bathtub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub" title="Bathtub">Bathtub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bidet" title="Bidet">Bidet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">Dehumidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">Dishwasher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_fountain" title="Drinking fountain">Drinking fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_water_boiler" title="Electric water boiler">Electric water boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_disposal_unit" title="Garbage disposal unit">Garbage disposal unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_water_storage_tank" title="Hot water storage tank">Hot water storage tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidifier" title="Humidifier">Humidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icemaker" title="Icemaker">Icemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_hot_water_dispenser" title="Instant hot water dispenser">Instant hot water dispenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_tub" class="mw-redirect" title="Laundry tub">Laundry tub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shower" title="Shower">Shower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">water recycling shower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sink" title="Sink">Sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_water_heater" title="Storage water heater">Storage water heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sump_pump" title="Sump pump">Sump pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tankless_water_heater" class="mw-redirect" title="Tankless water heater">Tankless water heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinal" title="Urinal">Urinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">Washing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washlet" title="Washlet">Washlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_dispenser" title="Water dispenser">Water dispenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_filter" title="Water filter">Water filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heater" class="mw-redirect" title="Water heater">Water heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_softener" class="mw-redirect" title="Water softener">Water softener</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialized tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basin_wrench" title="Basin wrench">Basin wrench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blowtorch" title="Blowtorch">Blowtorch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borescope" title="Borescope">Borescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drain_cleaner" title="Drain cleaner">Drain cleaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_cap" title="Driving cap">Driving cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flare-nut_wrench" class="mw-redirect" title="Flare-nut wrench">Flare-nut wrench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipecutter" title="Pipecutter">Pipecutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe_wrench" title="Pipe wrench">Pipe wrench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumber%27s_snake" title="Plumber's snake">Plumber's snake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumber_wrench" title="Plumber wrench">Plumber wrench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunger" title="Plunger">Plunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strap_wrench" title="Strap wrench">Strap wrench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_die" title="Tap and die">Tap and die</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement<br />and control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_valve" title="Control valve">Control valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Flow sensor">Flow sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sensor">Pressure sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_detector" title="Water detector">Water detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_metering" title="Water metering">Water metering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions,<br />trades,<br />and services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydronic_balancing" title="Hydronic balancing">Hydronic balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic testing">Hydrostatic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leak_detection" title="Leak detection">Leak detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe_marking" title="Pipe marking">Pipe marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipefitter" title="Pipefitter">Pipefitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipelayer" title="Pipelayer">Pipelayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumber" title="Plumber">Plumber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry <br />organizations <br />and standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Plumbing_and_Mechanical_Officials" class="mw-redirect" title="International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials">International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSF_International" title="NSF International">NSF International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing_%26_Drainage_Institute" title="Plumbing & Drainage Institute">Plumbing & Drainage Institute (PDI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Plumbing_Code" title="Uniform Plumbing Code">Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Plumbing_Council" title="World Plumbing Council">World Plumbing Council (WPC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing_code" title="Plumbing code">Plumbing code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalding" title="Scalding">Scalding</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Waterborne disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_sprinkler_system" title="Fire sprinkler system">Fire sprinkler system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piping" title="Piping">Piping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:HVAC" title="Template:HVAC">Template:HVAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health">Template:Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sewerage" title="Template:Sewerage">Template:Sewerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Toilets">Template:Toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Wastewater" title="Template:Wastewater">Template:Wastewater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&oldid=1222312891">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_disease&oldid=1222312891</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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