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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_and_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_and_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Developments and trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Developments_and_trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Developments and trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Developments_and_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemic_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemic_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Epistemic rhetoric</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-Rhetoric_and_language-games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhetoric_and_language-games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Rhetoric and language-games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhetoric_and_language-games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhetorical_figures_in_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhetorical_figures_in_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Rhetorical figures in science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhetorical_figures_in_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>New Materialist Rhetoric of Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique_of_rhetoric_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_of_rhetoric_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Critique of rhetoric of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_of_rhetoric_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Globalization_of_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Globalization_of_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8.1</span> <span>Globalization of rhetoric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Globalization_of_rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8.2</span> <span>New Materialist Rhetoric of Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(380 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 370 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(84 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(55 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(95)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(100–400)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(102)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(426)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1305)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1521)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1966)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Rhetoric of science</b> is a body of <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">scholarly literature</a> exploring the notion that the practice of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> activity. It emerged after a number of similarly oriented topics of research and discussion during the late 20th century, including the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">sociology of scientific knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, but it is practiced most typically by rhetoricians in academic departments of English, speech, and communication. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a> is best known as a discipline that studies the means and ends (i.e., methods and goals) of <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>. Science, meanwhile, is typically considered to be the discovery and recording of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> about nature. A major contention of the rhetoric of science is that the practice of science itself is, to varying degrees, persuasive. The study of science from the viewpoint of rhetoric variously examines modes of inquiry, logic, <a href="/wiki/Argumentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Argumentation">argumentation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a> of scientific practitioners, the structures of scientific publications, and the character of scientific discourse and debates. </p><p>For instance, scientists must convince their community of scientists that their research is based on sound scientific method. In terms of rhetoric, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> involves problem-solution <i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_topos" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetoric topos">topoi</a></i> (the materials of discourse) that demonstrate observational and experimental competence (arrangement or order of discourse or method), and as a means of persuasion, offer explanatory and <a href="/wiki/Predictive_power" title="Predictive power">predictive power</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Prelli_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prelli-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185–193">: 185–193 </span></sup> Experimental competence is itself a persuasive <i>topos</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Prelli_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prelli-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186">: 186 </span></sup> Rhetoric of science is a practice of suasion that is an outgrowth of some of the <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Canons" title="Rhetoric">canons of rhetoric</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since its flourishing during the 1970s, rhetoric of science has contributed to a shift of opinions concerning science to include the claim that there is not any single scientific method, but rather a plurality of methods or styles.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xvi">: xvi </span></sup> </p><p>The rhetoric of science has included various sub-topics, as indicated by these examples. John Angus Campbell has studied the works of Charles Darwin with the intention of showing Darwin's rhetorical manipulations and strategic use of the social beliefs of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carolyn Miller has emphasized genres within technology and the influence of technology on genre change.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jeanne Fahnestock has identified the use of classical rhetoric in scientific reasoning and argument.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greg Myers has studied how scientific publications, grants, and other scientific texts are the result of social processes<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the pragmatics of politeness in scientific discussions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charles Bazerman's examination of the evolution of the varieties of writing characterized as experimental report through the first century and a half of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>, the formation of social roles and norms concerning the publication of this journal, the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a> since its founding in 1893, and the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/APA_style" title="APA style">Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association</a>, along with scrutiny of works by Newton and Compton, and an analysis of the reading habits of physicists indicate the many social, organizational, ideological, political, theoretical, methodological, evidentiary, intertextual and intellectual factors that have influenced the character of writing and rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bazerman's work has built upon these studies to consider the way knowledge is methodically produced and communicatively circulated in various activity systems.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work follows the lead of <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Ludwik Fleck</a> on <a href="/wiki/Thought_collective" title="Thought collective">Thought Collectives</a> and thought styles, <a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">structuration theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>. </p><p>Other rhetoricians consider the rhetoric of science effectively beginning with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>'s<i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962). Kuhn first examines "normal" science, that is, practices which he considered routine, patterned and accessible with a specific method of problem-solving. Normal science advances by building on past knowledge, through the accretion of further discoveries in a <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge base</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xiii">: xiii </span></sup> Kuhn then contrasts normal science with "revolutionary" science (new science marked by a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> in thought). When Kuhn began to teach Harvard undergraduates historical texts such as Aristotle's writings on motion, he examined case studies, and sought first to understand Aristotle in his own time, and then to locate his problems and solutions within a wider context of contemporary thought and actions. <sup id="cite_ref-Nick_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nick-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 144">: 144 </span></sup> That is to say, Kuhn sought first to understand the traditions and established practices of science.<sup id="cite_ref-Nick_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nick-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 162">: 162 </span></sup> In this instance, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a>'s influence on Kuhn becomes apparent; that is, his acknowledgement of the importance of inherited practices and rejection of absolute objectivity. Observing the changes in scientific thought and practices, Kuhn concluded that revolutionary changes happen through the defining notion of rhetoric: <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xiv">: xiv </span></sup> The critical work of Herbert W. Simons – "Are Scientists Rhetors in Disguise?" in <i>Rhetoric in Transition</i> (1980) – and subsequent works show that Kuhn's <i>Structure</i> is fully rhetorical. </p><p>The work of Thomas Kuhn was extended by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> (1979, 1989), and this work was to prove fruitful in defining the means and ends of rhetoric in scientific discourse (Jasinski "Intro" xvi). Rorty, who invented the phrase "rhetorical turn", was also interested in assessing periods of scientific stability and instability. </p><p>Another component of the shift in science that occurred during the past concerns the claim that there is no single scientific method, but rather a plurality of methods or styles.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xvi">: xvi </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Method" title="Against Method">Against Method</a></i> (1975) contends that science has found no "method that turns ideologically contaminated ideas into true and useful theories", in other words; no special method exists that can guarantee the success of science (302). </p><p>As evidenced by the early theory papers after Kuhn's seminal work, the idea that rhetoric is crucial to science became much discussed. Quarterly journals in speech and rhetoric included much discussion of topics such as inquiry, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, argument fields, <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a> of scientific practitioners, argumentation, scientific text, and the character of scientific <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> and debates. Philip Wander (1976) observed, for instance, the phenomenal penetration of science (public science) in modern life. He labelled the obligation of rhetoricians to investigate science's discourse "The Rhetoric of Science" (Harris "Knowing" 164). </p><p>As rhetoric of science began to flourish, discussion began of a number of topics, including: </p> <ul><li>Epistemic rhetoric and the discourses on the nature of semantics, knowledge, and truth: One example is the Robert L. Scott's work on viewing rhetoric as epistemic (1967). By the 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Epistemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic">epistemic</a> rhetoric was a point of contention in the writing of Dilip Gaonkar (see "Critique" below).</li> <li>The early 1970s Speech Communication Conference ("Wingspread conference") gave recognition to the fact that rhetoric, in its globalization (multidisciplinary nature), has become a universal <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> (Gross <i>Rhetorical</i> 2–5). Much scholastic output evolved concerning the theory of interpretation (hermeneutics), the knowledge-making and truth-seeking (epistemic) potential of rhetoric of science.</li> <li>Argument Fields (part of the Speech Communication Association and American forensic Association program): In this domain the work of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a> on argument appeals is exemplary. In addition, Michael Mulkay, Barry Barnes and David Bloor, as pioneers of the "<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Scientific_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of Scientific Knowledge">Sociology of Scientific Knowledge</a>" (SSK) movement, fostered a growing sociobiology debate. Others as Greg Myers expressed the benefits of a collaboration between rhetoricians and sociologists. Contributors to discussion pertaining to audience – the way arguments change as they move from the scientific community to the public – include John Lyne and Henry Howe.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xxi–xxxii">: xxi–xxxii </span></sup></li> <li>Scientific Giants: The important works that investigate the suasive powers of exemplars in science include those of <a href="/wiki/Alan_G._Gross" title="Alan G. Gross">Alan G. Gross</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, argument fields in optics), John Angus Campbell<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Darwin), and Michael Halloran (Watson and Crick). <a href="/wiki/J._C._Maxwell" class="mw-redirect" title="J. C. Maxwell">J. C. Maxwell</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Differentiable_function" title="Differentiable function">differentiable</a> <a href="/wiki/Vector_field" title="Vector field">vector fields</a> <i>E</i> and <i>B</i> to express <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>'s findings about an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> <i>E</i> and a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> <i>B</i>. Thomas K. Simpson has described his rhetorical methods, first with a guided study,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then a literary appreciation<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism">A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</a></i> (1873), and with a book attending to the mathematical rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other major themes in rhetoric of science include the investigation of the accomplishments and suasive abilities of individuals (ethos) who have become influential in their respective sciences as well as an age old concern of rhetoric of science – public science policy. Science policy involves deliberative issues, and the first rhetorical study of science policy was made in 1953 by <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Richard M. Weaver</a>. Among others, <a href="/wiki/Helen_Longino" title="Helen Longino">Helen Longino</a>'s work on public policy implications of low-level radiation continues this tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-GrE_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrE-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 622">: 622 </span></sup> </p><p>The reconstitution of rhetorical theory around the lines of invention (<a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">inventio</a>), <a href="/wiki/Argumentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Argumentation">argumentation</a> and stylistic adaptation is occurring currently (Simons 6). The major question is whether training in rhetoric can in fact help scholars and investigators make intelligent choices between rival theories, methods or data collection, and incommensurate values (Simons 14). </p><p>Rhetoric of science is also an important theoretical body for rhetoric and <a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">composition studies</a> in higher education. This body of work examines how to best prepare communicators for participation with science, such as in the work of Michael Zerbe, Carl Herndl, and Caroline Gottschalk Druschke.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through rhetorical historiography Madison Jones seeks to unearth the influence of other disciplines, such as ecology, on the ways contemporary rhetoricians theorize and define rhetorical inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transdisciplinarity" title="Transdisciplinarity">transdisciplinary</a> collaboration in science also complicates rhetoric and composition pedagogy and provides a new emphasis on collaborative writing across scientific disciplines and with community groups and stakeholds.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developments_and_trends">Developments and trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Developments and trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemic_rhetoric">Epistemic rhetoric</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Epistemic rhetoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Considering science fin terms of texts exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> based on prediction and control offers new comprehensive ways to consider the function of rhetoric of science (Gross "The Origin" 91–92). Epistemic rhetoric of science, in a broader context, confronts issues pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>, and knowledge. </p><p>Rhetoric of science, as a type of inquiry, does not consider natural science texts as a means of conveying knowledge, but rather it considers these texts as exhibiting persuasive structures. Although the natural sciences and humanities differ in a fundamental manner, the enterprise of science can be considered hermeneutically as a stream of texts which exhibit an epistemology based on understanding (Gross "On the Shoulders 21). Its task then is the rhetorical reconstruction of the means by which scientists convince themselves and others that their knowledge claims and assertions are an integral part of privileged activity of the community of thinkers with which they are allied (Gross "The Origin" 91). </p><p>In an article titled "On Viewing Rhetoric as Epistemic" (1967), Robert L. Scott offers "that truth can arise only from cooperative critical inquiry" (Harris "Knowing" 164). Scott's probe of the issues of belief, knowledge and argumentation substantiates that rhetoric is epistemic. This <a href="/wiki/Train_of_thought" title="Train of thought">train of thought</a> goes back to Gorgias who noted that truth is a product of discourse, not a substance added to it (Harris "Knowing" 164). </p><p>Scientific discourse is built on accountability of empirical fact which is presented to a scientific community. Each form of communication is a type of genre that fosters human interaction and relations. An example is the emerging form of the experimental report (<a href="/wiki/Charles_Bazerman" title="Charles Bazerman">Bazerman</a> "Reporting" 171–176). The suite of <a href="/wiki/Genres" class="mw-redirect" title="Genres">genres</a> to which the rhetoric of science comes to bear on health care and scientific communities is legion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (May 2019)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aristotle could never accept the unavailability of certain knowledge, although most now believe the contrary (Gross "On Shoulders" 20). That is to say, Aristotle would have rejected the main concern of rhetoric of science: knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-GrE_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrE-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 622">: 622 </span></sup> Knowing itself generates the explanation of knowing, and this is the domain of the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">theory of knowledge</a>. The knowledge of knowledge compels an attitude of vigilance against the temptation of certainty (<a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Maturana</a> 239–245). </p><p>The claim of the epistemic problematic of rhetoric of science concerns: </p> <ul><li>truth - property of statements with respect to other statements</li> <li>knowledge - configuration of mutually supporting true statements</li> <li>arguments - are situational (first principle of rhetoric)</li></ul> <p>(Harris "Knowing" 180–181). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_fields">Argument fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Argument fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 1980s, Stephen Toulmin's work on argument fields published in his book titled <i><a href="/wiki/The_Uses_of_Argument" class="mw-redirect" title="The Uses of Argument">The Uses of Argument</a></i> (1958) came to prominence through rhetorical societies such as the Speech Communication Association which adopted a sociological consideration of science. Toulmin's main contribution is his notion of argument fields that included a reinvention of the rhetorical concept <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_topos" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhetoric topos">topoi</a> (topics).<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xxi">: xxi </span></sup> </p><p>Toulmin discusses at length the pattern of an <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> – data and warrants to support a claim – and how they tend to vary across argument fields (Toulmin 1417–1422). He delineated two concepts of argumentation, one which relied on universal (field-invariant) appeals and strategies, and one which was field dependent, particular to disciplines, movements, and the like. For Toulmin, audience is important because one speaks to a particular audience at a particular point in time, and thus an argument must be relevant to that audience. In this instance, Toulmin echoes <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend</a>, who in his preoccupation with suasive processes, makes clear the adaptive nature of persuasion.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xxv">: xxv </span></sup> </p><p>Toulmin's ideas pertaining to argument were a radical import to <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">argumentation theory</a> because, in part, he contributes a model, and because he contributes greatly to rhetoric and its subfield, rhetoric of science, by providing a model of analysis (data, warrants) to show that what is argued on a subject is in effect a structured <i>arrangement</i> of values that are purposive and lead to a certain line of thought. </p><p>Toulmin showed in <i>Human Understanding</i> that the arguments that would support claims as different as the Copernican revolution and the Ptolemaic revolution would not require mediation. On the strength of argument, men of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries converted to Copernican astronomy (Gross "The Rhetoric" 214). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incommensurability">Incommensurability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Incommensurability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rhetorical challenge presently is to find discourse that crosses disciplines without sacrificing the specifics of each discipline. The objective is to render description of these disciplines intact – that is to say, the goal of finding language that would make various scientific topics "commensurable" (Baake 29). In contrast, incommensurability is a situation where two scientific programs are fundamentally at odds. Two important authors who applied incommensurability to historical and philosophical notions of science during the 1960s are <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> and Paul Feyerabend. Various strands grew out of this idea that bear on issues of communication and invention. These strands are explicated in Randy Allen Harris's four-part <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a> that in turn emphasizes his viewpoint that "incommensurability is best understood not as a relation between systems, but as a matter of rhetorical invention and hermeneutics" (Harris "Incommensurability" 1). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Incommensurability</a> of theory at times of radical theory change is the basis of Thomas Samuel Kuhn's theory of <a href="/wiki/Paradigms" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradigms">paradigms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bazerman" title="Bazerman">Bazerman</a> 1). Kuhn's <i>Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i> offers a vision of scientific change that involves persuasion, and thus he brought rhetoric to the heart of scientific studies.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xiii">: xiii </span></sup> </p><p>Kuhn's <i>Structure</i> provides important accounts related to the concept representation, and the key conceptual changes that occur during a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a>. Kuhn sought to determine ways of representing <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> and taxonomies by frames.<sup id="cite_ref-BXA_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BXA-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 224–230">: 224–230 </span></sup> Kuhn's work attempts to show that incommensurable paradigms can be rationally compared by revealing the compatibility of attribute lists of say a species outlined in a pre-Darwinian and a post-Darwinian milieu accounted for in two incommensurable taxonomies, and that this compatibility is the platform for rational comparison between rival taxonomies.<sup id="cite_ref-BXA_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BXA-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 230, 1">: 230, 1 </span></sup> With a view to comparing normal science to revolutionary science, Kuhn illustrates his theory of paradigms and theory of concepts within the history of electricity, chemistry and other disciplines. He gives attention to the revolutionary changes that came about as a result of the work of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>. </p><p>Some scholars, like Thomas C. Walker, feel that Kuhn's theory of paradigms implies knowledge that is "gained in small, incremental, and almost unremarkable installments." Walker states that while "normal science is narrow, rigid, esoteric, uncritical, and conservative, Kuhn considers it to be the most efficient way to ensure a cumulation of knowledge." According to Walker, while "ignorance and intolerance toward other theoretical frameworks are regrettable features of Kuhn's normal science...meaningful conversations can only occur within a single paradigm."<sup id="cite_ref-test_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kuhn's work was influential for rhetoricians, sociologists, and historians (and, in a lesser manner, philosophers) for the development of a rhetorical perspective. His opinion concerning perception, concept acquisition and language suggest, according to Paul Hoyningen-Huene's analysis of Kuhn's philosophy, a cognitive perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-Nick_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nick-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 183">: 183 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethos">Ethos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientists are not just persuaded by <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a> or argument. Innovative initiatives in science test scientific authority by invoking the authority of past results (initial section of a scientific paper) and the authority of procedure, which establish the scientist's credibility as an investigator (Gross <i>Starring</i> 26–27). </p><p>Examinations of the ethos of scientists (individually and collectively) spawned significant contributions in the topic of rhetoric of science. Michael Halloran notes in "The Birth of Molecular Biology" (<i>Rhetoric Review</i> 3, 1984) – an essay that is a rhetorical analysis of <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a> and Francis H. Crick's "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" – that a large part of what constitutes a scientific paradigm is the ethos of its practitioners. This ethos is about an attitude and a way of attacking problems and propagating claims.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xxxi">: xxxi </span></sup> </p><p>In "The Rhetorical Construction of Scientific Ethos," Lawrence Prelli provides a systematic analysis of ethos as a tool of scientific legitimation. Prelli's work examines the exchange of information in the court of public opinion. His work provides insight into the ways in which scientific argumentation is legitimized, and thus insight into public science policy. One of the domains of rhetoric is civic life. Rhetorical criticism of science offers much in the investigation of scientific matters that impinge directly upon public opinion and policy-making decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-HIL_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xxxiii">: xxxiii </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhetoric_and_language-games">Rhetoric and language-games</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rhetoric and language-games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rhetoric can also be defined as <i>the strategic use of language</i>: each scientist tries to make those statements that - given the statements made by their colleagues, and the ones the former expects they will do in the future (e.g., accepting or rejecting the claims made by the former) - maximise the chances of the former's attaining the goals he or she has. So, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> can be applied to study the choice of the claims one scientist makes. Zamora Bonilla<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues that, when rhetoric is understood this way, it can be discussed whether the way scientists interact - e.g., through certain scientific institutions like <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> - causes them to make their claims in an efficient or an inefficient way, that is, whether the 'rhetorical games' are more analogous to <a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a> processes, or to <a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">prisoner's dilemma</a> games. If the former is the case, then we can assert that scientific 'conversation' is organised in such a manner that the strategic use of language by scientists causes them to attain cognitive progress, and if the opposite is the case, then this would be an argument to reform scientific institutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhetorical_figures_in_science">Rhetorical figures in science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rhetorical figures in science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Corresponding to distinct lines of reasoning, figures of speech are evident in scientific arguments. The same cognitive and verbal skills that are of service to one line of inquiry – political, economic or popular – are of service to science (Fahnestock 43). This implies that there is less of a division between science and the humanities than anticipated initially. Argumentatively useful figures of speech are found everywhere in scientific writing. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_the_Origin_of_Species" title="Genetics and the Origin of Species">Genetics and the Origin of Species</a></i> offers a means of reconciliation between Mendelian mutation and Darwinian <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. By remaining sensitive to the interests of naturalists and geneticists, Dobzhansky – through a subtle strategy of <a href="/wiki/Polysemy" title="Polysemy">polysemy</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (May 2019)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> – allowed a peaceful solution to a battle between two scientific territories. His expressed objective was to review the genetic information bearing on the problem of organic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-ccc_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ccc-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41, 53">: 41, 53 </span></sup> The building blocks of Dobzhansky's interdisciplinary influence that included much development in two scientific camps were the result of the compositional choices he made. He uses, for instance, prolepsis<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (May 2019)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> to make arguments that introduced his research findings, and he provided a metaphoric map as a means to guide his audience.<sup id="cite_ref-ccc_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ccc-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 57, 8">: 57, 8 </span></sup> One illustration of metaphor is his use of the term "adaptive landscapes". Considered metaphorically, this term is a way of representing how theorists of two different topics can unite.<sup id="cite_ref-ccc_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ccc-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 57">: 57 </span></sup> </p><p>Another figure that is important as an aid to understanding and knowledge is <a href="/wiki/Antimetabole" title="Antimetabole">antimetabole</a> (refutation by reversal). <a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a> also works toward a similar end. </p><p>An example of antimetabole: </p> <ul><li>Antimetabole often appears in writing or visuals where the line of inquiry and experiment has been characterized by mirror-image objects, or of complementarity, reversible or equilibrium processes. Louis Pasteur's revelation that many organic compounds come in left-and right-handed versions or isomers as articulated at an 1883 lecture illustrates the use of this figure. He argues in lecture that "life is the germ and the germ is life" because all life contains unsymmetrical/asymmetrical processes (Fahnestock 137–140).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science">New Materialist Rhetoric of Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: New Materialist Rhetoric of Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A more recent trend in rhetorical studies involves participation with the broader <a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">new materialist</a> ideas concerning philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">science and technology studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new topic of inquiry investigates the role of rhetoric and discourse as an integral part of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Materiality_(science)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Materiality (science) (page does not exist)">Materialism</a> of scientific practice. This method considers how the methods of natural sciences came into being, and the particular role interaction among scientists and scientific institutions has to play. New materialist rhetoric of science include those proponents who consider the progress of the natural sciences as having been obtained at a high cost, a cost that limits the scope and vision of science. Work in this area often draws on scholarship by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Woolgar" title="Steve Woolgar">Steve Woolgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Mol" title="Annemarie Mol">Annemarie Mol</a>, and other new materialist scholars from science and technology studies.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work in new materialist rhetoric of science tends to be very critical of a perceived over-reliance on language in more conservative variants of rhetoric of science and has significantly criticized long-standing areas of inquiry such as incommensurability studies.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critique_of_rhetoric_of_science">Critique of rhetoric of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Critique of rhetoric of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Globalization_of_rhetoric">Globalization of rhetoric</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Globalization of rhetoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Renewed interest today in rhetoric of science is its positioning as a <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> meta-discourse rather than a substantive discourse practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaon_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaon-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a> and hermeneutics are the tools around which the idea of scientific production has been forged. </p><p>Criticism of rhetoric of science is mainly limited to discussions of the concept of hermeneutics, which can be considered as follows: </p> <ul><li>Rhetorical hermeneutics is about a way of reading texts as rhetoric. Rhetoric is both a discipline and a perspective from which disciplines can be viewed. As a discipline, it has a hermeneutic task and generates knowledge; as a perspective, it has the task of generating new points of view (Gross <i>Rhetorical</i> 111). Whether rhetorical theory can function as a general hermeneutic, a key to all texts, including scientific texts, is still today a point of interest to rhetoricians. Although <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> differ in fundamental ways, science as enterprise can be viewed hermeneutically as a suite of texts exhibiting a study of knowledge (epistemology) based on understanding (Gross "On Shoulders" 21).</li></ul> <p>A recent critique about the rhetoric of science literature asks not if science is understood properly, but rather if rhetoric is understood properly. This dissension concerns the reading of scientific texts rhetorically; it is a quarrel about how rhetorical theory is considered as a global hermeneutic (Gross "Intro" <i>Rhetorical</i> 1–13). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dilip_Gaonkar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dilip Gaonkar">Dilip Gaonkar</a> in "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science" examines how critics argue about rhetoric, and he unfolds the global ambitions of rhetorical theory as a general hermeneutic (a master key to all texts), with the rhetoric of science as a perfect site of analysis - a hard and fast case.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaon_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaon-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his analysis of this 'case', Gaonkar looks at rhetoric's essential character first in traditional sense (Aristotilean and Ciceronian). Then he examined at the practice of rhetoric and the model of persuasive speech from the point of agency (productive orientation) or who controls the speech (means of communication). The rhetorical tradition is one of practice, while the theory evinces practice and teaching (Gross "Intro" <i>Rhetorical</i> 6–11). Gaonkar asserts that rhetoric considered as a tradition (Aristotilean and Ciceronia), and from the point of view of interpretation (not production or agency), rhetorical theory is "thin." He argues that rhetoric appears as a slightly disguised language of criticism in such a way that it is applicable to almost any discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaon_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaon-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 33, 69">: 33, 69 </span></sup> </p><p>Gaonkar believes that this type of globalization of rhetoric undermines rhetoric's self-representation as a situated practical art, and in so doing, it runs counter to a humanist tradition. It runs counter to the interpretative function of a critical metadiscourse. If there is no more substance, no anchor, no reference to which rhetoric is attached, rhetoric itself is the substance, or the supplement, and thus becomes substantial, giving rise to the question how well rhetoric functions as interpretative <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaon_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaon-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 77">: 77 </span></sup> </p><p>Dilip Gaonkar's provocations have begun a broad reaching discussion that resulted in the defense of rhetoric analyses of scientific discourse. Responses to Gaonkar's provocations are many, of which two examples follow. </p> <ul><li>When Gaonkar asks if a theory grounded in practice can be translated into a theory of interpretation, Michael Leff in "The Idea of Rhetoric as Interpretative Practice: A Humanist's Response to Gaonkar" see his views as too extreme, treating as opposites two positions that are in dialectic tension (rhetoric as production and rhetoric as interpretation), and separating interpretation from practice in order to establish a causal, rather than accidental, relationship between rhetoric and the globalalization of rhetoric (Gross "Intro" <i>Rhetorical</i> 11).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Angus_Campbell" title="John Angus Campbell">John Angus Campbell</a> in "Strategic Readings: Rhetoric, Intention, and Interpretation" also found in <i>Rhetorical Hermeneutics</i> is a verification of Leff's analysis (113). He argues, however, against Gaonkar's notion of invention and the mediation between producer or writer and the audience of a text(114). The differences between Campbell and Gaonkar is one of theory, and not whether agency figures in criticism (115).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Materialist_Rhetoric_of_Science_2">New Materialist Rhetoric of Science</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: New Materialist Rhetoric of Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new materialist method of rhetoric of science has endorsed Goankar's criticisms of rhetoric of science more generally and seeks to overcome them through interdisciplinary engagement with science and technology studies.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the new materialist approach, itself, has been subjected to significant criticism within the field, and identified as a radical variant. The question as to the adequacy of rhetoric in its encounter with scientific texts (natural sciences) is problematic for two reasons. The first concerns traditional rhetoric and its capacity to analyze scientific texts. Secondly, the answer to the question relies on an attack of the epistomological presuppositions of a classical rhetoric of science. For this reason, the radical critique is a demand for the renewal of rhetorical theory.<sup id="cite_ref-GrE_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrE-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 626, 7">: 626, 7 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Rhetoric of health and medicine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Prelli-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prelli_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prelli_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Prelli" title="Lawrence J. Prelli">Lawrence J. Prelli</a> (1989) <i>A Rhetoric of Science: Inventing Scientific Discourse</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina_Press" title="University of South Carolina Press">University of South Carolina Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HIL-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HIL_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, Randy Allen (1997) "Introduction", <i>Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies</i>, editor Randy Allen Harris, Mahwah: Hermagoras Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Angus Campbell (1986) Scientific revolution and the grammar culture: The case of Darwin's origin , Quarterly Journal of Speech, 72:4, 351-376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carolyn Miller (2018). “Genre in Ancient and Networked Media.” <i>Ancient Rhetorics & Digital Networks,</i> ed. Michelle Kennerly and Damien Smith Pfister. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. 176–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeanne Fahnestock (1999). Rhetorical figures in science. Oxford University Press.  </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Myers (1990). Writing Biology: Texts in the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge. University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Myers (1989). The pragmatics of politeness in scientific articles. Applied linguistics 10, 1, 1-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Bazerman (1988). Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Bazerman (1991). How natural philosophers can cooperate: The rhetorical technology of coordinated research in Joseph Priestley's History and Present State of Electricity. In C. Bazerman & J. Paradis (Eds.), Textual dynamics of the professions (pp. 13-44). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Bazerman (1999). The languages of Edison’s light.  Cambridge MA: MIT Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Bazerman (2009). How does science come to speak in the courts? citations, intertexts, expert witnesses, consequential facts and reasoning. <i>Law and Contemporary Problems</i>, 72(1), 91-120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nick-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nick_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nick_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nick_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nickles, Thomas (2003) "Normal Science: From Logic to Case-Based and Model-Based Reasoning", in <i>Thomas Kuhn</i>, edited by Thomas Nickles, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79648-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79648-2">0-521-79648-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gross, Alan G. (1990) <i>The Rhetoric of Science</i>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Angus_Campbell" title="John Angus Campbell">John Angus Campbell</a> (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/309CWeb/Campbell%281989%29.pdf">The Invisible Rhetorician: Charles Darwin’s Third Party Strategy</a>, <i>The Rhetorician</i> 7(1): 55–85, via <a href="/wiki/University_of_Waterloo" title="University of Waterloo">University of Waterloo</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas K. Simpson (1997) <i>Maxwell on the Electromagnetic Field: a guided study</i>, <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-2362-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-2362-1">0-8135-2362-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. K. Simpson (2005) <i>Figures of Thought, a literary appreciation of Maxwell’s Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i>, Green Lion Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. K. Simpson (2010) <i>Maxwell’s Mathematical Rhetoric: rethinking the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i>, Green Lion Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888009-36-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-888009-36-1">978-1-888009-36-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrE-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GrE_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GrE_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GrE_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Alan_G._Gross" title="Alan G. Gross">Alan G. Gross</a> (1996) "Rhetoric of Science", <i>Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Garland_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Garland Publishing">Garland Publishing</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zerbe, M. J. (2007). Composition and the rhetoric of science: Engaging the dominant discourse. SIU Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herndl, C. G., & Cutlip, L. L. (2013). " How Can We Act?" A Praxiographical Program for the Rhetoric of Technology, Science, and Medicine. Poroi, 9(1).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Druschke, C. G. (2013). Watershed as common-place: Communicating for conservation at the watershed scale. 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In Composition Forum (Vol. 51).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BXA-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BXA_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BXA_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barker, Peter, Xiang Chen and <a href="/wiki/Hanne_Andersen_(philosopher)" title="Hanne Andersen (philosopher)">Hanne Andersen</a> (2003) "Kuhn on Concepts and Categorization" in <i>Thomas Kuhn</i>, edited by Thomas Nickles, Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-test-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-test_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, Thomas C. (2010) "The perils of paradigm mentalities: Revisiting Kuhn, Lakatos, and Popper", <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_Politics" title="Perspectives on Politics">Perspectives on Politics</a> 8.02: 433-451</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. 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Professing Rhetoric: Selected Papers from the 2000 Rhetoric Society of America Conference. pp. 215–222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+of+Science+as+Non-Modern+Practice&rft.pages=215-222&rft.pub=Professing+Rhetoric%3A+Selected+Papers+from+the+2000+Rhetoric+Society+of+America+Conference&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Herndl&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch_and_Rivers,_Eds.2015" class="citation book cs1">Lynch and Rivers, Eds. (2015). <i>Thinking with Bruno Latour in Rhetoric and Composition</i>. Southern Illinois University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+with+Bruno+Latour+in+Rhetoric+and+Composition&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Lynch+and+Rivers%2C+Eds.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham_&_Herndl2013" class="citation journal cs1">Graham & Herndl (2013). "Multiple Ontologies in Pain Management: Towards a Postplural Rhetoric of Science". <i>Technical Communication Quarterly</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 103–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10572252.2013.733674">10.1080/10572252.2013.733674</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144087408">144087408</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technical+Communication+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Multiple+Ontologies+in+Pain+Management%3A+Towards+a+Postplural+Rhetoric+of+Science&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-125&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10572252.2013.733674&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144087408%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Graham+%26+Herndl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gaon-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gaon_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaon_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaon_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gaon_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dilip_Gaonkar" class="mw-redirect" title="Dilip Gaonkar">Dilip Gaonkar</a> (1997) "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science." In <i>Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science</i>. Eds. Alan G. Gross and William M. Keith, <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2015" class="citation book cs1">Graham, S. Scott (2015). <i>The Politics of Pain Medicine: A Rhetorical-Ontological Inquiry</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Pain+Medicine%3A+A+Rhetorical-Ontological+Inquiry&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=S.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Baake, Ken. <i>Metaphor and Knowledge: The Challenges of Writing Science</i>. Albany: The State University of New York Press, 2003.</li> <li>Bazerman, Charles and René Agustin De los Santos. "Measuring Incommensurability: Are toxicology and ecotoxicology blind to what the other sees?" 9 January 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060903053630/http://education.ucsb.edu/~bazerman/30.toxicology.doc">[1]</a>.</li> <li>Bazerman, Charles. "Reporting the Experiment: The Changing Account of Scientific Doings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1800." In <i>Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies</i>. Ed. Randy Allen Harris. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1997.</li> <li>Booth, Wayne C. <i>The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication</i>. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.</li> <li>Campbell, John Angus. "Scientific Discovery and Rhetorical Invention." In <i>The Rhetorical Turn: Inventions and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry</i>. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.</li> <li>Dawkins, Richard. <i>The Selfish Gene</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989.</li> <li>Fahnestock, Jeanne. <i>Rhetorical Figures in Science</i>. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.</li> <li>Feyerabend, Paul. <i>Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge</i>. London: Verso, 1975.</li> <li>Gross, Alan G. "On the Shoulders of Giants: Seventeenth-Century Optics as an Argument Field." In <i>Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies</i>. Ed. Randy Allen Harris. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1997.</li> <li>Gross, Alan G., <i>Starring The Text: The Place of Rhetoric in Science Studies</i>. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.</li> <li>Gross, Alan G. "The Origin of Species: Evolutionary Taxonomy as an Example of the Rhetoric of Science". In <i>The Rhetorical Turn: Invention and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry</i>. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.</li> <li>Gross A., and William M. Keith. Eds. "Introduction." <i>Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science.</i> Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.</li> <li>Harris, Randy Allen. "Knowing, Rhetoric, Science." In <i>Visions and Revisions: Continuity and Change in Rhetoric and Composition</i>. Ed. James D. Williams. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2002.</li> <li>Jasinski, James. "Introduction." <i>Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies</i>. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2001.</li> <li>Kuhn, Thomas S. <i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.</li> <li>Maturana, Humberto R., and Varela, Francisco J. <i>The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding</i>. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc., 1987.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin, S.</a> "The Uses of Argument." In <i>The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present.</i> 2nd ed. Eds. Bizzell, Patricia and Bruce Herzberg. Boston: Bedford, 1990.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_of_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bazerman, Charles. <i>Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science</i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://wac.colostate.edu/books/bazerman_shaping/">[2]</a> (online version). "Reporting the Experiment: The Changing Account of Scientific Doings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1800" by Charles Bazerman in <i>Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science</i> is found in chapter 3 of that text.</li> <li>Campbell, John Angus. "Scientific Revolution and the Grammar of Culture: The Case of Darwin's Origin." <i>Quarterly Journal of Speech</i> <b>72</b> (1986):351-376. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00335638609383782">10.1080/00335638609383782</a></li> <li>Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "Rhetoric and Its Double: Reflections on the Rhetorical Turn in the Human Sciences." In <i>The Rhetorical Turn: Invention and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry</i>. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.</li> <li>Halloran, S. Michael and Annette Norris Bradford. "Figures of Speech in the Rhetoric of Science and Technology." <i>Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse</i>. Ed. Robert J. Connors et al. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.</li> <li>Harris, Randy Allen. Ed. <i>Rhetoric and Incommensurability.</i> West Lafayette: Parlor Press, 2005.</li> <li>Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar. <i>Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts</i>. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979.</li> <li>Leff, Michael. "The Idea of Rhetoric as Interpretative Practice: A Humanist Response to Gaonkar." <i>The Southern Communication Journal</i> 58 (1993): 296–300. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10417949309372910">10.1080/10417949309372910</a></li> <li>Miller, Carolyn. "Genre as Social Action." <i>Quarterly Journal of Speech</i> <b>70</b>: 151–57. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00335638409383686">10.1080/00335638409383686</a></li> <li>Schryer, Catherine F. "Genre Theory, Health-Care Discourse, and Professional Identity Formation." <i>Journal of Business and Technical Communication</i> 19.3 (2005):249-278.</li> <li>Scott, R. L. "On Viewing Rhetoric as Epistemic." <i>Central States Speech Journal</i> (1967) 18:9-16. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10510976709362856">10.1080/10510976709362856</a></li> <li>Simpson, Thomas K. <i>Figures of Thought: A Literary Appreciation of Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</i>, 2005, Green Lion Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-888009-31-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-888009-31-4">1-888009-31-4</a></li> <li>Stark, Ryan. Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009.</li> <li>Waddell, Craig. "The Role of Pathos in the Decision-Making Process: A Study in the Rhetoric of Science Policy." <i>Quarterly Journal of Speech</i> <b>76</b> (1990): 381–400. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00335639009383932">10.1080/00335639009383932</a></li> <li>Wander, Philip C. and Dennis Jaehne. "Prospects for 'a rhetoric of science.'" <i>Social Epistemology</i> 14.2/3 (2000): 211–233. 30 December. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~gordonm/Pubdeb/WanderJaehne.pdf">[3]</a> (PDF file)</li> <li>Ziman, John (2000). <i>Real Science: what it is, and what it means</i>. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> 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