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id="toc-Speaking_for_the_scientific_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Political controversies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunitat_cient%C3%ADfica" title="Comunitat científica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comunitat científica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftsgemeinde" title="Wissenschaftsgemeinde – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaftsgemeinde" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunidad_cient%C3%ADfica" title="Comunidad científica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comunidad científica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_komunumo" title="Scienca komunumo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca komunumo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunitate_zientifikoa" title="Komunitate zientifikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Komunitate zientifikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="جامعه علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_scientifique" title="Communauté scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Communauté scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunidade_cient%C3%ADfica" title="Comunidade científica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Comunidade científica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99_%EA%B3%B5%EB%8F%99%EC%B2%B4" title="과학 공동체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학 공동체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencala_komunitato" title="Ciencala komunitato – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ciencala komunitato" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunitas_ilmiah" title="Komunitas ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Komunitas ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunit%C3%A0_scientifica" title="Comunità scientifica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Comunità scientifica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הקהילה המדעית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הקהילה המדעית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Ғылыми қауымдастық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылыми қауымдастық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Илимий жамаат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илимий жамаат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komuniti_saintifik" title="Komuniti saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Komuniti saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijke_gemeenschap" title="Wetenschappelijke gemeenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijke gemeenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskapelige_milj%C3%B8" title="Vitenskapelige miljø – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitenskapelige miljø" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmiy_hamjamiyat" title="Ilmiy hamjamiyat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ilmiy hamjamiyat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Научное сообщество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научное сообщество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumunitati_scentifica" title="Cumunitati scentifica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cumunitati scentifica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%DA%B5%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="کۆمەڵەی زانستی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆمەڵەی زانستی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiedeyhteis%C3%B6" title="Tiedeyhteisö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tiedeyhteisö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ชุมชนนักวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชุมชนนักวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 220px; height: 152px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -78px; left: -120px; width: 400px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> The <b>scientific community</b> is a diverse network of interacting <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a>. It includes many "<a href="/wiki/Working_group" title="Working group">sub-communities</a>" working on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant. <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a> is expected to be achieved by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a>, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, assists in this objectivity by maintaining the quality of research methodology and interpretation of results.<sup id="cite_ref-SCMet_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCMet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_scientific_communities">History of scientific communities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of scientific communities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div> <p>The eighteenth century had some societies made up of men who studied nature, also known as <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural historians</a>, which included even amateurs. As such these societies were more like local clubs and groups with diverse interests than actual scientific communities, which usually had interests on specialized disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though there were a few older societies of men who studied nature such as the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society of London">Royal Society of London</a>, the concept of scientific communities emerged in the second half of the 19th century, not before, because it was in this century that the language of modern science emerged, the professionalization of science occurred, specialized institutions were created, and the specialization of scientific disciplines and fields occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For instance, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a></i> was first coined by the naturalist-theologian <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in 1834 and the wider acceptance of the term along with the growth of specialized societies allowed for researchers to see themselves as a part of a wider imagined community, similar to the concept of nationhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Membership,_status_and_interactions"><span id="Membership.2C_status_and_interactions"></span>Membership, status and interactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Membership, status and interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg/300px-MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg/450px-MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg/600px-MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="439" usemap="#ImageMap_2dee5290e943a850" resource="/wiki/File:MenOfScience1807ZobelAndWalker.jpg" /></span><map name="ImageMap_2dee5290e943a850"><area href="/wiki/John_Leslie_(physicist)" shape="circle" coords="13,73,3" alt="Leslie - physics" title="Leslie - physics" /><area href="/wiki/Francis_Baily" shape="rect" coords="6,70,11,87" alt="Francis Baily - astronomer" title="Francis Baily - astronomer" /><area href="/wiki/John_Playfair" shape="circle" coords="17,79,5" alt="Playfair - Uniformitarianism" title="Playfair - Uniformitarianism" /><area href="/wiki/Daniel_Rutherford" shape="circle" coords="25,76,5" alt="Rutherford - Nitrogen" title="Rutherford - Nitrogen" /><area href="/wiki/Peter_Dollond" shape="circle" coords="31,75,4" alt="Dollond - Optics" title="Dollond - Optics" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" shape="circle" coords="38,78,5" alt="Young - modulus etc" title="Young - modulus etc" /><area href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(Scottish_botanist_from_Montrose)" shape="circle" coords="46,73,5" alt="Brown - Brownian motion" title="Brown - Brownian motion" /><area href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" shape="circle" coords="54,75,4" alt="Gilbert - Royal Society president" title="Gilbert - Royal Society president" /><area href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" shape="circle" coords="60,74,5" alt="Banks - Botanist" title="Banks - Botanist" /><area href="/wiki/Henry_Kater" shape="circle" coords="65,74,4" alt="Kater - measured gravity" title="Kater - measured gravity" /><area href="#Victuallers" shape="circle" coords="73,75,5" alt="??" title="??" /><area href="/wiki/Edward_Charles_Howard" shape="circle" coords="88,76,3" alt="Howard - Chemical Engineer" title="Howard - Chemical Engineer" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" shape="circle" coords="83,73,4" alt="Dundonald - propellors" title="Dundonald - propellors" /><area href="/wiki/William_Allen_(English_Quaker)" shape="circle" coords="93,78,3" alt="William Allen - Pharmacist" title="William Allen - Pharmacist" /><area href="/wiki/William_Henry_(chemist)" shape="circle" coords="101,76,4" alt="Henry - Gas law" title="Henry - Gas law" /><area href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" shape="circle" coords="109,77,5" alt="Wollaston - Palladium and Rhodium" title="Wollaston - Palladium and Rhodium" /><area href="/wiki/Charles_Hatchett" shape="circle" coords="116,78,5" alt="Hatchett - Niobium" title="Hatchett - Niobium" /><area href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" shape="circle" coords="123,81,5" alt="Davy - Chemist" title="Davy - Chemist" /><area href="/wiki/Henry_Maudslay" shape="circle" coords="135,74,4" alt="Maudslay - modern lathe" title="Maudslay - modern lathe" /><area href="/wiki/Samuel_Bentham" shape="circle" coords="142,77,5" alt="Bentham - machinery" title="Bentham - machinery" /><area href="/wiki/Open_problem" shape="circle" coords="148,77,3" alt="?" title="?" /><area href="/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson" shape="circle" coords="173,78,5" alt="Rumford - thermodynamics" title="Rumford - thermodynamics" /><area href="/wiki/William_Murdoch" shape="circle" coords="180,76,5" alt="Murdock - sun and planet gear" title="Murdock - sun and planet gear" /><area href="/wiki/John_Rennie_the_Elder" shape="circle" coords="190,73,8" alt="Rennie - Docks, canals & bridges" title="Rennie - Docks, canals & bridges" /><area href="/wiki/William_Jessop" shape="circle" coords="198,74,5" alt="Jessop - Canals" title="Jessop - Canals" /><area href="/wiki/Robert_Mylne_(architect)" shape="circle" coords="204,73,5" alt="Mylne - Blackfriars bridge" title="Mylne - Blackfriars bridge" /><area href="/wiki/Sir_William_Congreve,_2nd_Baronet" shape="circle" coords="213,75,5" alt="Congreve - rockets" title="Congreve - rockets" /><area href="/wiki/Bryan_Donkin" shape="circle" coords="220,75,4" alt="Donkin - engineer" title="Donkin - engineer" /><area href="/wiki/Henry_Fourdrinier" shape="circle" coords="225,74,4" alt="Henry Fourdrinier - Paper making machine" title="Henry Fourdrinier - Paper making machine" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Thomson_(chemist)" shape="circle" coords="230,79,3" alt="Thomson - atoms" title="Thomson - atoms" /><area href="/wiki/William_Symington" shape="circle" coords="234,76,4" alt="William Symington - first steam boat" title="William Symington - first steam boat" /><area href="/wiki/Patrick_Miller_of_Dalswinton" shape="circle" coords="244,75,4" alt="Miller - steam boat" title="Miller - steam boat" /><area href="/wiki/Alexander_Nasmyth" shape="circle" coords="251,74,4" alt="Nasmyth - painter and scientist" title="Nasmyth - painter and scientist" /><area href="/wiki/Alexander_Nasmyth" shape="circle" coords="261,75,4" alt="Nasmyth2" title="Nasmyth2" /><area href="/wiki/Joseph_Bramah" shape="circle" coords="274,71,6" alt="Bramah - Hydraulics" title="Bramah - Hydraulics" /><area href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" shape="circle" coords="282,76,4" alt="Trevithick" title="Trevithick" /><area href="/wiki/William_Herschel" shape="circle" coords="22,92,8" alt="Herschel - Uranus" title="Herschel - Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Nevil_Maskelyne" shape="circle" coords="33,91,8" alt="Maskelyne - Astronomer Royal" title="Maskelyne - Astronomer Royal" /><area href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" shape="circle" coords="54,89,8" alt="Jenner - Smallpox vaccine" title="Jenner - Smallpox vaccine" /><area href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" shape="circle" coords="94,93,8" alt="Cavendish" title="Cavendish" /><area href="/wiki/John_Dalton" shape="circle" coords="122,93,8" alt="Dalton - atoms" title="Dalton - atoms" /><area href="/wiki/Marc_Isambard_Brunel" shape="circle" coords="138,93,8" alt="Brunel - Civil Engineer" title="Brunel - Civil Engineer" /><area href="/wiki/Matthew_Boulton" shape="circle" coords="149,91,8" alt="Boulton - Steam" title="Boulton - Steam" /><area href="/wiki/Joseph_Huddart" shape="circle" coords="159,88,6" alt="Huddart - Rope machine" title="Huddart - Rope machine" /><area href="/wiki/James_Watt" shape="circle" coords="169,91,8" alt="Watt - Steam engine" title="Watt - Steam engine" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" shape="circle" coords="179,84,5" alt="Telford" title="Telford" /><area href="/wiki/Samuel_Crompton" shape="circle" coords="218,92,8" alt="Crompton - spinning machine" title="Crompton - spinning machine" /><area href="/wiki/Charles_Tennant" shape="circle" coords="231,93,8" alt="Tennant - Industrial Chemist" title="Tennant - Industrial Chemist" /><area href="/wiki/Edmund_Cartwright" shape="circle" coords="241,90,8" alt="Cartwright - Power loom" title="Cartwright - Power loom" /><area href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" shape="circle" coords="255,91,8" alt="Ronalds - Electric telegraph" title="Ronalds - Electric telegraph" /><area href="/wiki/Charles_Stanhope,_3rd_Earl_Stanhope" shape="circle" coords="266,89,8" alt="Stanhope - Inventor" title="Stanhope - Inventor" /><area href="#Victuallers" shape="rect" coords="0,0,910,582" alt="Use your cursor to explore (or Click icon to enlarge)" title="Use your cursor to explore (or Click icon to enlarge)" /></map><figcaption>Distinguished Men of Science.<sup id="cite_ref-npg_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npg-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use the cursor to see who is who.<sup id="cite_ref-key_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-key-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Membership in the community is generally, but not exclusively, a function of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment status</a>, research activity and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">institutional affiliation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">Status</a> within the community is highly correlated with <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">publication record</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also depends on the status within the institution and the status of the institution.<sup id="cite_ref-tandfonline.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers can hold roles of different degrees of influence inside the scientific community. Researchers of a stronger influence can act as mentors for early career researchers and steer the direction of research in the community like agenda setters.<sup id="cite_ref-tandfonline.com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists are usually trained in <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a> through <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a>. As such, <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degrees</a> in the relevant scientific sub-disciplines are often considered prerequisites in the relevant community. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> with its <a href="/wiki/Doctoral_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral dissertation">research requirements</a> functions as a marker of being an important integrator into the community, though continued membership is dependent on maintaining connections to other researchers through publication, technical contributions, and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific conference">conferences</a>. After obtaining a PhD an academic scientist may continue through being on an academic position, receiving a <a href="/wiki/Postdoc" class="mw-redirect" title="Postdoc">post-doctoral fellowships</a> and onto <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professorships</a>. Other scientists make contributions to the scientific community in alternate ways such as in <a href="/wiki/Private_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Private industry">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tanks</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>. </p><p>Members of the same community do not need to work together.<sup id="cite_ref-SCMet_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCMet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communication between the members is established by disseminating research work and hypotheses through articles in <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer reviewed</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journals" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific journals">journals</a>, or by attending <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">conferences</a> where new research is presented and ideas exchanged and discussed. There are also many informal methods of communication of scientific work and results as well. And many in a coherent community may actually <i>not</i> communicate all of their work with one another, for various professional reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Speaking_for_the_scientific_community">Speaking for the scientific community</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Speaking for the scientific community"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/250px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/375px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/500px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a> of 1927, with prominent physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike in previous centuries when the community of scholars were all members of few <a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">learned societies</a> and similar institutions, there are no singular bodies or individuals which can be said today to speak for all science or all scientists. This is partly due to the specialized training most scientists receive in very few fields. As a result, many would lack expertise in all the other fields of the sciences. For instance, due to the increasing complexity of information and specialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge research today is done by well funded groups of scientists, rather than individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are still multiple societies and academies in many countries which help consolidate some opinions and research to help guide public discussions on matters of policy and government-funded research. For example, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>' <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS) and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> sometimes act as surrogates when the opinions of the scientific community need to be ascertained by <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">policy makers</a> or the national <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, but the statements of the National Academy of Science or the Royal Society are not binding on scientists nor do they necessarily reflect the opinions of every scientist in a given community since membership is often exclusive, their commissions are explicitly focused on serving their governments, and they have never "shown systematic interest in what rank-and-file scientists think about scientific matters".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exclusivity of membership in these types of organizations can be seen in their election processes in which only existing members can officially nominate others for candidacy of membership.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is very unusual for organizations like the National Academy of Science to engage in external research projects since they normally focus on preparing scientific reports for government agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-US_Academy_uncharted_waters_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US_Academy_uncharted_waters-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of how rarely the NAS engages in external and active research can be seen in its struggle to prepare and overcome hurdles, due to its lack of experience in coordinating research grants and major research programs on the environment and health.<sup id="cite_ref-US_Academy_uncharted_waters_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US_Academy_uncharted_waters-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, general <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a> is a concept which is often referred to when dealing with questions that can be subject to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific methodology</a>. While the consensus opinion of the community is not always easy to ascertain or fix due to paradigm shifting, generally the standards and utility of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> have tended to ensure, to some degree, that scientists agree on some general corpus of <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> explicated by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a> while rejecting some ideas which run counter to this realization. The concept of scientific consensus is very important to science pedagogy, the evaluation of new ideas, and research funding. Sometimes it is argued that there is a <a href="/wiki/Closed_shop" title="Closed shop">closed shop</a> <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a> within the scientific community toward new ideas. <a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> have been topics that discuss demarcation problems. In response to this some non-consensus claims <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skeptical organizations</a>, not research institutions, have devoted considerable amounts of time and money contesting ideas which run counter to general agreement on a particular topic. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophers of science</a> argue over the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> limits of such a consensus and some, including <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a>, have pointed to the existence of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">scientific revolutions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> as being an important indication that scientific consensus can, at times, be wrong. Nevertheless, the sheer explanatory power of science in its ability to make <a href="/wiki/Accuracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuracy">accurate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precise</a> predictions and aid in the design and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> of new <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> has ensconced "science" and, by proxy, the opinions of the scientific community as a highly respected form of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> both in the <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academy</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_controversies">Political controversies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Political controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg/220px-Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg/330px-Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg/440px-Clinton%261998NobelLaureates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>President Clinton meets the 1998 U.S. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winners in the White House</figcaption></figure> <p>The high regard with which scientific results are held in Western society has caused a number of <a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">political controversies over scientific subjects</a> to arise. An alleged <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict thesis</a> proposed in the 19th century between <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and science">religion and science</a> has been cited by some as representative of a struggle between tradition and substantial change and <a href="/wiki/Faith_and_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Faith and reason">faith and reason</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. A popular example used to support this thesis is when <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> was tried before the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> concerning the heliocentric model.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The persecution began after Pope Urban VIII permitted Galileo to write about the Copernican model. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" which caused great offense to him.<sup id="cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though many historians of science have discredited the conflict thesis<sup id="cite_ref-sci_rel_hist_intro_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sci_rel_hist_intro-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it still remains a popular belief among many including some scientists. In more recent times, the <a href="/wiki/Creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation–evolution controversy">creation–evolution controversy</a> has resulted in many <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">religious believers in a supernatural creation</a> to challenge some <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic</a> assumptions that have been proposed in some of the branches of <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> fields such as <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. Although the dichotomy seems to be of a different outlook from a <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental European</a> perspective, it does exist. The <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>, for instance, had a paramount (i.e. symbolic) influence on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiotic_regime&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Semiotic regime (page does not exist)">semiotic regime</a> represented by the Scientific <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a> in Europe. </p><p>In the decades following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, some were convinced that <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> would solve the pending <a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">energy crisis</a> by providing energy at low cost. This advocacy led to the construction of many <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power plants">nuclear power plants</a>, but was also accompanied by a global political movement opposed to nuclear power due to safety concerns and associations of the technology with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>. Mass protests in the United States and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the 1970s and 1980s along with the disasters of <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island</a> led to a decline in nuclear power plant construction. </p><p>In the last decades or so, both <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming controversy">global warming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_controversy" title="Stem cell controversy">stem cells</a> have placed the opinions of the scientific community in the forefront of political debate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">Academic discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mertonian_norms" title="Mertonian norms">Cudos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">Normal science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">Scientific consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_communication" title="Scientific communication">Scientific communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_peer_community" title="Extended peer community">Extended peer community</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_community&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-SCMet-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCMet_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCMet_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKornfeldHewitt1981" class="citation journal cs1">Kornfeld, W; Hewitt, CE (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2">"The Scientific Community Metaphor"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 24–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSMC.1981.4308575">10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F5693">1721.1/5693</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1322857">1322857</a>.</cite><span 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Fulton (24 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1140467">"Election to the National Academy of Sciences: Pathways to membership"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>102</b> (21): 7405–7406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503457102">10.1073/pnas.0503457102</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1140467">1140467</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16586925">16586925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Election+to+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences%3A+Pathways+to+membership&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=7405-7406&rft.date=2005-05-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1140467%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16586925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0503457102&rft.aulast=Bruce+Alberts&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+R.+Fulton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1140467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713112335/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/election/">"Election to the Fellowship of the Royal Society"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/election/">the original</a> on 13 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Election+to+the+Fellowship+of+the+Royal+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fabout-us%2Ffellowship%2Felection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-US_Academy_uncharted_waters-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-US_Academy_uncharted_waters_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-US_Academy_uncharted_waters_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Shen, Helen (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F494295a">"Oil money takes US academy into uncharted waters"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>494</b> (7437): 295. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Natur.494..295S">2013Natur.494..295S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F494295a">10.1038/494295a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23426305">23426305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Oil+money+takes+US+academy+into+uncharted+waters&rft.volume=494&rft.issue=7437&rft.pages=295&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23426305&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F494295a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Natur.494..295S&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F494295a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 37 John Hedley Brooke: Science and Religion – Some Historical Perspectives, Cambridge 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">"Galileo Project - Pope Urban VIII Biography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Galileo+Project+-+Pope+Urban+VIII+Biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fgal%2Furban.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sci_rel_hist_intro-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sci_rel_hist_intro_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerngren2002" class="citation book cs1">Ferngren, Gary (2002). <i>Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. Introduction, p.ix–x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7038-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%26+Religion%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=Introduction%2C+p.ix-x&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7038-5&rft.aulast=Ferngren&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Sociologies of science</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatourWoolgar1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour, Bruno</a>; <a href="/wiki/Steve_Woolgar" title="Steve Woolgar">Woolgar, Steve</a> (1986) [1979]. <i>Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691094182" title="Special:BookSources/9780691094182"><bdi>9780691094182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laboratory+life%3A+the+construction+of+scientific+facts&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780691094182&rft.aulast=Latour&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft.au=Woolgar%2C+Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraweek1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sharon_Traweek" title="Sharon Traweek">Traweek, Sharon</a> (1992). <i>Beamtimes and lifetimes: the world of high energy physicists</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674044449" title="Special:BookSources/9780674044449"><bdi>9780674044449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beamtimes+and+lifetimes%3A+the+world+of+high+energy+physicists&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780674044449&rft.aulast=Traweek&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapinSchaffer1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Shapin" title="Steven Shapin">Shapin, Steven</a>; <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schaffer" title="Simon Schaffer">Schaffer, Simon</a> (1985). <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump" title="Leviathan and the Air-Pump"><i>Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life</i></a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691083933" title="Special:BookSources/9780691083933"><bdi>9780691083933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leviathan+and+the+Air-Pump%3A+Hobbes%2C+Boyle%2C+and+the+experimental+life&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780691083933&rft.aulast=Shapin&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Schaffer%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnorr-Cetina1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karin_Knorr" class="mw-redirect" title="Karin Knorr">Knorr-Cetina, Karin</a> (1999). <i>Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674258945" title="Special:BookSources/9780674258945"><bdi>9780674258945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemic+cultures%3A+how+the+sciences+make+knowledge&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780674258945&rft.aulast=Knorr-Cetina&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>History and philosophy of science</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (2012). <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions"><i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i></a>. 50th anniversary. <a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a> (intro.) (4th ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226458113" title="Special:BookSources/9780226458113"><bdi>9780226458113</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011042476">2011042476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.series=50th+anniversary&rft.pages=264&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011042476&rft.isbn=9780226458113&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Chalmers" title="Alan Chalmers">Alan Chalmers</a> - What is this thing called science</li></ul> <dl><dt>Other articles</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaas1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_M._Haas" title="Peter M. Haas">Haas, Peter M.</a> (Winter 1992). "Introduction: epistemic communities and international policy coordination". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="International Organization">International Organization</a></i>. <b>46</b> (1): 1–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818300001442">10.1017/S0020818300001442</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145360263">145360263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+epistemic+communities+and+international+policy+coordination&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-35&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020818300001442&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145360263%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haas&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+community" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060224141451/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~olau/ir/archive/haa2.pdf">Pdf.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03075079.2015.1060704">Höhle, Ester</a> (2015). From apprentice to agenda-setter: comparative analysis of the influence of contract conditions on roles in the scientific community. Studies in Higher Education 40(8), 1423–1437.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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