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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-University_of_Cambridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#University_of_Cambridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 University of Cambridge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-University_of_Cambridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Mid-life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mid-life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mid-life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mid-life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calculus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Calculus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Optics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Gravity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Philosophy of Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Later life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Royal_Mint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Mint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Royal Mint </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Mint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knighthood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knighthood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Knighthood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knighthood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Personality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Theology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Religious views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Religious thought </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Alchemy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Recognition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apple_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apple_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Apple incident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apple_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Commemorations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 The Enlightenment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Published_in_his_lifetime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_in_his_lifetime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Published in his lifetime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_in_his_lifetime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Published_posthumously" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_posthumously"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Published posthumously </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_posthumously-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Primary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Alchemy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchemy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Writings_by_Newton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings_by_Newton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Writings by Newton </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writings_by_Newton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Isaac Newton</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 229 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-229" aria-hidden="true" > 229 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%B3%E1%8A%AD_%E1%8A%92%E1%8B%8D%E1%89%B0%E1%8A%95" title="አይሳክ ኒውተን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አይሳክ ኒውተን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइजक न्यूटन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="आइजक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="إسحاق نيوتن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إسحاق نيوتن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%90%DC%9D%DC%A3%DC%9A%DC%A9_%DC%A2%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%9B%DC%A2" title="ܐܝܣܚܩ ܢܝܘܛܢ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܐܝܣܚܩ ܢܝܘܛܢ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="আইজাক নিউটন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আইজাক নিউটন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज्याक न्यूटन – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="आइज्याक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0saak_Nyuton" title="İsaak Nyuton – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İsaak Nyuton" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="آیزاک نیوتون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آیزاک نیوتون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="আইজাক নিউটন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইজাক নিউটন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ісаак Ньютан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ісаак Ньютан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ісак Ньютан – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ісак Ньютан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइजक न्यूटन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="आइजक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исак Нютон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Исак Нютон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон, Исаак – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ньютон, Исаак" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="إسحاق نيوتن – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إسحاق نيوتن" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%A7%DE%86%DE%B0_%DE%82%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%AA%DE%93%DE%A6%DE%82%DE%B0" title="އިސާކް ނިއުޓަން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިސާކް ނިއުޓަން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज्याक न्यूटन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="आइज्याक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AC%CE%BA_%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Ισαάκ Νεύτων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισαάκ Νεύτων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="آیزاک نیوتن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آیزاک نیوتن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" title="牛頓 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="牛頓" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%86%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%9D%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%A8" title="આઇઝેક ન્યૂટન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="આઇઝેક ન્યૂટન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="सर आयझॅक न्यूटन – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="सर आयझॅक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EC%9E%91_%EB%89%B4%ED%84%B4" title="아이작 뉴턴 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아이작 뉴턴" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%AF_%D5%86%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Իսահակ Նյուտոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսահակ Նյուտոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज़क न्यूटन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आइज़क न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="আইজাক নিউটন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="আইজাক নিউটন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон, Исаак – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Ньютон, Исаак" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A7_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="אייזק ניוטון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אייזק ניוטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%90%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಸರ್ ಐಸಾಕ್ ನ್ಯೂಟನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸರ್ ಐಸಾಕ್ ನ್ಯೂಟನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ისააკ ნიუტონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ისააკ ნიუტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон, Исаак – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Ньютон, Исаак" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaacus_Newtonus" title="Isaacus Newtonus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Isaacus Newtonus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AAzaks_%C5%85%C5%ABtons" title="Īzaks Ņūtons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Īzaks Ņūtons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/aisak.niuton" title="aisak.niuton – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="aisak.niuton" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yisaaka_Netoni" title="Yisaaka Netoni – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Yisaaka Netoni" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज्याक न्यूटन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="आइज्याक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%8A%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD" title="Исак Њутн – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Исак Њутн" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%90%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BA" title="ഐസക് ന്യൂട്ടൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഐസക് ന്യൂട്ടൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आयझॅक न्यूटन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आयझॅक न्यूटन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ისააკ ნიუტონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ისააკ ნიუტონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="ايزاك نيوتن – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ايزاك نيوتن" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="اسحاق نیوتن – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اسحاق نیوتن" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="နယူတန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နယူတန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज्याक न्युटन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आइज्याक न्युटन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="आइज्याक न्युटन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आइज्याक न्युटन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B6%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%B3" title="アイザック・ニュートン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アイザック・ニュートン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исхьакъ Ньютон – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Исхьакъ Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Nyuuton" title="Isaac Nyuuton – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Isaac Nyuuton" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон Исаак – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Ньютон Исаак" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%95_%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%89%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%A8" title="ଆଇଜାକ ନିଉଟନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଇଜାକ ନିଉଟନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaaq_Niwuuten" title="Isaaq Niwuuten – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Isaaq Niwuuten" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%A8" title="ਆਇਜ਼ਕ ਨਿਊਟਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਆਇਜ਼ਕ ਨਿਊਟਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B2%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%86" title="آئیزک نیوٹن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آئیزک نیوٹن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="နျူတန် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="နျူတန်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AD%D9%82_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%86" title="اسحق نیوټن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اسحق نیوټن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aizak_Nyuutn" title="Aizak Nyuutn – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aizak Nyuutn" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%8B_%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%93" title="អ៊ីសាក់ ញូតុន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អ៊ីសាក់ ញូតុន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AC%CE%BA_%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD" title="Ισαάκ Νιούτον – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Ισαάκ Νιούτον" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayzek_Nyuton" title="Ayzek Nyuton – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ayzek Nyuton" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ісаак Ньютон – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ісаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон, Исаак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ньютон, Исаак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Ньютон Исаак – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ньютон Исаак" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aykesa,niwtun" title="Aykesa,niwtun – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Aykesa,niwtun" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="ऐसाक् न्यूटन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="ऐसाक् न्यूटन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B1" title="ᱟᱭᱡᱮᱠ ᱱᱤᱭᱩᱴᱚᱱ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱟᱭᱡᱮᱠ ᱱᱤᱭᱩᱴᱚᱱ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A6%D8%B2%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%86" title="آئزک نیوٹن – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="آئزک نیوٹن" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isak_Njutoni" title="Isak Njutoni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Isak Njutoni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="අයිසැක් නිව්ටන් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අයිසැක් නිව්ටන්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A6%D8%B2%DA%AA_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%BD%D9%86" title="آئزڪ نيوٽن – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آئزڪ نيوٽن" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%87%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8A" title="Їсаакъ Нютонъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Їсаакъ Нютонъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isxaaq_Newton" title="Isxaaq Newton – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Isxaaq Newton" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B2%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86" title="ئایزک نیوتن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئایزک نیوتن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%8A%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD" title="Исак Њутн – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Исак Њутн" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ஐசாக் நியூட்டன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐசாக் நியூட்டன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Is%E1%B8%A5aqq_Nyutun" title="Isḥaqq Nyutun – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Isḥaqq Nyutun" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tarandíne</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Ньютон – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Исаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%90%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఐజాక్ న్యూటన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఐజాక్ న్యూటన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%81_%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="ไอแซก นิวตัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไอแซก นิวตัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Исаак Нютон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Исаак Нютон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaak_N%C3%BDuton" title="Isaak Nýuton – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Isaak Nýuton" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ньютон – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ісаак Ньютон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ісаак Ньютон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A6%D8%B2%DA%A9_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%86" title="آئزک نیوٹن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آئزک نیوٹن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%B3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%87%D9%86" title="ئىسساك نيوتۇن – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىسساك نيوتۇن" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njuton_Isaak" title="Njuton Isaak – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Njuton Isaak" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtoni_Isaac" title="Newtoni Isaac – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Newtoni Isaac" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" title="牛頓 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="牛頓" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="牛顿 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="牛顿" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9F" title="אייזיק ניוטאן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אייזיק ניוטאן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E7%A2%A9%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" title="艾碩·牛頓 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="艾碩·牛頓" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Isaac Newton" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izauoks_Niotuons" title="Izauoks Niotuons – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Izauoks Niotuons" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="艾萨克·牛顿" data-language-autonym="中文" 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encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">English polymath (1642–1726)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Isaac Newton (disambiguation)">Isaac Newton (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Sir</a></div><div class="fn">Isaac Newton</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton,_1689_(brightened).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of Newton, a white man with white hair and a brown robe, sitting with his hands folded" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton%2C_1689_%28brightened%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2218" data-file-height="2671" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait of Newton at 46, 1689</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1643-01-04)4 January 1643 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 25 December 1642]<a href="#cite_note-OSNS-4">[a]</a> <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth" title="Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth">Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth</a>, Lincolnshire, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">31 March 1727(1727-03-31) (aged 84) [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 20 March 1726]<a href="#cite_note-OSNS-4">[a]</a> <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Kensington" title="Kensington">Kensington</a>, Middlesex, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, 1665; <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, 1668)<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Universal_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Binomial_series" title="Binomial series">binomial series</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities" title="Newton's identities">Newton's identities</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_metal" title="Newton's metal">Newton's metal</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton_line" title="Newton line">Newton line</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Gauss_line" title="Newton–Gauss line">Newton–Gauss line</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newtonian fluid</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings" title="Newton's rings">Newton's rings</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" title="Standing on the shoulders of giants">Standing on the shoulders of giants</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton" title="List of things named after Isaac Newton">List of all other works and concepts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> (1672)<a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> (1705)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint" title="Royal Mint">Royal Mint</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Pulleyn" title="Benjamin Pulleyn">Benjamin Pulleyn</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes" title="Roger Cotes">Roger Cotes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Member of Parliament</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)">the University of Cambridge</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1689–1690</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brady_(writer)" title="Robert Brady (writer)">Robert Brady</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Finch_(composer)" title="Edward Finch (composer)">Edward Finch</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1701–1702</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hammond" title="Anthony Hammond">Anthony Hammond</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Annesley,_5th_Earl_of_Anglesey" title="Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey">Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">12th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1703–1727</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">John Somers</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Master of the Mint</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1699–1727</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>1696–1699</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Warden_of_the_Mint" title="Warden of the Mint">Warden of the Mint</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale" title="Thomas Neale">Thomas Neale</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">2nd <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1669–1702</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg/200px-Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg/300px-Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg/400px-Isaac_Newton_signature_ws.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="185" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27<a href="#cite_note-OSNS-4">[a]</a>) was an English <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> active as a <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alchemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemist">alchemist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>, and author who was described in his time as a <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosopher</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[6]</a> He was a key figure in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> that followed.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> Newton's book <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, achieved the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_theories_in_physics#Unification_of_gravity_and_astronomy" title="Unification of theories in physics">first great unification in physics</a> and established <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> Newton also made seminal contributions to <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">shares credit</a> with German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> for formulating <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">infinitesimal calculus</a>, though he developed calculus years before Leibniz.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-12">[11]</a> He contributed to and refined the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, and his work is considered the most influential in bringing forth modern science.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> In the Principia, Newton formulated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a> that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. He used his mathematical description of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> to derive <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>, account for <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trajectory" title="Trajectory">trajectories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Axial_precession" title="Axial precession">precession of the equinoxes</a> and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentricity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> He demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">motion of objects</a> on Earth and <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a> could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's inference that the Earth is an <a href="/wiki/Spheroid#Oblate_spheroids" title="Spheroid">oblate spheroid</a> was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Maupertuis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Marie_de_La_Condamine" title="Charles Marie de La Condamine">La Condamine</a>, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems. Newton built the <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope" title="Newtonian telescope">first practical reflecting telescope</a> and developed a sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">theory of colour</a> based on the observation that a <a href="/wiki/Dispersive_prism" title="Dispersive prism">prism</a> separates <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum#Visible_radiation_(light)" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">white light</a> into the colours of the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a>. His work on light was collected in his highly influential book <a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a>, published in 1704. He formulated an <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">empirical law of cooling</a>, which was the first heat transfer formulation and serves as the formal basis of <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">convective heat transfer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> made the first theoretical calculation of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a>, and introduced the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newtonian fluid</a>. Furthermore, he made early investigations into <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> with an idea from his book Opticks arguably the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_field_theory#Electromagnetism" title="Classical field theory">field theory of the electric force</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> In addition to his creation of calculus, as a mathematician, he generalized the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem" title="Binomial theorem">binomial theorem</a> to any real number, contributed to the study of <a href="/wiki/Power_series" title="Power series">power series</a>, developed <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">a method</a> for approximating the <a href="/wiki/Zero_of_a_function" title="Zero of a function">roots of a function</a>, classified most of the <a href="/wiki/Cubic_plane_curve" title="Cubic plane curve">cubic plane curves</a>, and also originated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cotes_formulas" title="Newton–Cotes formulas">Newton-Cotes formulas</a> for <a href="/wiki/Numerical_integration" title="Numerical integration">numerical integration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Newton was a fellow of <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</a> and the second <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. He refused to take <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">holy orders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day. Beyond his work on the <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sciences" title="Mathematical sciences">mathematical sciences</a>, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible" title="Chronology of the Bible">biblical chronology</a>, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig party</a>, Newton served two brief terms as <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)">Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge</a>, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702. He was <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knighted</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a> in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as <a href="/wiki/Warden_of_the_Mint" title="Warden of the Mint">Warden</a> (1696–1699) and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Master</a> (1699–1727) of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint" title="Royal Mint">Royal Mint</a>, in which he increased the accuracy and security of British coinage,<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> as well as president of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (1703–1727). <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Early life of Isaac Newton">Early life of Isaac Newton</a></div> Isaac Newton was born (according to the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">NS</a> 4 January 1643<a href="#cite_note-OSNS-4">[a]</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor" title="Woolsthorpe Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth" title="Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth">Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hamlet_(place)" title="Hamlet (place)">hamlet</a> in the county of Lincolnshire.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">Born prematurely</a>, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a <a href="/wiki/Quart" title="Quart">quart</a> mug.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe). Newton disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from her second marriage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198055-29">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_King's_School">The King's School</h3></div> From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at <a href="/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Grantham" title="The King's School, Grantham">The King's School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grantham" title="Grantham">Grantham</a>, which taught <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> He was removed from school by his mother and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall199416–19-31">[30]</a> Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199722-32">[31]</a> distinguishing himself mainly by building <a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundials</a> and models of windmills.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198060–62-33">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</h3></div> In June 1661, Newton was admitted to <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. His uncle the Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a <a href="/wiki/Subsizar" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsizar">subsizar</a>, paying his way by performing <a href="/wiki/Valet" title="Valet">valet</a> duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxbridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)">MA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198071,_103-34">[33]</a> At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Street_(astronomer)" title="Thomas Street (astronomer)">Thomas Street</a>. He set down in his notebook a series of "<a href="/wiki/Quaestiones_quaedam_philosophicae" title="Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae">Quaestiones</a>" about <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> as he found it. In 1665, he discovered the generalised <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem" title="Binomial theorem">binomial theorem</a> and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>. Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">Great Plague</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student,<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of gravitation">law of gravitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-39">[38]</a> In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he was elected as a fellow of Trinity.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980178-41">[40]</a> Fellows were required to take <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">holy orders</a> and be ordained as <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a> priests, although this was not enforced in the <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a> years, and an assertion of conformity to the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> was sufficient. He made the commitment that "I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [7 years] arrives, or I will resign from the college."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980179-42">[41]</a> Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">Thirty-nine Articles</a>, the basis of Church of England doctrine. By 1675 the issue could not be avoided, and by then his unconventional views stood in the way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980330–331-43">[42]</a> His academic work impressed the <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian professor</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a>, who was anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year after receiving his MA. Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and King <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997151-44">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43,_44,_45,_46,_47,_48,_and_49.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg/220px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg/330px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg/440px-Geographia_Generalis_1733_Figures_43%2C_44%2C_45%2C_46%2C_47%2C_48%2C_and_49.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1135" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption> Some of the figures added by Isaac Newton in his 1672 and 1681 editions of the <a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a>. These figures appeared in subsequent editions as well.<a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-45">[44]</a></figcaption></figure> The Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge position included the responsibility of instructing <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keighren2006-46">[45]</a> In 1672, and again in 1681, Newton published a revised, corrected, and amended edition of the <a href="/wiki/Geographia_Generalis" title="Geographia Generalis">Geographia Generalis</a>, a geography textbook first published in 1650 by the then-deceased <a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1955-47">[46]</a> In the Geographia Generalis, Varenius attempted to create a theoretical foundation linking scientific principles to classical concepts in geography, and considered geography to be a mix between science and pure mathematics applied to quantifying features of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schuchard2008-48">[47]</a> While it is unclear if Newton ever lectured in geography, the 1733 Dugdale and Shaw English translation of the book stated Newton published the book to be read by students while he lectured on the subject.<a href="#cite_note-Warntz1989-45">[44]</a> The Geographia Generalis is viewed by some as the dividing line between ancient and modern traditions in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">history of geography</a>, and Newton's involvement in the subsequent editions is thought to be a large part of the reason for this enduring legacy.<a href="#cite_note-Mayhew2011-49">[48]</a> Newton was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1672" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1672">Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672</a>.<a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mid-life">Mid-life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculus">Calculus</h3></div> Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908319-50">[49]</a> His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> His work <a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas" title="De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas">De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas</a>, sent by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> to <a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(mathematician)" title="John Collins (mathematician)">John Collins</a> in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work "of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjertsen1986149-52">[51]</a> Newton later <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">became involved in a dispute</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> over priority in the development of calculus. Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, although with very different <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_notation" title="Mathematical notation">mathematical notations</a>. However, it is established that Newton came to develop calculus much earlier than Leibniz.<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> Leibniz's notation and "differential method", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the Principia itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of "the method of first and last ratios"<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> and explained why he put his expositions in this form,<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> remarking also that "hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles."<a href="#cite_note-Newton_1850-58">[57]</a> Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> and in Newton's time "nearly all of it is of this calculus."<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> His use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> and in his papers on motion "during the two decades preceding 1684".<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/170px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/255px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg/340px-Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>Newton in 1702 by <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller" title="Godfrey Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a></figcaption></figure> Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2009107-63">[62]</a> He was close to the Swiss mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier" title="Nicolas Fatio de Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980538–539-64">[63]</a> In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> Starting in 1699, other members of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, such as Duillier,<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> accused Leibniz of plagiarism.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_Keill" title="John Keill">John Keill</a> accused Leibniz of plagiarism in 1708 in the Royal Society journal, thereby deteriorating the situation even more.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908356-69">[68]</a> Newton is generally credited with the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem#Newton's_generalized_binomial_theorem" title="Binomial theorem">generalised binomial theorem</a>, valid for any exponent. He discovered <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities" title="Newton's identities">Newton's identities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a>, classified <a href="/wiki/Cubic_plane_curve" title="Cubic plane curve">cubic plane curves</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polynomials" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynomials">polynomials</a> of degree three in two <a href="/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)" title="Variable (mathematics)">variables</a>), made substantial contributions to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Finite_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite differences">finite differences</a>, with him regarded as the "single most significant contributor to finite difference <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolation</a>", with many formulas created by Newton.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> Newton was also the first to use fractional indices and to employ <a href="/wiki/Coordinate_geometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinate geometry">coordinate geometry</a> to derive solutions to <a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Diophantine equations">Diophantine equations</a>. He approximated <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">partial</a> sums of the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">harmonic series</a> by <a href="/wiki/Logarithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Logarithms">logarithms</a> (a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_summation_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler's summation formula">Euler's summation formula</a>) and was the first to use <a href="/wiki/Power_series" title="Power series">power series</a> with confidence and to revert power series. His work on infinite series was inspired by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a>'s decimals.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optics">Optics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg/220px-Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg/330px-Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg/440px-Newton_telescope_replica_1668.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the reflecting telescope Newton presented to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1672 (the first one he made in 1668 was loaned to an instrument maker but there is no further record of what happened to it).<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a <a href="/wiki/Triangular_prism_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular prism (optics)">prism</a> in the position of <a href="/wiki/Minimum_deviation" title="Minimum deviation">minimum deviation</a> is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate. From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> During this period he investigated the <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a>, could be recomposed into white light by a <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> and a second prism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908324-76">[75]</a> Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscular</a> alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newton#Newton's_theory_of_colour" title="Early life of Isaac Newton">Newton's theory of colour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908325-78">[77]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg/220px-Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg/330px-Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg/440px-Dispersive_Prism_Illustration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="669" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a <a href="/wiki/Dispersive_prism" title="Dispersive prism">dispersive prism</a> separating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by Newton</figcaption></figure> From this work, he concluded that the lens of any <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refracting telescope</a> would suffer from the <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> of light into colours (<a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">chromatic aberration</a>). As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the <a href="/wiki/Objective_(optics)" title="Objective (optics)">objective</a> to bypass that problem.<a href="#cite_note-White_1997,_p170-79">[78]</a> Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope" title="Newtonian telescope">Newtonian telescope</a>,<a href="#cite_note-White_1997,_p170-79">[78]</a> involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective <a href="/wiki/Speculum_metal" title="Speculum metal">speculum metal</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings" title="Newton's rings">Newton's rings</a> to judge the <a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">quality</a> of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-80">[79]</a> he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope. It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image. In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997168-81">[80]</a> Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes, Of Colours,<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> which he later expanded into the work <a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions,<a href="#cite_note-hooke1679nov24-83">[82]</a> which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg/170px-Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg/255px-Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg/340px-Newton-letter-to-briggs_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2439" data-file-height="3377" /></a><figcaption>Facsimile of a 1682 letter from Newton to <a href="/wiki/William_Briggs_(physician)" title="William Briggs (physician)">William Briggs</a>, commenting on Briggs' A New Theory of Vision</figcaption></figure> Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk. II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interference</a> patterns and the general phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>. Today's <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a>, and the idea of <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a> bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light. In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">ether</a> to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge Platonist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a> revived his interest in alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-More-85">[84]</a> He replaced the ether with occult forces based on <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermetic</a> ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians."<a href="#cite_note-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X-86">[85]</a> Newton's contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-More-85">[84]</a> This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> In 1704, Newton published <a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a>, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"<a href="#cite_note-Newton's_Alchemy_and_His_Theory_of_Matter-89">[88]</a> Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" title="Electrostatic generator">electrostatic generator</a>, using a glass globe.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> In his book Opticks, Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays.<a href="#cite_note-OPN1-91">[90]</a> Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, <a href="/wiki/Beam_expander#Multiple-prism_beam_expanders" title="Beam expander">multiple-prism beam expanders</a> became central to the development of <a href="/wiki/Laser_linewidth" title="Laser linewidth">narrow-linewidth</a> <a href="/wiki/Tunable_laser" title="Tunable laser">tunable lasers</a>. Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the <a href="/wiki/Multiple-prism_dispersion_theory" title="Multiple-prism dispersion theory">multiple-prism dispersion theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OPN1-91">[90]</a> Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel" title="Augustin-Jean Fresnel">Fresnel</a> discarded Newton's particle theory in favour of <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens'</a> wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength. Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics. The German poet and scientist, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but "one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible. He, therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible. This inference was proved by <a href="/wiki/John_Dollond" title="John Dollond">Dollond</a> to be wrong."<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_(4670220).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Sir_Isaac_Newton_%284670220%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1039" data-file-height="1269" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Portrait of Newton by <a href="/wiki/John_Vanderbank" title="John Vanderbank">John Vanderbank</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravity">Gravity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NewtonsPrincipia.jpg/280px-NewtonsPrincipia.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NewtonsPrincipia.jpg/420px-NewtonsPrincipia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NewtonsPrincipia.jpg/560px-NewtonsPrincipia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption>Newton's own copy of <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a> with Newton's hand-written corrections for the second edition, now housed in the <a href="/wiki/Wren_Library" title="Wren Library">Wren Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></figcaption></figure> Newton had been developing his theory of gravitation as far back as 1665.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-39">[38]</a> In 1679, Newton returned to his work on <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a> by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> with reference to <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">Kepler's laws</a> of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed Secretary of the Royal Society,<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.<a href="#cite_note-hooke1679nov24-83">[82]</a> Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980391–392-94">[93]</a> After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Newton communicated his results to <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a> and to the Royal Society in <a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">De motu corporum in gyrum</a>, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia. The <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a> was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">three universal laws of motion</a>. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. They contributed to many advances during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, and defined the law of <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schmitz2018-96">[95]</a> In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a>) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_theory#Newton" title="Lunar theory">irregularities in the motion of the Moon</a>, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.<a href="#cite_note-Schmitz2018-96">[95]</a> Newton's biographer <a href="/wiki/David_Brewster" title="David Brewster">David Brewster</a> reported that the complexity of applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it affected Newton's health: "[H]e was deprived of his appetite and sleep" during his work on the problem in 1692–93, and told the astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Machin" title="John Machin">John Machin</a> that "his head never ached but when he was studying the subject". According to Brewster, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Halley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Halley">Edmund Halley</a> also told <a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> that when pressed to complete his analysis Newton "always replied that it made his head ache, and kept him awake so often, that he would think of it no more". [Emphasis in original]<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> Newton made clear his <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the "deviation of the Sun" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line". (Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest.)<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> Newton was criticised for introducing "<a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a> agencies" into science because of his postulate of an invisible <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Action at a distance (physics)">force able to act over vast distances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> Later, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding <a href="/wiki/General_Scholium" title="General Scholium">General Scholium</a>, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression "<a href="/wiki/Hypotheses_non_fingo" title="Hypotheses non fingo">Hypotheses non fingo</a>".<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a>) With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980Chapter_11-102">[101]</a> He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier" title="Nicolas Fatio de Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hatch-103">[102]</a> In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 "species" of cubic curves and categorised them into four types.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, <a href="/wiki/James_Stirling_(mathematician)" title="James Stirling (mathematician)">James Stirling</a> proved that every cubic was one of these four types. Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by <a href="/wiki/Projective_plane" title="Projective plane">plane projection</a> from one of them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_Science">Philosophy of Science</h3></div> Starting with the second edition of his Principia, Newton included a final section on science philosophy or method. It was here that he wrote his famous line, in Latin, "hypotheses non fingo", which can be translated as "I don't make hypotheses," (the direct translation of "fingo" is "frame", but in context he was advocating against the use of hypotheses in science). He went on to posit that if there is no data to explain a finding, one should simply wait for that data, rather than guessing at an explanation. The full quote, translated from that section is, "Hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypotheses, for whatever is not deduced from the phenomena is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction. Thus it was that the impenetrability, the mobility, and the impulsive force of bodies, and the laws of motion and of gravitation, were discovered. And to us it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained, and abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the celestial bodies, and of our sea."<a href="#cite_note-Newton_1850-58">[57]</a> This idea that Newton became anti-hypothesis has been disputed, since earlier editions of the Principia were in fact divided in sections headed by hypotheses. But he clearly seems to have gone away from that, as further evidenced from his famous line in his "Opticks", where he wrote, in English, "Hypotheses have no place in experimental science."<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> These ideas are in line with the scientific philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, who advocated for an inductive, or data-drivien, approach to science. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Later_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Later life of Isaac Newton">Later life of Isaac Newton</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_Mint">Royal Mint</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton_25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Newton_25.jpg/170px-Newton_25.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Newton_25.jpg/255px-Newton_25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Newton_25.jpg/340px-Newton_25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1185" /></a><figcaption>Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by <a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Thornhill" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir James Thornhill">Sir James Thornhill</a></figcaption></figure> In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of <a href="/wiki/Religious_tracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious tracts">religious tracts</a> dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> in which he disputed the fidelity of <a href="/wiki/1_John_5:7" class="mw-redirect" title="1 John 5:7">1 John 5:7</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma" title="Johannine Comma">Johannine Comma</a>—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> Newton was also a member of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge University</a> in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997232-108">[107]</a> He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_de_la_Pryme" title="Abraham de la Pryme">Abraham de la Pryme</a> to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint" title="Royal Mint">Royal Mint</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">King William III</a> in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>. He took charge of England's great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy <a href="/wiki/Comptroller" title="Comptroller">comptroller</a> of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley. Newton became perhaps the best-known <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Master of the Mint</a> upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale" title="Thomas Neale">Thomas Neale</a> in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.<a href="#cite_note-Mint-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson2010-111">[110]</a> These appointments were intended as <a href="/wiki/Sinecure" title="Sinecure">sinecures</a>, but Newton took them seriously. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_coin_debasement" class="mw-redirect" title="Methods of coin debasement">clippers</a> and counterfeiters. As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recoinage_of_1696" title="Great Recoinage of 1696">Great Recoinage of 1696</a> were <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeit</a>. Counterfeiting was <a href="/wiki/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="High treason in the United Kingdom">high treason</a>, punishable by the felon being <a href="/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered" title="Hanged, drawn and quartered">hanged, drawn and quartered</a>. Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997259-112">[111]</a> Disguised as a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/habitu%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:habitué">habitué</a> of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997267-113">[112]</a> For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">justice of the peace</a> in all the <a href="/wiki/Home_counties" title="Home counties">home counties</a>. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which he must have been amending at the time.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall200773-115">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ENG_COA_Newton.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ENG_COA_Newton.svg/170px-ENG_COA_Newton.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ENG_COA_Newton.svg/255px-ENG_COA_Newton.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ENG_COA_Newton.svg/340px-ENG_COA_Newton.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">Coat of arms</a> of the Newton family of <a href="/wiki/Great_Gonerby" title="Great Gonerby">Great Gonerby</a>, Lincolnshire, afterwards used by Sir Isaac<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></figcaption></figure> Newton was made president of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1703 and an associate of the French <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">Académie des Sciences</a>. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a>, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997317-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knighthood">Knighthood</h3></div> In April 1705, Queen Anne <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighted</a> Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the <a href="/wiki/1705_English_general_election" title="1705 English general election">parliamentary election in May 1705</a>, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the <a href="/wiki/Silver_standard" title="Silver standard">silver standard</a> to its first <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a>. It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> Newton was invested in the <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Company" title="South Sea Company">South Sea Company</a> and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million in 2020<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a>) when it collapsed in around 1720.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at <a href="/wiki/Cranbury_Park" title="Cranbury Park">Cranbury Park</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>, with his niece and her husband, until his death.<a href="#cite_note-Yonge6-125">[124]</a> His half-niece, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton" title="Catherine Barton">Catherine Barton</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198044-126">[125]</a> served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on <a href="/wiki/Jermyn_Street" title="Jermyn Street">Jermyn Street</a> in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980595-127">[126]</a> according to his letter to her when she was recovering from <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Isaac Newton's death mask" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png/170px-PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png/255px-PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png/340px-PSM_V69_D480_Death_mask_of_isaac_newton.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="1416" /></a><figcaption>Death mask of Newton, photographed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1906</figcaption></figure> Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">OS</a> 20 March 1726; <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">NS</a> 31 March 1727).<a href="#cite_note-OSNS-4">[a]</a> He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> among kings and queens. He was the first scientist to be buried in the abbey.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> may have been present at his funeral.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died <a href="/wiki/Intestacy" title="Intestacy">intestate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)-130">[129]</a> His papers went to <a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton" title="Catherine Barton">Catherine Barton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-131">[130]</a> Shortly after his death, a plaster <a href="/wiki/Death_mask" title="Death mask">death mask</a> was moulded of Newton. It was used by <a href="/wiki/Flemings" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemings">Flemish</a> sculptor <a href="/wiki/John_Michael_Rysbrack" title="John Michael Rysbrack">John Michael Rysbrack</a> in making a sculpture of Newton.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> It is now held by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> who created a 3D scan of it in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> Newton's hair was posthumously examined and found to contain <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a> could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.<a href="#cite_note-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personality">Personality</h2></div> Although it was claimed that he was once engaged,<a href="#cite_note-claim-137">[b]</a> Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments.”<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a <a href="/wiki/Virginity" title="Virginity">virgin</a>, and writers as diverse as mathematician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton" title="Charles Hutton">Charles Hutton</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> economist <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> and physicist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> have commented on it.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fatio_de_Duillier" title="Nicolas Fatio de Duillier">Nicolas Fatio de Duillier</a>, whom he met in London around 1689<a href="#cite_note-Hatch-103">[102]</a>; some of their correspondence has survived.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a <a href="/wiki/Nervous_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Nervous breakdown">nervous breakdown</a>,<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. His note to the latter included the charge that Locke had endeavoured to "embroil" him with "woemen & by other means".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel1968219-145">[143]</a> Newton appeared to be relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a later memoir, "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Nonetheless, he could be fiercely competitive and did on occasion hold grudges against his intellectual rivals, not abstaining from personal attacks when it suited him—a common trait found in many of his contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> in February 1676, for instance, he confessed "If I have seen further it is by <a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" title="Standing on the shoulders of giants">standing on the shoulders of giants</a>."<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> Some historians argued that this, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were disputing over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke who was presumably short and hunchbacked, rather than (or in addition to) a statement of modesty.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants, found in 17th century poet <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a>'s Jacula Prudentum (1651) among others, had as its main point that "a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two", and so in effect place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf' who saw farther.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997187-151">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology">Theology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Religious views of Isaac Newton">Religious views of Isaac Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_occult_studies" title="Isaac Newton's occult studies">Isaac Newton's occult studies</a></div> Although born into an <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a> family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity,<a href="#cite_note-Newton_–_1-152">[150]</a> with one historian labelling him a <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-heretic-153">[151]</a> By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only been available for public examination since 1972.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz199263-154">[152]</a> Over half of what Newton wrote concerned theology and alchemy, and most has never been printed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz199263-154">[152]</a> His writings demonstrate an extensive knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Church</a> writings and show that in the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Athanasius" class="mw-redirect" title="Athanasius">Athanasius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a> which defined the <a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Creed</a>, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980315-155">[153]</a> He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the <a href="/wiki/Great_apostasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Great apostasy">great apostasy</a> was trinitarianism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980321-156">[154]</a> Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980331–34-157">[155]</a> Worshipping <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a> as <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> was, in Newton's eyes, <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a>, an act he believed to be the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1994124-158">[156]</a> In 1999, historian <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Snobelen" title="Stephen Snobelen">Stephen D. Snobelen</a> wrote, "Isaac Newton was a <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretic</a>. But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs."<a href="#cite_note-heretic-153">[151]</a> Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a <a href="/wiki/Socinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Socinian">Socinian</a> sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> and almost certainly an <a href="/wiki/Anti-trinitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-trinitarian">anti-trinitarian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-heretic-153">[151]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg/220px-Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg/330px-Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg/440px-Newton-WilliamBlake_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3990" data-file-height="2930" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)" title="Newton (Blake)">Newton</a> (1795, detail) by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>. Newton is depicted critically as a "divine geometer".<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a></figcaption></figure> Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun".<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual criticism</a>, most notably <a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture" title="An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture">An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Observations_upon_the_Prophecies_of_Daniel" class="extiw" title="s:Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel">Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> He placed the crucifixion of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> He believed in a rationally <a href="/wiki/Immanent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanent">immanent</a> world, but he rejected the <a href="/wiki/Hylozoism" title="Hylozoism">hylozoism</a> implicit in <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>. The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the Principia "I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity".<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: "Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> For this, Leibniz lampooned him: "God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion."<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke" title="Samuel Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Leibniz-Clarke_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz-Clarke correspondence">famous correspondence</a>. A century later, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a>'s work <a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_de_m%C3%A9canique_c%C3%A9leste" title="Traité de mécanique céleste">Celestial Mechanics</a> had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the Mécanique céleste: "Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse" ("Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis").<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. His first biographer, <a href="/wiki/David_Brewster" title="David Brewster">David Brewster</a>, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> (among others) were deciphered<a href="#cite_note-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X-86">[85]</a> and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-heretic-153">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_thought">Religious thought</h3></div> Newton and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>'s approach to the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Rationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalist">rationalist</a> pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enthusiasm" title="Enthusiasm">enthusiasts</a>, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the <a href="/wiki/Latitudinarian" title="Latitudinarian">latitudinarians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Newtonians_and_the_English_Revolution:_1689–1720-169">[167]</a> The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> superlatives of both <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstitious</a> enthusiasm and the threat of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Science_and_Religion_in_Seventeenth-Century_England-170">[168]</a> and at the same time, the second wave of English <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deists</a> used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion". The attacks made against pre-<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> "<a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">magical thinking</a>", and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">mystical elements of Christianity</a>, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">mathematical proofs</a> and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.<a href="#cite_note-Enlightenment_and_Religion:_Rational_Dissent_in_eighteenth-century_Britain-171">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alchemy">Alchemy</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Newton was not the first of the age of reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians, the last great mind which looked out on the visible and intellectual world with the same eyes as those who began to build our intellectual inheritance rather less than 10,000 years ago. Isaac Newton, a posthumous child born with no father on Christmas Day, 1642, was the last wonderchild to whom the Magi could do sincere and appropriate homage. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">–<a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, "Newton, the Man"<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a></cite> </div> Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-131">[130]</a> Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-173">[171]</a> Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-131">[130]</a> In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.<a href="#cite_note-Kean-174">[172]</a> The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.<a href="#cite_note-Greshko-175">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-131">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kean-174">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dry-176">[174]</a> All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"<a href="#cite_note-Indiana-177">[175]</a> and summarised in a book.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors, and the formulation of the calculus. Yet there is another, more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known, a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life, although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it was often called in seventeenth-century England, "chymistry."<a href="#cite_note-Indiana-177">[175]</a></blockquote> In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>'s book on plague, De Peste,<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> were being auctioned online by <a href="/wiki/Bonhams" title="Bonhams">Bonhams</a>. Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_London" title="Great Plague of London">infection</a>, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams. As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that "the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died. Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison".<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_in_popular_culture" title="Isaac Newton in popular culture">Isaac Newton in popular culture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition">Recognition</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-Tumba_de_Isaac_Newton_-_panoramio_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="1621" /></a><figcaption>Newton's tomb monument in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Michael_Rysbrack" title="John Michael Rysbrack">John Michael Rysbrack</a></figcaption></figure> The mathematician and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a> frequently asserted that Newton was the greatest <a href="/wiki/Genius" title="Genius">genius</a> who ever lived,<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> and once added that Newton was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> English poet <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> wrote the famous <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaph</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Nature, and Nature's laws lay hid in night. God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.</blockquote> But this was not allowed to be inscribed in Newton's monument at Westminster. The epitaph added is as follows:<a href="#cite_note-westminster_newton-184">[182]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">H. S. E. ISAACUS NEWTON Eques Auratus, / Qui, animi vi prope divinâ, / Planetarum Motus, Figuras, / Cometarum semitas, Oceanique Aestus. Suâ Mathesi facem praeferente / Primus demonstravit: / Radiorum Lucis dissimilitudines, / Colorumque inde nascentium proprietates, / Quas nemo antea vel suspicatus erat, pervestigavit. / Naturae, Antiquitatis, S. Scripturae, / Sedulus, sagax, fidus Interpres / Dei O. M. Majestatem Philosophiâ asseruit, / Evangelij Simplicitatem Moribus expressit. / Sibi gratulentur Mortales, / Tale tantumque exstitisse / HUMANI GENERIS DECUS. / NAT. XXV DEC. A.D. MDCXLII. OBIIT. XX. MAR. MDCCXXVI,</blockquote> which can be translated as follows:<a href="#cite_note-westminster_newton-184">[182]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726.</blockquote> Newton has been called the "most influential figure in the history of Western science",<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> and has been regarded as the "central figure in the history of science",<a href="#cite_note-:7-186">[184]</a> who "more than anyone else is the source of our great confidence in the power of science."<a href="#cite_note-:7-186">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a> called Newton "the supreme genius and most enigmatic character in the history of science".<a href="#cite_note-:0-187">[185]</a> Physicist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> similarly called Newton's Principia "probably the most important single work ever published in the physical sciences".<a href="#cite_note-:6-188">[186]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> declared that Newton was the "greatest and rarest genius that ever arose for the ornament and instruction of the species".<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell" title="Eric Temple Bell">E.T. Bell</a> ranked Newton alongside <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> as the three greatest mathematicians of all time.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> In The Cambridge Companion to Isaac Newton (2016), Newton is described as "an extraordinary problem-solver, as good, it would appear, as humanity has ever produced".<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> He is ranked among the top 2 or 3 greatest theoretical scientists ever, alongside <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> and Einstein, the greatest mathematician ever alongside <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, and among the best experimentalists ever, thereby "putting Newton in a class by himself among empirical scientists, for one has trouble in thinking of any other candidate who was in the first rank of even two of these categories."<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and of James Clerk Maxwell.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> Einstein stated that Newton's creation of calculus in relation to his laws of motion was "perhaps the greatest advance in thought that a single individual was ever privileged to make."<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> He also noted the influence of Newton, stating that:<a href="#cite_note-:6-188">[186]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The whole evolution of our ideas about the processes of nature, with which we have been concerned so far, might be regarded as an organic development of Newton's ideas.</blockquote>In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists ranked Newton as the greatest.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> In 2005, a dual survey of both the public and of members of Britain's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on both the history of science and on the history of mankind, Newton or Einstein, both the public and the Royal Society deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contributions for both.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> In 2002, Newton placed sixth in the <a href="/wiki/100_Greatest_Britons" title="100 Greatest Britons">100 Greatest Britons</a> poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. However, in 2003, Newton was voted as the greatest <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">Briton</a> in a poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/BBC_News_(international_TV_channel)" title="BBC News (international TV channel)">BBC World</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> second.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> Physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau#Landau's_ranking_of_physicists" title="Lev Landau">ranked physicists on a logarithmic scale</a> of productivity and genius ranging from 0 to 5. The highest ranking, 0, was assigned to Newton. Einstein was ranked 0.5. A rank of 1 was awarded to the fathers of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>. Landau, a Nobel prize winner and the discoverer of <a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">superfluidity</a>, ranked himself as 2.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit" title="SI derived unit">SI derived unit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> is named the <a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">Newton</a> in his honour. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apple_incident">Apple incident</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_apple_tree" title="Isaac Newton's apple tree">Isaac Newton's apple tree</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Sapling_of_newton_apple_tree_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton%27s_tree,_Botanic_Gardens,_Cambridge_(sign).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg/220px-Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg/330px-Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg/440px-Newton%27s_tree%2C_Botanic_Gardens%2C_Cambridge_%28sign%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Newtons_apple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Newtons_apple.jpg/220px-Newtons_apple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Newtons_apple.jpg/330px-Newtons_apple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Newtons_apple.jpg/440px-Newtons_apple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Reputed descendants of Newton's apple tree at (from top to bottom): <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Botanic_Garden" title="Cambridge University Botanic Garden">Cambridge University Botanic Garden</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Balseiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Instituto Balseiro">Instituto Balseiro</a> library garden in Argentina</div></div></div></div></div> Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199786-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENumbers201548–56-203">[201]</a> The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton" title="Catherine Barton">Catherine Barton</a>, Newton's niece, to <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> Voltaire then wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment,<a href="#cite_note-Berkun2010-207">[205]</a> acquaintances of Newton (such as <a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley" title="William Stukeley">William Stukeley</a>, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head. Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:<a href="#cite_note-Newton's_apple:_The_real_story-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-NP-209">[207]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">we went into the garden, & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees, only he, & myself. amidst other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. "why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground," thought he to him self: occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in a comtemplative mood: "why should it not go sideways, or upwards? but constantly to the earths centre? assuredly, the reason is, that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter. & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center, not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly, or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth, as well as the earth draws the apple."</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a>, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:<a href="#cite_note-Keynes_Ms._130.4:Conduitt's_account_of_Newton's_life_at_Cambridge-210">[208]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.</blockquote> It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation". Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The <a href="/wiki/King%27s_School,_Grantham" class="mw-redirect" title="King's School, Grantham">King's School, Grantham</a> claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the (now) <a href="/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty" class="mw-redirect" title="National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty">National Trust</a>-owned <a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor" title="Woolsthorpe Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The <a href="/wiki/National_Fruit_Collection" title="National Fruit Collection">National Fruit Collection</a> at <a href="/wiki/Brogdale" title="Brogdale">Brogdale</a> in Kent<a href="#cite_note-Brogdale—Home_of_the_National_Fruit_Collection-213">[211]</a> can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to <a href="/wiki/Flower_of_Kent" title="Flower of Kent">Flower of Kent</a>, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.<a href="#cite_note-From_the_National_Fruit_Collection:_Isaac_Newton's_Tree-214">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg/170px-Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg/255px-Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg/340px-Isaac_Newton_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Newton statue on display at the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Oxford University Museum of Natural History">Oxford University Museum of Natural History</a></figcaption></figure> Newton's monument (1731) can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb. It was executed by the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rysbrack" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Rysbrack">Michael Rysbrack</a> (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect <a href="/wiki/William_Kent" title="William Kent">William Kent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680. A relief panel depicts <a href="/wiki/Putti" class="mw-redirect" title="Putti">putti</a> using instruments such as a telescope and prism.<a href="#cite_note-wmabbey-216">[214]</a> From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">banknotes</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_England" title="Bank of England">Bank of England</a> (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bankofengland-217">[215]</a> A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Oxford University Museum of Natural History">Oxford University Museum of Natural History</a>. A large bronze statue, <a href="/wiki/Newton,_after_William_Blake" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton, after William Blake">Newton, after William Blake</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Paolozzi" title="Eduardo Paolozzi">Eduardo Paolozzi</a>, dated 1995 and inspired by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)" title="Newton (Blake)">etching</a>, dominates the piazza of the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> in London. A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of <a href="/wiki/Grantham" title="Grantham">Grantham</a> where he went to school, prominently standing in front of <a href="/wiki/Grantham_Guildhall" title="Grantham Guildhall">Grantham Guildhall</a>. The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I <a href="/wiki/Listed_building" title="Listed building">listed building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a> through being his birthplace and "where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-218">[216]</a> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a> was a turning point in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and started the Enlightenment. It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> Locke and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the <a href="/wiki/Physiocrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrat">physiocrats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> applied natural conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and self-interest to economic systems; and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a> criticised the current <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> for trying to fit history into natural models of <a href="/wiki/Progress_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress (history)">progress</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monboddo" class="mw-redirect" title="Monboddo">Monboddo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke" title="Samuel Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Published_in_his_lifetime">Published in his lifetime</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas" title="De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas">De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas</a> (1669, published 1711)<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a></li> <li>Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1671–75)<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">De motu corporum in gyrum</a> (1684)<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> (1687)<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_scale" title="Newton scale">Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa</a> (1701)<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a> (1704)<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a></li> <li>Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–1725)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica_Universalis" title="Arithmetica Universalis">Arithmetica Universalis</a> (1707)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Published_posthumously">Published posthumously</h3></div> <ul><li>De mundi systemate (The System of the World) (1728)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li> <li>Optical Lectures (1728)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Chronology_of_Ancient_Kingdoms_Amended" title="The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended">The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended</a> (1728)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li> <li>Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions" title="Method of Fluxions">Method of Fluxions</a> (1671, published 1736)<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture" title="An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture">An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture</a> (1754)<a href="#cite_note-Pickover2008-227">[225]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Newton" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Newton">Elements of the Philosophy of Newton</a>, a book by Voltaire</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries#17th_century" title="List of multiple discoveries">List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton" title="List of things named after Isaac Newton">List of things named after Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">List of presidents of the Royal Society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-OSNS-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OSNS_4-4">e</a> During Newton's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the <a href="/wiki/Julian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Calendar">Julian</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style</a>") calendar in <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> regions, including Britain; and the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Calendar">Gregorian</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">New Style</a>") calendar in Roman Catholic Europe. At Newton's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates; thus, his birth is recorded as taking place on 25 December 1642 Old Style, but it can be converted to a New Style (modern) date of 4 January 1643. By the time of his death, the difference between the calendars had increased to eleven days. Moreover, he died in the period after the start of the New Style year on 1 January but before that of the Old Style new year on 25 March. His death occurred on 20 March 1726, according to the Old Style calendar, but the year is usually adjusted to 1727. A full conversion to New Style gives the date 31 March 1727.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-claim-137"><a href="#cite_ref-claim_137-0">^</a> This claim was made by <a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley" title="William Stukeley">William Stukeley</a> in 1727, in a letter about Newton written to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mead" title="Richard Mead">Richard Mead</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton" title="Charles Hutton">Charles Hutton</a>, who in the late eighteenth century collected oral traditions about earlier scientists, declared that there "do not appear to be any sufficient reason for his never marrying, if he had an inclination so to do. It is much more likely that he had a constitutional indifference to the state, and even to the sex in general."<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frs-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows">"Fellows of the Royal Society"</a>. 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Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers). 21 (21): 51–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621272">10.2307/621272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621272">621272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+and+Papers+%28Institute+of+British+Geographers%29&rft.atitle=The+Geography+of+Bernhard+Varenius&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=51-60&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621272&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=J.+N.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schuchard2008-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Schuchard2008_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuchard2008" class="citation book cs1">Schuchard, Margret (2008). "Notes On Geographia Generalis And Its Introduction To England And North America". In Schuchard, Margret (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047432197/Bej.9789004163638.i-351_013.xml">Bernhard Varenius (1622-1650)</a>. Brill. pp. 227–237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16363-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16363-8"><bdi>978-90-04-16363-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Notes+On+Geographia+Generalis+And+Its+Introduction+To+England+And+North+America&rft.btitle=Bernhard+Varenius+%281622-1650%29&rft.pages=227-237&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16363-8&rft.aulast=Schuchard&rft.aufirst=Margret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789047432197%2FBej.9789004163638.i-351_013.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayhew2011-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Mayhew2011_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayhew2011" class="citation book cs1">Mayhew, Robert J. (2011). "Geography's Genealogies". In Agnew, John A.; Livingstone, David N. (eds.). The SAGE Handbook of Geographical Knowledge. SAGE Publications Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1081-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1081-1"><bdi>978-1-4129-1081-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geography%E2%80%99s+Genealogies&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Geographical+Knowledge&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-1081-1&rft.aulast=Mayhew&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908319-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908319_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 319. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1967" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MathematicsIsaacNewtonVol1_1664-66Whiteside1967/MathematicsIsaacNewtonVol1_1664-66Whiteside1967_144x75/page/400/mode/1up">"The October 1666 tract on fluxions"</a>. In Whiteside, Derek Thomas (ed.). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton Volume 1 from 1664 to 1666. Cambridge University Press. p. 400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05817-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05817-9"><bdi>978-0-521-05817-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+October+1666+tract+on+fluxions&rft.btitle=The+Mathematical+Papers+of+Isaac+Newton+Volume+1+from+1664+to+1666&rft.pages=400&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05817-9&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMathematicsIsaacNewtonVol1_1664-66Whiteside1967%2FMathematicsIsaacNewtonVol1_1664-66Whiteside1967_144x75%2Fpage%2F400%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjertsen1986149-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGjertsen1986149_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGjertsen1986">Gjertsen 1986</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-53"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman1956" class="citation book cs1">Newman, James Roy (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/world1ofmathemati00newm/page/57/mode/1up?q=Newton">The World of Mathematics: A Small Library of the Literature of Mathematics from Aʻh-mosé the Scribe to Albert Einstein</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Mathematics%3A+A+Small+Library+of+the+Literature+of+Mathematics+from+A%CA%BBh-mos%C3%A9+the+Scribe+to+Albert+Einstein&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=James+Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworld1ofmathemati00newm%2Fpage%2F57%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fq%3DNewton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://futurism.com/how-and-why-did-newton-develop-such-a-complicated-math">"How and Why did Newton Develop Such Complicated Mathematics?"</a>. Futurism. 17 July 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231020123525/https://futurism.com/how-and-why-did-newton-develop-such-a-complicated-math">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Futurism&rft.atitle=How+and+Why+did+Newton+Develop+Such+Complicated+Mathematics%3F&rft.date=2017-07-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffuturism.com%2Fhow-and-why-did-newton-develop-such-a-complicated-math&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._Jerome_Keisler2013" class="citation book cs1">H. Jerome Keisler (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8NTCAgAAQBAJ">Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach</a> (3rd ed.). Courier Corporation. p. 903. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-31046-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-31046-6"><bdi>978-0-486-31046-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Calculus%3A+An+Infinitesimal+Approach&rft.pages=903&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-486-31046-6&rft.au=H.+Jerome+Keisler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8NTCAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8NTCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA903">Extract of page 903</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Newton, Principia, 1729 English translation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA41">p. 41</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003114205/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA41">Archived</a> 3 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Newton, Principia, 1729 English translation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54">p. 54</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160503022921/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA54">Archived</a> 3 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton_1850-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newton_1850_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newton_1850_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1850" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Sir Isaac (1850). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-hHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA102">Newton's Principia: The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</a>. Geo. P. Putnam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230020/https://books.google.com/books?id=N-hHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA102">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Principia%3A+The+Mathematical+Principles+of+Natural+Philosophy&rft.pub=Geo.+P.+Putnam&rft.date=1850&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Sir+Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN-hHAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Clifford Truesdell, Essays in the History of Mechanics (1968), p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> In the preface to the Marquis de L'Hospital's Analyse des Infiniment Petits (Paris, 1696). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Starting with <a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum#Contents" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">De motu corporum in gyrum</a>, see also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvMGAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA2">(Latin) Theorem 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160512135306/https://books.google.com/books?id=uvMGAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA2">Archived</a> 12 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1970). "The Mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2009107-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2009107_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2009">Stewart 2009</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980538–539-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980538–539_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 538–539. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2009" class="citation book cs1">Stern, Keith (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317453194">Queers in history : the comprehensive encyclopedia of historical gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgenders</a>. Dallas, Tex.: BenBella. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933771-87-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933771-87-8"><bdi>978-1-933771-87-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/317453194">317453194</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240226144340/https://search.worldcat.org/title/317453194">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 30 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queers+in+history+%3A+the+comprehensive+encyclopedia+of+historical+gays%2C+lesbians%2C+bisexuals%2C+and+transgenders&rft.place=Dallas%2C+Tex.&rft.pub=BenBella&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F317453194&rft.isbn=978-1-933771-87-8&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F317453194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalomo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Palomo, Miguel (2 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00033790.2020.1794038">"New insight into the origins of the calculus war"</a>. Annals of Science. 78 (1): 22–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033790.2020.1794038">10.1080/00033790.2020.1794038</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-3790">0003-3790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=New+insight+into+the+origins+of+the+calculus+war&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-40&rft.date=2021-01-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033790.2020.1794038&rft.issn=0003-3790&rft.aulast=Palomo&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F00033790.2020.1794038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowlan2017" class="citation book cs1">Nowlan, Robert (2017). Masters of Mathematics: The Problems They Solved, Why These Are Important, and What You Should Know about Them. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6300-891-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6300-891-4"><bdi>978-94-6300-891-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+Mathematics%3A+The+Problems+They+Solved%2C+Why+These+Are+Important%2C+and+What+You+Should+Know+about+Them&rft.place=Rotterdam&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Sense+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-94-6300-891-4&rft.aulast=Nowlan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliffeSmith2016" class="citation book cs1">Iliffe, Rob; Smith, George E., eds. (2016). The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcco9781139058568">10.1017/cco9781139058568</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05856-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05856-8"><bdi>978-1-139-05856-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Newton&rft.pages=414&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcco9781139058568&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05856-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908356-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908356_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 356. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ranjan_Roy" title="Ranjan Roy">Roy, Ranjan</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KyYhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190">Series and Products in the Development of Mathematics</a>. Vol. I (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 190–191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-70945-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-70945-3"><bdi>978-1-108-70945-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Series+and+Products+in+the+Development+of+Mathematics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=190-191&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-70945-3&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Ranjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKyYhEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBłaszczykKatzSherry2013" class="citation journal cs1">Błaszczyk, P.; et al. (March 2013). "Ten misconceptions from the history of analysis and their debunking". <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_Science" title="Foundations of Science">Foundations of Science</a>. 18 (1): 43–74. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1202.4153">1202.4153</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10699-012-9285-8">10.1007/s10699-012-9285-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119134151">119134151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foundations+of+Science&rft.atitle=Ten+misconceptions+from+the+history+of+analysis+and+their+debunking&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-74&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1202.4153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119134151%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10699-012-9285-8&rft.aulast=B%C5%82aszczyk&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Katz%2C+M.+G.&rft.au=Sherry%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1955" class="citation book cs1">King, Henry C. (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&q=history+of+the+telescope">The History of the Telescope</a>. Courier Corporation. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43265-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43265-6"><bdi>978-0-486-43265-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240226144328/https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&q=history+of+the+telescope#v=snippet&q=history%20of%20the%20telescope&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 1 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Telescope&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=978-0-486-43265-6&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Henry+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKAWwzHlDVksC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2Btelescope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whittaker-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker_73-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">Whittaker, E.T.</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_Theories_of_Aether_and_Electricity" title="A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity">A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity</a>, Dublin University Press, 1910. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarrigol2012" class="citation book cs1">Darrigol, Olivier (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye_1AAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA81">A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964437-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964437-7"><bdi>978-0-19-964437-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240226144911/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye_1AAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA81#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Optics+from+Greek+Antiquity+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964437-7&rft.aulast=Darrigol&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYe_1AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton" class="citation web cs1">Newton, Isaac. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/">"Hydrostatics, Optics, Sound and Heat"</a>. Cambridge University Digital Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108215515/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-03970/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hydrostatics%2C+Optics%2C+Sound+and+Heat&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Digital+Library&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcudl.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fview%2FMS-ADD-03970%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908324-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908324_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">William R. Newman</a>, "Newton's Early Optical Theory and its Debt to Chymistry", in Danielle Jacquart and Michel Hochmann, eds., Lumière et vision dans les sciences et dans les arts (Geneva: Droz, 2010), pp. 283–307. A free access online version of this article can be found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/html/Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper.pdf">the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160528020600/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/html/Newton_optics-alchemy_Jacquart_paper.pdf">Archived</a> 28 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall1908325-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall1908325_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBall1908">Ball 1908</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-White_1997,_p170-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-White_1997,_p170_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-White_1997,_p170_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-80"><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rupert_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Rupert Hall">Hall, Alfred Rupert</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7R8LsvMcUioC">Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56669-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56669-8"><bdi>978-0-521-56669-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/606137087">606137087</a>. <q>This is the one dated 23 February 1669, in which Newton described his first reflecting telescope, constructed (it seems) near the close of the previous year.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isaac+Newton%3A+adventurer+in+thought&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F606137087&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56669-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Rupert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7R8LsvMcUioC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997168-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997168_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton" class="citation web cs1">Newton, Isaac. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00004">"Of Colours"</a>. The Newton Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009051407/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00004">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Newton+Project&rft.atitle=Of+Colours&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk%2Fview%2Ftexts%2Fnormalized%2FNATP00004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hooke1679nov24-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hooke1679nov24_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hooke1679nov24_83-1">b</a> See 'Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 2, 1676–1687' ed. H.W. Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at p. 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Iliffe, Robert (2007) Newton. A very short introduction, Oxford University Press 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-More-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-More_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-More_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfall1983" class="citation book cs1">Westfall, Richard S. (1983) [1980]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/530">Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/530">530–31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7"><bdi>978-0-521-27435-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Never+at+Rest%3A+A+Biography+of+Isaac+Newton&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=530-31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27435-7&rft.aulast=Westfall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneveratrestbiogr00west%2Fpage%2F530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Collected_Writings_of_John_Maynard_Keynes_Volume_X_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1972" class="citation book cs1">Keynes, John Maynard (1972). "Newton, The Man". The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes Volume X. MacMillan St. Martin's Press. pp. 363–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+The+Man&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Writings+of+John+Maynard+Keynes+Volume+X&rft.pages=363-66&rft.pub=MacMillan+St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison_B._KaufmanJames_C._Kaufman2019" class="citation book cs1">Allison B. Kaufman; James C. Kaufman (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLT4DwAAQBAJ">Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science</a> (illustrated ed.). MIT Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53704-9"><bdi>978-0-262-53704-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudoscience%3A+The+Conspiracy+Against+Science&rft.pages=9&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53704-9&rft.au=Allison+B.+Kaufman&rft.au=James+C.+Kaufman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZLT4DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLT4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">Extract of page 9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMárcia_Lemos2017" class="citation book cs1">Márcia Lemos (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6xNUDgAAQBAJ">Exchanges between Literature and Science from the 1800s to the 2000s: Converging Realms</a> (reprinted ed.). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-7605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-7605-6"><bdi>978-1-4438-7605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exchanges+between+Literature+and+Science+from+the+1800s+to+the+2000s%3A+Converging+Realms&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=reprinted&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-7605-6&rft.au=M%C3%A1rcia+Lemos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6xNUDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6xNUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">Extract of page 83</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton's_Alchemy_and_His_Theory_of_Matter-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Newton's_Alchemy_and_His_Theory_of_Matter_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobbs1982" class="citation journal cs1">Dobbs, J. T. (December 1982). "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter". Isis. 73 (4): 523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353114">10.1086/353114</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170669199">170669199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Newton%27s+Alchemy+and+His+Theory+of+Matter&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=523&rft.date=1982-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F353114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170669199%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dobbs&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> quoting Opticks </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-OPN1-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OPN1_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OPN1_91-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuarte2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._J._Duarte" title="F. J. Duarte">Duarte, F. J.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tunablelasers.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf">"Newton, prisms, and the 'opticks' of tunable lasers"</a> (PDF). Optics and Photonics News. 11 (5): 24–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000OptPN..11...24D">2000OptPN..11...24D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOPN.11.5.000024">10.1364/OPN.11.5.000024</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150217223512/http://www.tunablelasers.com/F.J.DuarteOPN%282000%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optics+and+Photonics+News&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+prisms%2C+and+the+%27opticks%27+of+tunable+lasers&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=24-25&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FOPN.11.5.000024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000OptPN..11...24D&rft.aulast=Duarte&rft.aufirst=F.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tunablelasers.com%2FF.J.DuarteOPN%25282000%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Tyndall, John. (1880). Popular Science Monthly Volume 17, July. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_17/July_1880/Goethe%27s_Farbenlehre:_Theory_of_Colors_II" class="extiw" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 17/July 1880/Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors II">s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 17/July 1880/Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors II</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInwood2003" class="citation book cs1">Inwood, Stephen (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgottengeniusb00inwo">The Forgotten Genius</a>. San Francisco: MacAdam/Cage Pub. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931561-56-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931561-56-3"><bdi>978-1-931561-56-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53006741">53006741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Genius&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=MacAdam%2FCage+Pub.&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53006741&rft.isbn=978-1-931561-56-3&rft.aulast=Inwood&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgottengeniusb00inwo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980391–392-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980391–392_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 391–392. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691. 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmitz2018-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitz2018_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmitz2018_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitz2018" class="citation book cs1">Schmitz, Kenneth S. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4WGdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA251">Physical Chemistry: Multidisciplinary Applications in Society</a>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800599-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-800599-6"><bdi>978-0-12-800599-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200310132426/https://books.google.com/books?id=4WGdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA251">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Chemistry%3A+Multidisciplinary+Applications+in+Society&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-12-800599-6&rft.aulast=Schmitz&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4WGdBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewster1860" class="citation web cs1">Brewster, Sir David (22 March 1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acBV7QHgMIAC&q=head+ache&pg=PA3">"Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton"</a>. Edmonston and Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419215520/https://books.google.com/books?id=acBV7QHgMIAC&q=head+ache&pg=PA3">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Life%2C+Writings%2C+and+Discoveries+of+Sir+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Edmonston+and+Douglas&rft.date=1860-03-22&rft.aulast=Brewster&rft.aufirst=Sir+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacBV7QHgMIAC%26q%3Dhead%2Bache%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> See Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989) The General History of Astronomy, Volume, 2A', <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC&pg=PA233">at p. 233</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151003121307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC&pg=PA233">Archived</a> 3 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Text quotations are from 1729 translation of Newton's Principia, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6EqxPav3vIsC/page/n257">at pp. 232–33 [233]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940262-45-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-940262-45-2">0-940262-45-2</a>. p. 54 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2010/10/does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/">Does Newton feign an hypothesis?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714120054/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2010/10/does-newton-feign-an-hypothesis/">Archived</a> 14 July 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Early Modern Experimental Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721051523/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Archived</a> 21 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 18 October 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980Chapter_11-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980Chapter_11_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, Chapter 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hatch-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hatch_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hatch_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatch" class="citation web cs1">Hatch, Professor Robert A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120802071026/http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/13-NDFE/newton/05-newton-timeline-m.htm">"Newton Timeline"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/13-NDFE/newton/05-newton-timeline-m.htm">the original</a> on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newton+Timeline&rft.aulast=Hatch&rft.aufirst=Professor+Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.clas.ufl.edu%2Fusers%2Fufhatch%2Fpages%2F13-NDFE%2Fnewton%2F05-newton-timeline-m.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloyeHuggett2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bloye, Nicole; Huggett, Stephen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308041757/http://stephenhuggett.com/Newton.pdf">"Newton, the geometer"</a> (PDF). Newsletter of the European Mathematical Society (82): 19–27. <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR (identifier)">MR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2896438">2896438</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stephenhuggett.com/Newton.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsletter+of+the+European+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+the+geometer&rft.issue=82&rft.pages=19-27&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathscinet.ams.org%2Fmathscinet-getitem%3Fmr%3D2896438%23id-name%3DMR&rft.aulast=Bloye&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft.au=Huggett%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstephenhuggett.com%2FNewton.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Conics and Cubics, Robert Bix. <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_Texts_in_Mathematics" title="Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics">Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics</a>, 2nd ed., 2006, Springer Verlag. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton2021" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Sir Isaac (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4OiUDgAAQBAJ&q=Isaac+Newton,+Opticks">Opticks: Opticks by Sir Isaac Newton | Groundbreaking Discoveries in Optics and Light</a>. Prabhat Prakashan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opticks%3A+Opticks+by+Sir+Isaac+Newton+%26%23124%3B+Groundbreaking+Discoveries+in+Optics+and+Light&rft.pub=Prabhat+Prakashan&rft.date=2021-01&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Sir+Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4OiUDgAAQBAJ%26q%3DIsaac%2BNewton%2C%2BOpticks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988">|title=Newton's Opticks|date=1721 </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/c1690.html">"John Locke Manuscripts – Chronological Listing: 1690"</a>. psu.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709035722/https://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/c1690.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psu.edu&rft.atitle=John+Locke+Manuscripts+%E2%80%93+Chronological+Listing%3A+1690&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraries.psu.edu%2Ftas%2Flocke%2Fmss%2Fc1690.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988">; and John C. Attig, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/bib/ch5c.html#01160">John Locke Bibliography — Chapter 5, Religion, 1751–1900</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112070820/http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/bib/ch5c.html#01160">Archived</a> 12 November 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997232-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997232_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawer2016" class="citation news cs1">Sawer, Patrick (6 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/06/what-students-should-avoid-during-freshers-week-100-years-ago-an/">"What students should avoid during fresher's week (100 years ago and now)"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/09/06/what-students-should-avoid-during-freshers-week-100-years-ago-an/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=What+students+should+avoid+during+fresher%27s+week+%28100+years+ago+and+now%29&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft.aulast=Sawer&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2016%2F09%2F06%2Fwhat-students-should-avoid-during-freshers-week-100-years-ago-an%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mint-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Mint_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105012144">"Isaac Newton: Physicist And ... Crime Fighter?"</a>. Science Friday. 5 June 2009. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101074330/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105012144">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=105012144">Transcript</a>. Retrieved 1 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+Friday&rft.date=2009-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D105012144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson2010-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevenson2010_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevenson2010">Levenson 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997259-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997259_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997267-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997267_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 267. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton" class="citation web cs1">Newton, Isaac. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/">"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica"</a>. Cambridge University Digital Library. pp. 265–66. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108031556/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-ADV-B-00039-00001/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Philosophi%C3%A6+Naturalis+Principia+Mathematica&rft.pages=265-66&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Digital+Library&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcudl.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fview%2FPR-ADV-B-00039-00001%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall200773-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall200773_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall2007">Westfall 2007</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wagner" title="Anthony Wagner">Wagner, Anthony</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicheraldry0000wagn/page/85">Historic Heraldry of Britain</a> (2nd ed.). London and Chichester: Phillimore. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicheraldry0000wagn/page/85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85033-022-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85033-022-9"><bdi>978-0-85033-022-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historic+Heraldry+of+Britain&rft.place=London+and+Chichester&rft.pages=85&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Phillimore&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-85033-022-9&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricheraldry0000wagn%2Fpage%2F85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988">; and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genealogicalmemo00inlond">Genealogical Memoranda Relating to the Family of Newton</a>. London: Taylor and Co. 1871.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genealogical+Memoranda+Relating+to+the+Family+of+Newton&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Co.&rft.date=1871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenealogicalmemo00inlond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997317-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997317_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> "The Queen's 'great Assistance' to Newton's election was his knighting, an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705." <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1994">Westfall 1994</a>, p. 245 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/553/isaac-newton-is-knighted">"This Day in History: Isaac Newton is Knighted"</a>. History Channel. A&E Television Networks. 20 June 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140819103011/http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/553/isaac-newton-is-knighted">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2014;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Channel&rft.atitle=This+Day+in+History%3A+Isaac+Newton+is+Knighted&rft.date=2016-06-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historychannel.com.au%2Fclassroom%2Fday-in-history%2F553%2Fisaac-newton-is-knighted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnham2014" class="citation book cs1">Barnham, Kay (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2f5LAgAAQBAJ">Isaac Newton</a>. Raintree. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4109-6235-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4109-6235-5"><bdi>978-1-4109-6235-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isaac+Newton&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Raintree&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4109-6235-5&rft.aulast=Barnham&rft.aufirst=Kay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2f5LAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports/report-1717-09-25.html">On the Value of Gold and Silver in European Currencies and the Consequences on the Worldwide Gold- and Silver-Trade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170406191205/http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports/report-1717-09-25.html">Archived</a> 6 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Sir Isaac Newton, 21 September 1717; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/numismaticser1v05royauoft">"By The King, A Proclamation Declaring the Rates at which Gold shall be current in Payments"</a>. Royal Numismatic Society. V. April 1842 – January 1843. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFay1935" class="citation journal cs1">Fay, C. R. (1 January 1935). "Newton and the Gold Standard". Cambridge Historical Journal. 5 (1): 109–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1474691300001256">10.1017/S1474691300001256</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3020836">3020836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Newton+and+the+Gold+Standard&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-17&rft.date=1935-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1474691300001256&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3020836%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fay&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130217100410/http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/newton.htm">"Sir Isaac Newton's Unpublished Manuscripts Explain Connections He Made Between Alchemy and Economics"</a>. Georgia Tech Research News. 12 September 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/newsrelease/newton.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sir+Isaac+Newton%27s+Unpublished+Manuscripts+Explain+Connections+He+Made+Between+Alchemy+and+Economics&rft.date=2006-09-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgtresearchnews.gatech.edu%2Fnewsrelease%2Fnewton.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Eric W. Nye, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/currency.htm">Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815124946/https://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/Currency.htm">Archived</a> 15 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved: 5 October 2020 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolodny2016" class="citation web cs1">Holodny, Elena (21 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/isaac-newton-lost-a-fortune-on-englands-hottest-stock-2016-1">"Isaac Newton was a genius, but even he lost millions in the stock market"</a>. Business Insider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160325191327/http://www.businessinsider.com.au/isaac-newton-lost-a-fortune-on-englands-hottest-stock-2016-1">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton+was+a+genius%2C+but+even+he+lost+millions+in+the+stock+market&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft.aulast=Holodny&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fisaac-newton-lost-a-fortune-on-englands-hottest-stock-2016-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yonge6-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Yonge6_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYonge1898" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_M._Yonge" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlotte M. Yonge">Yonge, Charlotte M.</a> (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/">"Cranbury and Brambridge"</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Keble" title="John Keble">John Keble</a>'s Parishes – Chapter 6. online-literature.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208223436/http://www.online-literature.com/charlotte-yonge/john-keble/6/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 23 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Keble%27s+Parishes+%E2%80%93+Chapter+6&rft.atitle=Cranbury+and+Brambridge&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Yonge&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.online-literature.com%2Fcharlotte-yonge%2Fjohn-keble%2F6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall198044-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall198044_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980595-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfall1980595_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, p. 595. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette6569" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/6569/page/7">"No. 6569"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 1 April 1727. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+6569&rft.pages=7&rft.date=1727-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F6569%2Fpage%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Dobre and Nyden suggest that there is no clear evidence that Voltaire was present; see p. 89 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobreNyden2013" class="citation book cs1">Dobre, Mihnea; Nyden, Tammy (2013). Cartesian Empiricism. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7690-6"><bdi>978-94-007-7690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cartesian+Empiricism&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7690-6&rft.aulast=Dobre&rft.aufirst=Mihnea&rft.au=Nyden%2C+Tammy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newton,_Isaac_(1642–1727)_130-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html">"Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)"</a>. Eric Weisstein's World of Biography. Eric W. Weisstein. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081045/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eric+Weisstein%27s+World+of+Biography&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+Isaac+%281642%E2%80%931727%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceworld.wolfram.com%2Fbiography%2FNewton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mann-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_131-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_131-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Mann, Adam (14 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2014/05/newton-papers-q-and-a/">"The Strange, Secret History of Isaac Newton's Papers"</a>. Wired. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170911221912/https://www.wired.com/2014/05/newton-papers-q-and-a/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+Strange%2C+Secret+History+of+Isaac+Newton%27s+Papers&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F05%2Fnewton-papers-q-and-a%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVining2011" class="citation web cs1">Vining, John (2 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://huntington.org/verso/newtons-death-mask">"Newton's Death Mask"</a>. The Huntington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807122527/https://huntington.org/verso/newtons-death-mask">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Huntington&rft.atitle=Newton%27s+Death+Mask&rft.date=2011-08-02&rft.aulast=Vining&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhuntington.org%2Fverso%2Fnewtons-death-mask&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pictures.royalsociety.org/image-rs-8492">"Death mask of Isaac Newton"</a>. Royal Society Picture Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807122526/https://pictures.royalsociety.org/image-rs-8492">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Society+Picture+Library&rft.atitle=Death+mask+of+Isaac+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpictures.royalsociety.org%2Fimage-rs-8492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/news/2012/newton-death-mask-3D/">"Newton's death mask scanned in 3D"</a>. Royal Society. 1 October 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230609204741/https://royalsociety.org/news/2012/newton-death-mask-3D/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Newton%27s+death+mask+scanned+in+3D&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fnews%2F2012%2Fnewton-death-mask-3D%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2012" class="citation web cs1">Schultz, Colin (1 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/isaac-newtons-death-mask-now-available-in-digital-3d-55650548/">"Isaac Newton's Death Mask: Now Available in Digital 3D"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807122812/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/isaac-newtons-death-mask-now-available-in-digital-3d-55650548/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton%27s+Death+Mask%3A+Now+Available+in+Digital+3D&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft.aulast=Schultz&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Fisaac-newtons-death-mask-now-available-in-digital-3d-55650548%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Hutton, Charles (1795/6). A Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary. vol. 2. p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1894" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lettersonenglan00voltgoog#page/n102">"14"</a>. Letters on England. Cassell. p. 100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14&rft.btitle=Letters+on+England&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1894&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flettersonenglan00voltgoog%23page%2Fn102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton1815" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hutton" title="Charles Hutton">Hutton, Charles</a> (1815). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_xk2AAAAQAAJ&pg=PAPA100">A Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary Containing ... Memoirs of the Lives and Writings of the Most Eminent Authors, Volume 2</a>. p. 100. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240226144934/https://books.google.com/books?id=_xk2AAAAQAAJ&pg=PAPA100#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+and+Mathematical+Dictionary+Containing+...+Memoirs+of+the+Lives+and+Writings+of+the+Most+Eminent+Authors%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1815&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_xk2AAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPAPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes" class="citation web cs1">Keynes, John Maynard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html">"Newton: the Man"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a> School of Mathematics and Statistics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190617095839/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newton%3A+the+Man&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews+School+of+Mathematics+and+Statistics&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FExtras%2FKeynes_Newton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl06FjKX6doC">Cosmos</a>. New York: Random House. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50294-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-50294-6"><bdi>978-0-394-50294-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-394-50294-6&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCl06FjKX6doC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=CV%2FPers%2FDuillier%2C%20Nicholas%20Fatio%20de%20%281664-1753%29%20mathematician%20and%20natural%20philosopher">"Duillier, Nicholas Fatio de (1664–1753) mathematician and natural philosopher"</a>. Janus database. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130701114749/http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=CV%2FPers%2FDuillier%2C%20Nicholas%20Fatio%20de%20%281664-1753%29%20mathematician%20and%20natural%20philosopher">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Duillier%2C+Nicholas+Fatio+de+%281664%E2%80%931753%29+mathematician+and+natural+philosopher&rft.pub=Janus+database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjanus.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fdb%2Fnode.xsp%3Fid%3DCV%252FPers%252FDuillier%252C%2520Nicholas%2520Fatio%2520de%2520%25281664-1753%2529%2520mathematician%2520and%2520natural%2520philosopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/search?style=oac4;Institution=UCLA::Clark%20%28William%20Andrews%29%20Memorial%20Library;idT=4859632">"Collection Guide: Fatio de Duillier, Nicolas [Letters to Isaac Newton]"</a>. 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Retrieved 22 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collection+Guide%3A+Fatio+de+Duillier%2C+Nicolas+%5BLetters+to+Isaac+Newton%5D&rft.pub=Online+Archive+of+California&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oac.cdlib.org%2Fsearch%3Fstyle%3Doac4%3BInstitution%3DUCLA%3A%3AClark%2520%2528William%2520Andrews%2529%2520Memorial%2520Library%3BidT%3D4859632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWestfall1980">Westfall 1980</a>, pp. 493–497 on the friendship with Fatio, pp. 531–540 on Newton's breakdown. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel1968219-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuel1968219_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFManuel1968">Manuel 1968</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855) by Sir David Brewster (Volume II. Ch. 27) </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlands2017" class="citation book cs1">Rowlands, Peter (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CRM0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Newton+personality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3opPVx-eJAxU-F1kFHVc8MVwQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=Newton%20personality&f=false">Newton And Modern Physics</a>. World Scientific. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-332-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-332-1"><bdi>978-1-78634-332-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+And+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78634-332-1&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCRM0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA50%26dq%3DNewton%2Bpersonality%26hl%3Den%26newbks%3D1%26newbks_redir%3D0%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D2ahUKEwi3opPVx-eJAxU-F1kFHVc8MVwQ6AF6BAgJEAI%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DNewton%2520personality%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuys2024" class="citation book cs1">Huys, Nicky (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qKHtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT92&dq=Newton+personality&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3opPVx-eJAxU-F1kFHVc8MVwQ6AF6BAgKEAI#v=onepage&q=Newton%20personality&f=false">The Quiet Titan: The Life Of Isaac Newton</a>. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quiet+Titan%3A+The+Life+Of+Isaac+Newton&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Huys&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqKHtEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT92%26dq%3DNewton%2Bpersonality%26hl%3Den%26newbks%3D1%26newbks_redir%3D0%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D2ahUKEwi3opPVx-eJAxU-F1kFHVc8MVwQ6AF6BAgKEAI%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DNewton%2520personality%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Letter from Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, 5 February 1676, as transcribed in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaury1992" class="citation book cs1">Maury, Jean-Pierre (1992) [1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8N5tQgAACAAJ">Newton: Understanding the Cosmos</a>. 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Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%3A+Understanding+the+Cosmos&rft.place=London&rft.series=%22New+Horizons%22+series&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-500-30023-7&rft.aulast=Maury&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8N5tQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> John Gribbin (2002) Science: A History 1543–2001, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1997187-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1997187_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton_–_1-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Newton_–_1_152-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall" title="Richard S. Westfall">Richard S. 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Meier, <a href="/wiki/John_P._Meier#A_Marginal_Jew:_Rethinking_the_Historical_Jesus" title="John P. Meier">A Marginal Jew</a>, v. 1, pp. 382–402. after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Newton to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentley" title="Richard Bentley">Richard Bentley</a> 10 December 1692, in Turnbull et al. (1959–77), vol 3, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Opticks, 2nd Ed 1706. Query 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> H.G. Alexander (ed) The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>, 1998, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyson2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson" title="Neil deGrasse Tyson">Tyson, Neil Degrasse</a> (1 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180906154623/http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance">"The Perimeter of Ignorance"</a>. Natural History Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2005/11/01/the-perimeter-of-ignorance">the original</a> on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Perimeter+of+Ignorance&rft.date=2005-11-01&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Neil+Degrasse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haydenplanetarium.org%2Ftyson%2Fread%2F2005%2F11%2F01%2Fthe-perimeter-of-ignorance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Dijksterhuis, E. J. The Mechanization of the World Picture, IV 329–330, Oxford University Press, 1961. The author's final comment on this episode is:"The mechanization of the world picture led with irresistible coherence to the conception of God as a sort of 'retired engineer', and from here to God's complete elimination it took just one more step". </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Brewster states that Newton was never known as an <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> during his lifetime, it was <a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a>, an Arian, who first argued that "Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists, as well as for the Eusebians or Arians, that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations," while others like <a href="/wiki/Hopton_Haynes" title="Hopton Haynes">Hopton Haynes</a> (a Mint employee and Humanitarian), "mentioned to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Baron_(dissenting_minister)" title="Richard Baron (dissenting minister)">Richard Baron</a>, that Newton held the same doctrine as himself". David Brewster. Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton. p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Newtonians_and_the_English_Revolution:_1689–1720-169"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Newtonians_and_the_English_Revolution:_1689–1720_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1976" class="citation book cs1">Jacob, Margaret C. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtoniansenglis00jaco">The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689–1720</a>. Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtoniansenglis00jaco/page/37">37</a>, 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85527-066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85527-066-7"><bdi>978-0-85527-066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newtonians+and+the+English+Revolution%3A+1689%E2%80%931720&rft.pages=37%2C+44&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-85527-066-7&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Margaret+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewtoniansenglis00jaco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Science_and_Religion_in_Seventeenth-Century_England-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Science_and_Religion_in_Seventeenth-Century_England_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfall1958" class="citation book cs1">Westfall, Richard S. (1958). Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-208-00843-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-208-00843-5"><bdi>978-0-208-00843-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion+in+Seventeenth-Century+England&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-0-208-00843-5&rft.aulast=Westfall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Enlightenment_and_Religion:_Rational_Dissent_in_eighteenth-century_Britain-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Enlightenment_and_Religion:_Rational_Dissent_in_eighteenth-century_Britain_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaakonssen1996" class="citation book cs1">Haakonssen, Knud (1996). "The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons". In Martin Fitzpatrick (ed.). Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in Eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56060-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56060-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56060-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Enlightenment%2C+politics+and+providence%3A+some+Scottish+and+English+comparisons&rft.btitle=Enlightenment+and+Religion%3A+Rational+Dissent+in+Eighteenth-century+Britain&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56060-3&rft.aulast=Haakonssen&rft.aufirst=Knud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton/">"John Maynard Keynes: Newton, the Man"</a>. Maths History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190617095839/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maths+History&rft.atitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+Newton%2C+the+Man&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FExtras%2FKeynes_Newton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyer-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Meyer_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2014" class="citation journal cs1">Meyer, Michal (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/gold-secrecy-and-prestige">"Gold, secrecy and prestige"</a>. Chemical Heritage Magazine. 32 (1): 42–43. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180320230826/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/gold-secrecy-and-prestige">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=Gold%2C+secrecy+and+prestige&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42-43&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fgold-secrecy-and-prestige&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kean-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kean_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kean_174-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKean2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kean, Sam (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2011/januaryfebruary/feature/newton-the-last-magician">"Newton, The Last Magician"</a>. Humanities. 32 (1). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413235352/http://www.neh.gov/humanities/2011/januaryfebruary/feature/newton-the-last-magician">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=Newton%2C+The+Last+Magician&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kean&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fhumanities%2F2011%2Fjanuaryfebruary%2Ffeature%2Fnewton-the-last-magician&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greshko-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Greshko_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreshko2016" class="citation journal cs1">Greshko, Michael (4 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426031049/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160404-isaac-newton-alchemy-mercury-recipe-chemistry-science/">"Isaac Newton's Lost Alchemy Recipe Rediscovered"</a>. National Geographic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160404-isaac-newton-alchemy-mercury-recipe-chemistry-science/">the original</a> on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton%27s+Lost+Alchemy+Recipe+Rediscovered&rft.date=2016-04-04&rft.aulast=Greshko&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2016%2F04%2F160404-isaac-newton-alchemy-mercury-recipe-chemistry-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dry-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Dry_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDry2014" class="citation book cs1">Dry, Sarah (2014). The Newton papers : the strange and true odyssey of Isaac Newton's manuscripts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-995104-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-995104-8"><bdi>978-0-19-995104-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newton+papers+%3A+the+strange+and+true+odyssey+of+Isaac+Newton%27s+manuscripts&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-995104-8&rft.aulast=Dry&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indiana-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indiana_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/">"The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"</a>. Indiana University, Bloomington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013127/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indiana+University%2C+Bloomington&rft.atitle=The+Chymistry+of+Isaac+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebapp1.dlib.indiana.edu%2Fnewton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevitin2019" class="citation news cs1">Levitin, Dimitri (March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://literaryreview.co.uk/going-for-gold-2">"Going for Gold"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Literary_Review" title="Literary Review">Literary Review</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190307113828/https://literaryreview.co.uk/going-for-gold-2">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Literary+Review&rft.atitle=Going+for+Gold&rft.date=2019-03&rft.aulast=Levitin&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fliteraryreview.co.uk%2Fgoing-for-gold-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2018" class="citation book cs1">Newman, William R. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/13261.html">Newton the Alchemist Science, Enigma, and the Quest for Nature's "Secret Fire"</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17487-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17487-7"><bdi>978-0-691-17487-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402130607/https://press.princeton.edu/titles/13261.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+the+Alchemist+Science%2C+Enigma%2C+and+the+Quest+for+Nature%27s+%22Secret+Fire%22&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17487-7&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F13261.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Van Helmont, Iohannis Baptistae, Opuscula Medica Inaudita: IV. De Peste, Editor Hieronymo Christian Paullo (Frankfurt am Main) Publisher Sumptibus Hieronimi Christiani Pauli, typis Matthiæ Andreæ, 1707. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2020" class="citation news cs1">Flood, Alison (2 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/jun/02/isaac-newton-plague-cure-toad-vomit">"Isaac Newton proposed curing plague with toad vomit, unseen papers show"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606192933/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/jun/02/isaac-newton-plague-cure-toad-vomit">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton+proposed+curing+plague+with+toad+vomit%2C+unseen+papers+show&rft.date=2020-06-02&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2020%2Fjun%2F02%2Fisaac-newton-plague-cure-toad-vomit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Andrade" title="Edward Andrade">Andrade, Edward</a> (2000). "Isaac Newton". In <a href="/wiki/James_R._Newman" title="James R. Newman">Newman, James R.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQqLHyd8K0IC&pg=PA275">The World of Mathematics: Volume 1</a> (Reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. p. 275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486411538" title="Special:BookSources/9780486411538"><bdi>9780486411538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Mathematics%3A+Volume+1&rft.pages=275&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780486411538&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUQqLHyd8K0IC%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J.L. Lagrange", Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-westminster_newton-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-westminster_newton_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-westminster_newton_184-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestminster_Abbey" class="citation web cs1">Westminster Abbey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westminster-abbey.org/ko/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/sir-isaac-newton">"Sir Isaac Newton Scientist, Mathematician and Astronomer"</a>. westminster-abbey.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809191135/https://www.westminster-abbey.org/ko/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/sir-isaac-newton">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=westminster-abbey.org&rft.atitle=Sir+Isaac+Newton+Scientist%2C+Mathematician+and+Astronomer&rft.au=Westminster+Abbey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fko%2Fabbey-commemorations%2Fcommemorations%2Fsir-isaac-newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons1996" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, John G. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GIyR2-852qAC&pg=PA3">The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present</a>. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1749-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-1749-0"><bdi>978-0-8065-1749-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+100%3A+A+Ranking+of+the+Most+Influential+Scientists%2C+Past+and+Present&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Citadel+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-1749-0&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGIyR2-852qAC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_186-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlands2017" class="citation book cs1">Rowlands, Peter (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CRM0DwAAQBAJ&">Newton and Modern Physics</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="World Scientific Publishing">World Scientific Publishing</a>. pp. 4–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-332-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78634-332-1"><bdi>978-1-78634-332-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+and+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=4-21&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78634-332-1&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCRM0DwAAQBAJ%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-187"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/people/isaac-newton/">"Isaac Newton"</a>. 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Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61614-746-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61614-746-4"><bdi>978-1-61614-746-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magnificent+Principia%3A+Exploring+Isaac+Newton%27s+Masterpiece&rft.place=Amherst%2C+New+York&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61614-746-4&rft.aulast=Pask&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlRhnAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2003" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Claudia M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSXlNY6xIMoC&pg">David Hume: Reason in History</a>. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press. pp. 101–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02264-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02264-2"><bdi>978-0-271-02264-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=David+Hume%3A+Reason+in+History&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pa&rft.pages=101-102&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02264-2&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Claudia+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZSXlNY6xIMoC%26pg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell" title="Eric Temple Bell">Bell, Eric Temple</a> (2000). "Gauss, the Prince of Mathematicians". In <a href="/wiki/James_R._Newman" title="James R. Newman">Newman, James R.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UQqLHyd8K0IC&pg=PA295">The World of Mathematics: Volume 1</a> (Reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. pp. 294–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486411538" title="Special:BookSources/9780486411538"><bdi>9780486411538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gauss%2C+the+Prince+of+Mathematicians&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Mathematics%3A+Volume+1&rft.pages=294-295&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780486411538&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Eric+Temple&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUQqLHyd8K0IC%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliffeSmith2016" class="citation book cs1">Iliffe, Rob; Smith, George E., eds. 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Retrieved 22 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Newton+voted+greatest+Briton&rft.date=2003-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fentertainment%2F3151333.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitra2006" class="citation journal cs1">Mitra, Asoke (1 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/59/11/12/395831/New-Einsteins-need-positive-environment">"New Einsteins need positive environment, independent spirit"</a>. Physics Today. 59 (11): 12–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4797321">10.1063/1.4797321</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=New+Einsteins+need+positive+environment%2C+independent+spirit&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=12-12&rft.date=2006-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.4797321&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft.aulast=Mitra&rft.aufirst=Asoke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Fphysicstoday%2Farticle%2F59%2F11%2F12%2F395831%2FNew-Einsteins-need-positive-environment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiYinFortunatoWang2019" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Jichao; Yin, Yian; Fortunato, Santo; Wang, Dashun (18 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42254-019-0057-z">"Nobel laureates are almost the same as us"</a>. Nature Reviews Physics. 1 (5): 301–303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs42254-019-0057-z">10.1038/s42254-019-0057-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2522-5820">2522-5820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Physics&rft.atitle=Nobel+laureates+are+almost+the+same+as+us&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=301-303&rft.date=2019-04-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs42254-019-0057-z&rft.issn=2522-5820&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jichao&rft.au=Yin%2C+Yian&rft.au=Fortunato%2C+Santo&rft.au=Wang%2C+Dashun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs42254-019-0057-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199786-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite199786_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite1997">White 1997</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENumbers201548–56-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENumbers201548–56_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNumbers2015">Numbers 2015</a>, pp. 48–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalament2002" class="citation book cs1">Malament, David B. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TqcMQy-Ioc4C&q=catherine+barton+apple&pg=PA118">Reading Natural Philosophy: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science and Mathematics</a>. Open Court Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9507-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9507-6"><bdi>978-0-8126-9507-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414055334/https://books.google.com/books?id=TqcMQy-Ioc4C&q=catherine+barton+apple&pg=PA118">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Natural+Philosophy%3A+Essays+in+the+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+and+Mathematics&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9507-6&rft.aulast=Malament&rft.aufirst=David+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTqcMQy-Ioc4C%26q%3Dcatherine%2Bbarton%2Bapple%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1727" class="citation book cs1">Voltaire (1727). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0o5bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA104">An Essay upon the Civil Wars of France, extracted from curious Manuscripts and also upon the Epick Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer down to Milton</a>. London, England: Samuel Jallasson. p. 104. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614182518/https://books.google.com/books?id=0o5bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA104">Archived</a> from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+upon+the+Civil+Wars+of+France%2C+extracted+from+curious+Manuscripts+and+also+upon+the+Epick+Poetry+of+the+European+Nations%2C+from+Homer+down+to+Milton&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Samuel+Jallasson&rft.date=1727&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0o5bAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> From p. 104: 'In the like Manner Pythagoras ow'd the Invention of Musik to the noise of the Hammer of a Blacksmith. And thus in our Days Sir Isaak Newton walking in his Garden had the first Thought of his System of Gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a Tree.' </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Voltaire (1786) heard the story of Newton and the apple tree from Newton's niece, Catherine Conduit (née Barton) (1679–1740): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire1786" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Voltaire (1786). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NKWTGHiZSm4C&pg=PA175">Oeuvres completes de Voltaire</a> [The complete works of Voltaire] (in French). Vol. 31. Basel, Switzerland: Jean-Jacques Tourneisen. p. 175. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709192112/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKWTGHiZSm4C&pg=PA175">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oeuvres+completes+de+Voltaire&rft.place=Basel%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=Jean-Jacques+Tourneisen&rft.date=1786&rft.au=Voltaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNKWTGHiZSm4C%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> From p. 175: "Un jour en l'année 1666, Newton retiré à la campagne, et voyant tomber des fruits d'un arbre, à ce que m'a conté sa nièce, (Mme Conduit) se laissa aller à une méditation profonde sur la cause qui entraine ainsi tous les corps dans une ligne, qui, si elle était prolongée, passerait à peu près par le centre de la terre." (One day in the year 1666 Newton withdrew to the country, and seeing the fruits of a tree fall, according to what his niece (Madame Conduit) told me, he entered into a deep meditation on the cause that draws all bodies in a [straight] line, which, if it were extended, would pass very near to the center of the Earth.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Berkun2010-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Berkun2010_207-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkun2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Berkun" title="Scott Berkun">Berkun, Scott</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&pg=PAPA4">The Myths of Innovation</a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-8962-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-8962-8"><bdi>978-1-4493-8962-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317084422/https://books.google.com/books?id=kPCgnc70MSgC&pg=PAPA4">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myths+of+Innovation&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4493-8962-8&rft.aulast=Berkun&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkPCgnc70MSgC%26pg%3DPAPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton's_apple:_The_real_story-208"><a href="#cite_ref-Newton's_apple:_The_real_story_208-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20100121073908/http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php">"Newton's apple: The real story"</a>. New Scientist. 18 January 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-story.php">the original</a> on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Newton%27s+apple%3A+The+real+story&rft.date=2010-01-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Fblogs%2Fculturelab%2F2010%2F01%2Fnewtons-apple-the-real-story.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NP-209"><a href="#cite_ref-NP_209-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/OTHE00001">"Revised Memoir of Newton (Normalized Version)"</a>. The Newton Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314064817/http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/OTHE00001">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Newton+Project&rft.atitle=Revised+Memoir+of+Newton+%28Normalized+Version%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk%2Fview%2Ftexts%2Fnormalized%2FOTHE00001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keynes_Ms._130.4:Conduitt's_account_of_Newton's_life_at_Cambridge-210"><a href="#cite_ref-Keynes_Ms._130.4:Conduitt's_account_of_Newton's_life_at_Cambridge_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConduitt" class="citation web cs1">Conduitt, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167">"Keynes Ms. 130.4:Conduitt's account of Newton's life at Cambridge"</a>. Newtonproject. Imperial College London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091107101632/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00167">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2009. Retrieved 30 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newtonproject&rft.atitle=Keynes+Ms.+130.4%3AConduitt%27s+account+of+Newton%27s+life+at+Cambridge&rft.aulast=Conduitt&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk%2Fview%2Ftexts%2Fnormalized%2FTHEM00167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> I. Bernard Cohen and George E. Smith, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Newton (2002) p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Alberto A. Martinez Science Secrets: The Truth about Darwin's Finches, Einstein's Wife, and Other Myths, p. 69 (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4407-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-4407-2">978-0-8229-4407-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brogdale—Home_of_the_National_Fruit_Collection-213"><a href="#cite_ref-Brogdale—Home_of_the_National_Fruit_Collection_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201035839/http://www.brogdale.org/">"Brogdale – Home of the National Fruit Collection"</a>. Brogdale.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brogdale.org">the original</a> on 1 December 2008. Retrieved 20 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brogdale+%E2%80%93+Home+of+the+National+Fruit+Collection&rft.pub=Brogdale.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brogdale.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-From_the_National_Fruit_Collection:_Isaac_Newton's_Tree-214"><a href="#cite_ref-From_the_National_Fruit_Collection:_Isaac_Newton's_Tree_214-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brogdale.org.uk/image1.php?varietyid=1089">"From the National Fruit Collection: Isaac Newton's Tree"</a>. Retrieved 10 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+the+National+Fruit+Collection%3A+Isaac+Newton%27s+Tree&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brogdale.org.uk%2Fimage1.php%3Fvarietyid%3D1089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalfruitcollection.org.uk/full2.php?varid=2946&&acc=1948729">Alternate Page</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220705225956/http://www.nationalfruitcollection.org.uk/full2.php?varid=2946&&acc=1948729">Archived</a> 5 July 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 5 July 2022. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p13: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966 </li> <li id="cite_note-wmabbey-216"><a href="#cite_ref-wmabbey_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton">"Famous People & the Abbey: Sir Isaac Newton"</a>. Westminster Abbey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091016081238/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/sir-isaac-newton">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 13 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Famous+People+%26+the+Abbey%3A+Sir+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Westminster+Abbey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Four-history%2Fpeople%2Fsir-isaac-newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bankofengland-217"><a href="#cite_ref-bankofengland_217-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100505053927/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm">"Withdrawn banknotes reference guide"</a>. Bank of England. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/nonflash/1-SeriesD-Revised.htm">the original</a> on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Withdrawn+banknotes+reference+guide&rft.pub=Bank+of+England&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bankofengland.co.uk%2Fbanknotes%2Fdenom_guide%2Fnonflash%2F1-SeriesD-Revised.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-218"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_218-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistoric_England1062362" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://HistoricEngland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1062362?section=official-list-entry">"Woolsthorpe Manor House, Colsterworth (1062362)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England" title="National Heritage List for England">National Heritage List for England</a>. Retrieved 5 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Heritage+List+for+England&rft.atitle=Woolsthorpe+Manor+House%2C+Colsterworth+%281062362%29&rft.au=Historic+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2FHistoricEngland.org.uk%2Flisting%2Fthe-list%2Flist-entry%2F1062362%3Fsection%3Dofficial-list-entry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> "Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century" by John Gribbin, Science: A History 1543–2001 (2002), p. 241 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9503-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9503-9">978-0-7139-9503-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Anders Hald 2003 – A history of probability and statistics and their applications before 1750 – 586 pages Volume 501 of Wiley series in probability and statistics <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&q=de%20analysi%20per%20aequationes%20numero%20terminorum%20infinitas&pg=PA563">Wiley-IEEE, 2003</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602024647/https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&pg=PA563&q=de%20analysi%20per%20aequationes%20numero%20terminorum%20infinitas">Archived</a> 2 June 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 27 January 2012 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-47129-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-47129-1">0-471-47129-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/intro/ALCH00081/query/field1=text&text1=Of%20Natures%20obvious%20laws%20&%20processes%20in%20vegetation">"Natures obvious laws & processes in vegetation – Introduction"</a>. The Chymistry of Isaac Newton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210117172142/http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/intro/ALCH00081/query/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Chymistry+of+Isaac+Newton&rft.atitle=Natures+obvious+laws+%26+processes+in+vegetation+%E2%80%93+Introduction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebapp1.dlib.indiana.edu%2Fnewton%2Fmss%2Fintro%2FALCH00081%2Fquery%2Ffield1%3Dtext%26text1%3DOf%2520Natures%2520obvious%2520laws%2520%26%2520processes%2520in%2520vegetation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> Transcribed and online at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_(Bloomington)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana University (Bloomington)">Indiana University</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Whiteside, D.T., ed. (1974). Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, 1684–1691. 6. Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZ0v23iqRgC&pg=PA30">pp. 30–91.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610163025/https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZ0v23iqRgC&pg=PA30">Archived</a> 10 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331192529/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/archive/exhibits/pepys/pages/largeImage.asp?id=101&size=3&nav=none">"Museum of London exhibit including facsimile of title page from John Flamsteed's copy of 1687 edition of Newton's Principia"</a>. Museumoflondon.org.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/archive/exhibits/pepys/pages/largeImage.asp?id=101&size=3&nav=none">the original</a> on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Museum+of+London+exhibit+including+facsimile+of+title+page+from+John+Flamsteed%27s+copy+of+1687+edition+of+Newton%27s+Principia&rft.pub=Museumoflondon.org.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.museumoflondon.org.uk%2Farchive%2Fexhibits%2Fpepys%2Fpages%2FlargeImage.asp%3Fid%3D101%26size%3D3%26nav%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Published anonymously as "Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa." in Philosophical Transactions, 1701, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA824">824</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200121085937/https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA824">Archived</a> 21 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>–829; ed. Joannes Nichols, Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae exstant omnia, vol. 4 (1782), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&pg=PA403">403</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617115723/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz2FzJqaJMUC&pg=PA403">Archived</a> 17 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>–407. Mark P. Silverman, A Universe of Atoms, An Atom in the Universe, Springer, 2002, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Er5pIsYe_AC&pg=PA49">p. 49.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160624011536/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Er5pIsYe_AC&pg=PA49">Archived</a> 24 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1704" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1704). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3362k">Opticks or, a Treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light. Also two treatises of the species and magnitude of curvilinear figures</a>. Sam. Smith. and Benj. Walford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224021530/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3362k">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opticks+or%2C+a+Treatise+of+the+reflexions%2C+refractions%2C+inflexions+and+colours+of+light.+Also+two+treatises+of+the+species+and+magnitude+of+curvilinear+figures&rft.pub=Sam.+Smith.+and+Benj.+Walford&rft.date=1704&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k3362k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pickover2008-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pickover2008_227-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickover2008" class="citation book cs1">Pickover, Clifford (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PAPA117">Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979268-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979268-9"><bdi>978-0-19-979268-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240226145626/https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PAPA117#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archimedes+to+Hawking%3A+Laws+of+Science+and+the+Great+Minds+Behind+Them&rft.pages=117-18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979268-9&rft.aulast=Pickover&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQXcpvjcJBUC%26pg%3DPAPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwetz" class="citation magazine cs1">Swetz, Frank J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-newtons-method-of-fluxions">"Mathematical Treasure: Newton's Method of Fluxions"</a>. Convergence. Mathematical Association of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170628213844/http://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-newtons-method-of-fluxions">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Convergence&rft.atitle=Mathematical+Treasure%3A+Newton%27s+Method+of+Fluxions&rft.aulast=Swetz&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maa.org%2Fpress%2Fperiodicals%2Fconvergence%2Fmathematical-treasure-newtons-method-of-fluxions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall1908" class="citation book cs1">Ball, W. W. Rouse (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shortaccountofhi0000ball">A Short Account of the History of Mathematics</a>. New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20630-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20630-1"><bdi>978-0-486-20630-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+Account+of+the+History+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1908&rft.isbn=978-0-486-20630-1&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=W.+W.+Rouse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshortaccountofhi0000ball&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGjertsen1986" class="citation book cs1">Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7102-0279-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7102-0279-2"><bdi>0-7102-0279-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newton+Handbook&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-7102-0279-2&rft.aulast=Gjertsen&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1992" class="citation book cs1">Katz, David S. (1992). "Englishness and Medieval Anglo-Jewry". In Kushner, Tony (ed.). The Marginalization of Early Modern Jewish History. Frank Cass. pp. 42–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-3464-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-3464-6"><bdi>0-7146-3464-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Englishness+and+Medieval+Anglo-Jewry&rft.btitle=The+Marginalization+of+Early+Modern+Jewish+History&rft.pages=42-59&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7146-3464-6&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevenson2010" class="citation book cs1">Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-33604-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-33604-6"><bdi>978-0-547-33604-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+and+the+Counterfeiter%3A+The+Unknown+Detective+Career+of+the+World%27s+Greatest+Scientist&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-547-33604-6&rft.aulast=Levenson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManuel1968" class="citation book cs1">Manuel, Frank E. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/portraitofisaacn00manu">A Portrait of Isaac Newton</a>. Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Portrait+of+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University%2C+Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Manuel&rft.aufirst=Frank+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fportraitofisaacn00manu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2015" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, R. L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ">Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91547-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91547-3"><bdi>978-0-674-91547-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708151321/https://books.google.com/books?id=pWouCwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Apple+and+Other+Myths+about+Science&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-91547-3&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWouCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2009" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-55742-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-55742-5"><bdi>978-0-495-55742-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calculus%3A+Concepts+and+Contexts&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-495-55742-5&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfall1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall" title="Richard S. Westfall">Westfall, Richard S.</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton">Never at Rest</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27435-7"><bdi>978-0-521-27435-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Never+at+Rest&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27435-7&rft.aulast=Westfall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fsearch.php%3Fquery%3Dcreator%253A%2528westfall%2529%2520newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfall2007" class="citation book cs1">Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921355-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921355-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921355-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921355-9&rft.aulast=Westfall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestfall1994" class="citation book cs1">Westfall, Richard S. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton">The Life of Isaac Newton</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47737-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47737-6"><bdi>978-0-521-47737-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47737-6&rft.aulast=Westfall&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fsearch.php%3Fquery%3Dcreator%253A%2528westfall%2529%2520newton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_White_(author)" title="Michael White (author)">White, Michael</a> (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85702-416-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85702-416-6"><bdi>978-1-85702-416-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isaac+Newton%3A+The+Last+Sorcerer&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate+Limited&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-85702-416-6&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, (1999) <ul><li>Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)</li></ul></li> <li>Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge University Press (1984) <ul><li>Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/opticksoratreat00newtgoog">online edition</a></li> <li>Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.</li></ul></li> <li>Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. <a href="/wiki/Florian_Cajori" title="Florian Cajori">Florian Cajori</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteside1967–1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Whiteside" title="Tom Whiteside">Whiteside, D. T.</a>, ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07740-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07740-8"><bdi>978-0-521-07740-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mathematical+Papers+of+Isaac+Newton&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967%2F1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-07740-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> – 8 volumes.</li> <li>Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)</li> <li>Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)</li> <li>Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes" title="Roger Cotes">Roger Cotes</a>, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)</li> <li>Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse</li> <li>Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press</li> <li>Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alchemy_2">Alchemy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1946" class="citation book cs1">Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+at+the+Mint&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1953" class="citation book cs1">Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 198–222. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CIHG7">B0000CIHG7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XII.+Isaac+Newton&rft.btitle=The+Mint%3A+A+History+of+the+London+Mint+from+A.D.+287+to+1948&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=198-222&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0000CIHG7%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Villamil1931" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Villamil" title="Richard de Villamil">de Villamil, Richard</a> (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G. D. Knox.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%2C+the+Man&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+D.+Knox&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=de+Villamil&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobbs1975" class="citation book cs1">Dobbs, B. J. T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Newton%27s+Alchemy+or+%22The+Hunting+of+the+Greene+Lyon%22&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Dobbs&rft.aufirst=B.+J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes, John Maynard</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essaysinbiograph0000keyn">Essays in Biography</a>. W. W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00189-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00189-1"><bdi>978-0-393-00189-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Biography&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00189-1&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessaysinbiograph0000keyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStukeley1936" class="citation book cs1">Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Sir+Isaac+Newton%27s+Life&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Stukeley&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)</li> <li>Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton," <a href="/wiki/The_American_Genealogist" title="The American Genealogist">The American Genealogist</a> 79 (2004): 13–27.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism</li> <li>Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfizenmaier1997" class="citation journal cs1">Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.1997.0001">10.1353/jhi.1997.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988">3653988</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170545277">170545277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Was+Isaac+Newton+an+Arian%3F&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-80&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170545277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3653988%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.1997.0001&rft.aulast=Pfizenmaier&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamati2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". The British Journal for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087401004484">10.1017/S0007087401004484</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4028372">4028372</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143045863">143045863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+Truth+of+Creation%3A+Newton%27s+Method+of+Fluxions&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=417-38&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143045863%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4028372%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087401004484&rft.aulast=Ramati&rft.aufirst=Ayval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnobelen2001" class="citation journal cs1">Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Osir...16..169S">2001Osir...16..169S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F649344">10.1086/649344</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/301985">301985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170364912">170364912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Osiris&rft.atitle=%27God+of+Gods%2C+and+Lord+of+Lords%27%3A+The+Theology+of+Isaac+Newton%27s+General+Scholium+to+the+Principia&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=169-208&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F649344&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170364912%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F301985%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Osir...16..169S&rft.aulast=Snobelen&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnobelen1999" class="citation journal cs1">Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". The British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087499003751">10.1017/S0007087499003751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4027945">4027945</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145208136">145208136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton%2C+heretic%3A+the+strategies+of+a+Nicodemite&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=381-419&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145208136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4027945%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087499003751&rft.aulast=Snobelen&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBechler2013" class="citation book cs1">Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-009-7717-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-009-7717-4"><bdi>978-94-009-7717-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Newtonian+Research+%28Studies+in+the+History+of+Modern+Science%29%28Volume+9%29&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-009-7717-4&rft.aulast=Bechler&rft.aufirst=Zev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-84392-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-84392-7">0-684-84392-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrasekhar1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan</a> (1995). Newton's Principia for the Common Reader. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851744-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851744-3"><bdi>978-0-19-851744-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton%27s+Principia+for+the+Common+Reader&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851744-3&rft.aulast=Chandrasekhar&rft.aufirst=Subrahmanyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081008010311/http://www.questia.com/read/105054986">"The Cambridge Companion to Newton"</a>. Archived from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Newton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fread%2F105054986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristianson1984" class="citation book cs1">Christianson, Gale (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inpresenceofcr00chri">In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times</a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-905190-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-905190-0"><bdi>978-0-02-905190-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Presence+of+the+Creator%3A+Isaac+Newton+%26+His+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-02-905190-0&rft.aulast=Christianson&rft.aufirst=Gale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finpresenceofcr00chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1980" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22964-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22964-7"><bdi>978-0-521-22964-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Newtonian+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22964-7&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=I.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1958" class="citation journal cs1">Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature. 182 (4629): 149–52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Natur.182..149C">1958Natur.182..149C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F182149a0">10.1038/182149a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4200994">4200994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton+%E2%80%93+Crime+Investigator&rft.volume=182&rft.issue=4629&rft.pages=149-52&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4200994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F182149a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958Natur.182..149C&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1963" class="citation journal cs1">Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 18 (2): 136–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1963.0017">10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143981415">143981415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton+and+the+Counterfeiters&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=136-45&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.1963.0017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143981415%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleick2003" class="citation book cs1">Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42233-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42233-1"><bdi>978-0-375-42233-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-375-42233-1&rft.aulast=Gleick&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalley1687" class="citation journal cs1">Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a>. 186: 291–97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions&rft.atitle=Review+of+Newton%27s+Principia&rft.volume=186&rft.pages=291-97&rft.date=1687&rft.aulast=Halley&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking, Stephen</a>, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7624-1348-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7624-1348-4">0-7624-1348-4</a> Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerivel1965" class="citation book cs1">Herivel, J. W. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/backgroundtonewt0000heri">The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Background+to+Newton%27s+Principia.+A+Study+of+Newton%27s+Dynamical+Researches+in+the+Years+1664%E2%80%9384&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Herivel&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbackgroundtonewt0000heri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by <a href="/wiki/I._Bernard_Cohen" title="I. Bernard Cohen">I. Bernard Cohen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 1958, 1978; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-46853-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-46853-8">0-674-46853-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPemberton1728" class="citation journal cs1">Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966PhTea...4....8M">1966PhTea...4....8M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2350900">10.1119/1.2350900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Physics+Teacher&rft.atitle=A+View+of+Sir+Isaac+Newton%27s+Philosophy&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=1728&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2350900&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966PhTea...4....8M&rft.aulast=Pemberton&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShamos1959" class="citation book cs1">Shamos, Morris H. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatexperiments0000unse">Great Experiments in Physics</a>. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-25346-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-25346-6"><bdi>978-0-486-25346-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Experiments+in+Physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-486-25346-6&rft.aulast=Shamos&rft.aufirst=Morris+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatexperiments0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 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data-durationhint="2176" data-mwtitle="Isaac_Newton.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Isaac_Newton.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/86/Isaac_Newton.ogg/Isaac_Newton.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton.ogg" title="File:Isaac Newton.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 30 July 2008 (2008-07-30), and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enlighteningscience.sussex.ac.uk/home">Enlightening Science digital project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161202133956/http://www.enlighteningscience.sussex.ac.uk/home">Archived</a> 2 December 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Texts of his papers, "Popularisations" and podcasts at the Newton Project</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/c/F257055">"Archival material relating to Isaac Newton"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">UK National Archives</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archival+material+relating+to+Isaac+Newton&rft.pub=UK+National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Fc%2FF257055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIsaac+Newton" class="Z3988"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935#P3029" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp03286">Portraits of Sir Isaac Newton</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935#P1816" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writings_by_Newton">Writings by Newton</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=43">Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121008062012/http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=43">Archived</a> 8 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/people/fst01801333">Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180928003316/https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/people/fst01801333">Archived</a> 28 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/Humanities/Pages/newton.aspx">The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141230155741/http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/english/collections/humanities/pages/newton.aspx">Archived</a> 30 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/6288">Works by Isaac Newton</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Newton%2C%20I%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Newton%2C%20Isaac%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Isaac%20Newton%22%29%20OR%20%28%221642-1727%22%20AND%20Newton%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Isaac Newton</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/2836">Works by Isaac Newton</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton">"Newton Papers"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111150235/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton">Archived</a> 11 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Cambridge Digital Library</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sir_Isaac_Newton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Isaac_Newton" title="Template:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Isaac_Newton" title="Template talk:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Isaac_Newton" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sir_Isaac_Newton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sir Isaac Newton</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions" title="Method of Fluxions">Fluxions</a> (1671)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">De Motu</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a> (1687)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a> (1704)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Queries" class="mw-redirect" title="The Queries">Queries</a> (1704)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica_Universalis" title="Arithmetica Universalis">Arithmetica</a> (1707)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas" title="De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas">De Analysi</a> (1711)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quaestiones_quaedam_philosophicae" title="Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae">Quaestiones</a> (1661–1665)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" title="Standing on the shoulders of giants">standing on the shoulders of giants</a>" (1675)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_Jewish_Temple" title="Notes on the Jewish Temple">Notes on the Jewish Temple</a> (c. 1680)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/General_Scholium" title="General Scholium">General Scholium</a>" (1713; "<a href="/wiki/Hypotheses_non_fingo" title="Hypotheses non fingo">hypotheses non fingo</a>" )</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Chronology_of_Ancient_Kingdoms_Amended" title="The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended">Ancient Kingdoms Amended</a> (1728)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture" title="An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture">Corruptions of Scripture</a> (1754)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluxion" title="Fluxion">fluxion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_depth" title="Impact depth">Impact depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_disc" title="Newton disc">Newton disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_polygon" title="Newton polygon">Newton polygon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Okounkov_body" title="Newton–Okounkov body">Newton–Okounkov body</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_reflector" title="Newton's reflector">Newton's reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope" title="Newtonian telescope">Newtonian telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_scale" title="Newton scale">Newton scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_metal" title="Newton's metal">Newton's metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bucket_argument" title="Bucket argument">Bucket argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_inequalities" title="Newton's inequalities">Newton's inequalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Newtonian_expansion" title="Post-Newtonian expansion">post-Newtonian expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameterized_post-Newtonian_formalism" title="Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism">parameterized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_constant" title="Gravitational constant">gravitational constant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cartan_theory" title="Newton–Cartan theory">Newton–Cartan theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%E2%80%93Newton_equation" title="Schrödinger–Newton equation">Schrödinger–Newton equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_dynamics" title="Newtonian dynamics">Newtonian dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method_in_optimization" title="Newton's method in optimization">Newton's method in optimization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Apollonius" title="Problem of Apollonius">Apollonius's problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truncated_Newton_method" title="Truncated Newton method">truncated Newton method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Newton_algorithm" title="Gauss–Newton algorithm">Gauss–Newton algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings" title="Newton's rings">Newton's rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_theorem_about_ovals" title="Newton's theorem about ovals">Newton's theorem about ovals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Pepys_problem" title="Newton–Pepys problem">Newton–Pepys problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_potential" title="Newtonian potential">Newtonian potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newtonian fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light" title="Corpuscular theory of light">Corpuscular theory of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's notation">Newton's notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_spheres" title="Rotating spheres">Rotating spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_cannonball" title="Newton's cannonball">Newton's cannonball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cotes_formulas" title="Newton–Cotes formulas">Newton–Cotes formulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Gauss%E2%80%93Newton_method" title="Generalized Gauss–Newton method">generalized Gauss–Newton method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_fractal" title="Newton fractal">Newton fractal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities" title="Newton's identities">Newton's identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_polynomial" title="Newton polynomial">Newton polynomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_theorem_of_revolving_orbits" title="Newton's theorem of revolving orbits">Newton's theorem of revolving orbits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Euler_equations" title="Newton–Euler equations">Newton–Euler equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_number" title="Power number">Newton number</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_number" title="Kissing number">kissing number problem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_quotient" title="Difference quotient">Newton's quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallelogram_of_force" title="Parallelogram of force">Parallelogram of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puiseux_series" title="Puiseux series">Newton–Puiseux theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time#Newton" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">Luminiferous aether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_difference" title="Finite difference">Newtonian series</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_Newtonian_series" title="Table of Newtonian series">table</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Personal life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor" title="Woolsthorpe Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> (birthplace)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranbury_Park" title="Cranbury Park">Cranbury Park</a> (home)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Early life of Isaac Newton">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Later life of Isaac Newton">Later life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_apple_tree" title="Isaac Newton's apple tree">Apple tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Religious views of Isaac Newton">Religious views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_occult_studies" title="Isaac Newton's occult studies">Occult studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton" title="Catherine Barton">Catherine Barton</a> (niece)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> (nephew-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> (professor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Clarke_(apothecary)" title="William Clarke (apothecary)">William Clarke</a> (mentor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Pulleyn" title="Benjamin Pulleyn">Benjamin Pulleyn</a> (tutor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes" title="Roger Cotes">Roger Cotes</a> (student)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> (student)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keill" title="John Keill">John Keill</a> (disciple)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley" title="William Stukeley">William Stukeley</a> (friend)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(mathematician)" title="William Jones (mathematician)">William Jones</a> (friend)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_de_Moivre" title="Abraham de Moivre">Abraham de Moivre</a> (friend)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_in_popular_culture" title="Isaac Newton in popular culture">Depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)" title="Newton (Blake)">Newton by Blake</a> (monotype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Paolozzi)" title="Newton (Paolozzi)">Newton by Paolozzi</a> (sculpture)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Gargoyle" title="Isaac Newton Gargoyle">Isaac Newton Gargoyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton" title="List of things named after Isaac Newton">Namesake</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">Newton (unit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_cradle" title="Newton's cradle">Newton's cradle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Institute" title="Isaac Newton Institute">Isaac Newton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Isaac_Newton_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Physics Isaac Newton Medal">Isaac Newton Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Telescope" title="Isaac Newton Telescope">Isaac Newton Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Group_of_Telescopes" title="Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes">Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XMM-Newton" title="XMM-Newton">XMM-Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton_Sixth_Form" title="Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form">Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statal_Institute_of_Higher_Education_Isaac_Newton" title="Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton">Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_International_Fellowship" title="Newton International Fellowship">Newton International Fellowship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Isaac_Newton" aria-expanded="false"></a> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Isaac_Newton" title="Category:Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Isaac_Newton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Isaac_Newton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Isaac Newton</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alchemy_(general)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alchemy" title="Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alchemy" title="Template talk:Alchemy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alchemy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alchemy_(general)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy (general)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemists" title="List of alchemists">Alchemists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greco-Egyptian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agathodaemon_(alchemist)" title="Agathodaemon (alchemist)">Agathodaemon (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chymes" title="Chymes">Chymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_the_Alchemist" title="Cleopatra the Alchemist">pseudo-Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Democritus" title="Pseudo-Democritus">pseudo-Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermetica" title="Hermetica">Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_the_Jewess" title="Mary the Jewess">Mary the Jewess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_of_Alexandria" title="Moses of Alexandria">pseudo-Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes (legendary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphnutia_the_Virgin" title="Paphnutia the Virgin">Paphnutia the Virgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Ancient Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fang_(alchemist)" title="Fang (alchemist)">Fang (alchemist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Geng" title="Master Geng">Master Geng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">pseudo-Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Alexandria" title="Stephanus of Alexandria">Stephanus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic-Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphidius" title="Alphidius">Alphidius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artephius" title="Artephius">Artephius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">pseudo-Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arfa%27_Ra%27s" title="Ibn Arfa' Ra's">Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Umayl" title="Ibn Umayl">Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" title="Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Waḥshiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Simawi" title="Al-Simawi">al-ʿIrāqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Yazid" title="Khalid ibn Yazid">pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jildaki" title="Al-Jildaki">al-Jildakī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picatrix" title="Picatrix">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tughrai" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tughrai">al-Ṭughrāʾī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Albertus" title="Pseudo-Albertus">pseudo-Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaldus_de_Villa_Nova" title="Arnaldus de Villa Nova">(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(alchemist)" title="George Ripley (alchemist)">George Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_di_Montanor" title="Guido di Montanor">Guido di Montanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Evesham" title="Hugh of Evesham">Hugh of Evesham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_of_Laz" title="Johann of Laz">Johann of Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dastin" title="John Dastin">John Dastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Roquetaillade" title="Jean de Roquetaillade">John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_Salernus" title="Magister Salernus">Magister Salernus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">pseudo-Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortolanus" title="Ortolanus">Ortolanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Taranto" title="Paul of Taranto">Paul of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bonus" title="Petrus Bonus">Petrus Bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">pseudo-Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">(pseudo-)Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taddeo_Alderotti" title="Taddeo Alderotti">Taddeo Alderotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Thomas Norton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Libavius" title="Andreas Libavius">Andreas Libavius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Valentine" title="Basil Valentine">Basil Valentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Trevisan" title="Bernard Trevisan">pseudo-Bernard of Treviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Starkey" title="George Starkey">George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Dorn" title="Gerhard Dorn">Gerhard Dorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Mercurio_da_Correggio" title="Giovanni Mercurio da Correggio">Giovanni da Correggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Khunrath" title="Heinrich Khunrath">Heinrich Khunrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hennig_Brand" title="Hennig Brand">Hennig Brand</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Rudolf_Glauber" title="Johann Rudolf Glauber">Johann Rudolf Glauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maier" title="Michael Maier">Michael Maier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sendivogius" title="Michael Sendivogius">Michael Sendivogius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Jean_Fabre" title="Pierre-Jean Fabre">Pierre-Jean Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Samuel Norton (alchemist)">Samuel Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Vaughan_(philosopher)" title="Thomas Vaughan (philosopher)">Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Homberg" title="Wilhelm Homberg">Wilhelm Homberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung#Alchemy" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Canseliet" title="Eugène Canseliet">Eugène Canseliet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frater_Albertus" title="Frater Albertus">Frater Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulcanelli" title="Fulcanelli">Fulcanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Atwood" title="Mary Anne Atwood">Mary Anne Atwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_documents" title="Category:Alchemical documents">Writings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atalanta_Fugiens" title="Atalanta Fugiens">Atalanta fugiens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_consurgens" title="Aurora consurgens">Aurora consurgens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_de_compositione_alchemiae" title="Liber de compositione alchemiae">Liber de compositione alchemiae (Morienus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Silvery_Water_and_the_Starry_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth">Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mercy_(alchemical_treatise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Mercy (alchemical treatise)">Book of Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_of_the_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Books of the Balances">Books of the Balances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buch_der_heiligen_Dreifaltigkeit" title="Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit">Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantong_qi" title="Cantong qi">Cantong Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chymical_Wedding_of_Christian_Rosenkreutz" title="Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz">Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavis_sapientiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clavis sapientiae">Clavis sapientiae (Miftāḥ al-ḥikma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_consideratione_quintae_essentiae" class="mw-redirect" title="De consideratione quintae essentiae">De consideratione quintae essentiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerald_Tablet" title="Emerald Tablet">Emerald Tablet (Tabula Smaragdina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leyden_papyrus_X" title="Leyden papyrus X">Leyden papyrus X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Hermetis_de_alchemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Hermetis de alchemia">Liber Hermetis de alchemia (Liber dabessi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Ignium" title="Liber Ignium">Liber ignium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_lucis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber lucis">Liber lucis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappae_clavicula" title="Mappae clavicula">Mappae clavicula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Alchimy" title="The Mirror of Alchimy">Mirror of Alchimy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutus_Liber" title="Mutus Liber">Mutus liber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" title="The Nabataean Agriculture">Nabataean Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton_(alchemist)" title="Thomas Norton (alchemist)">Ordinal of Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Graecus_Holmiensis" title="Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis">Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physika_kai_mystika" class="mw-redirect" title="Physika kai mystika">Physika kai mystika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosary_of_the_Philosophers" title="Rosary of the Philosophers">Rosary of the Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutbat_al-hakim" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutbat al-hakim">Rutbat al-ḥakīm (Step of the Sage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventy_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventy Books">Seventy Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-khaliqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-khaliqa">Sirr al-khalīqa (Secret of Creation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretum_Secretorum" title="Secretum Secretorum">Sirr al-asrār (pseudo-Aristotle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirr_al-asrar_(al-Razi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirr al-asrar (al-Razi)">Sirr al-asrār (al-Rāzī)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splendor_Solis" title="Splendor Solis">Splendor solis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summa_perfectionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa perfectionis">Summa perfectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspicions_about_the_Hidden_Realities_of_the_Air" title="Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air">Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turba_Philosophorum" title="Turba Philosophorum">Turba philosophorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Keys_of_Basil_Valentine" title="The Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine">Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compilations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Trismosin#Aureum_Vellus" title="Salomon Trismosin">Aureum vellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_Chemica_Curiosa" title="Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa">Bibliotheca chemica curiosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Alchemia" title="De Alchemia">De alchemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum">Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciculus_Chemicus" title="Fasciculus Chemicus">Fasciculus chemicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musaeum_Hermeticum" title="Musaeum Hermeticum">Musaeum Hermeticum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum">Theatrum chemicum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Chemicum_Britannicum" title="Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum">Theatrum chemicum Britannicum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripus_Aureus" title="Tripus Aureus">Tripus aureus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Various</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alembic" title="Alembic">Alembic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanor" title="Athanor">Athanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azoth" title="Azoth">Azoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysopoeia" title="Chrysopoeia">Chrysopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elixir_of_life" title="Elixir of life">Elixir of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homunculus" title="Homunculus">Homunculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrochemistry" title="Iatrochemistry">Iatrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_art_and_entertainment" title="Alchemy in art and entertainment">In art/entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus_(alchemy)" title="Magnum opus (alchemy)">Magnum opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouroboros" title="Ouroboros">Ouroboros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pill_of_Immortality" title="Pill of Immortality">Pill of Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosophers' stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">Prima materia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebis" title="Rebis">Rebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takwin" title="Takwin">Takwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yliaster" title="Yliaster">Yliaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_processes" title="Category:Alchemical processes">Processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances" title="List of alchemical substances">Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">Symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alchemical_Symbols_(Unicode_block)" title="Alchemical Symbols (Unicode block)">Unicode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suns_in_alchemy" title="Suns in alchemy">Suns in alchemy</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemy" title="Category:Alchemy">All articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Template:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Template talk:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lucasian Professors of Mathematics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lucasian_Professors_of_Mathematics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professors of Mathematics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> (1664)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a> (1669)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> (1702)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Saunderson" title="Nicholas Saunderson">Nicholas Saunderson</a> (1711)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Colson" title="John Colson">John Colson</a> (1739)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Waring" title="Edward Waring">Edward Waring</a> (1760)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Milner" title="Isaac Milner">Isaac Milner</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodhouse" title="Robert Woodhouse">Robert Woodhouse</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Turton" title="Thomas Turton">Thomas Turton</a> (1822)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> (1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_King" title="Joshua King">Joshua King</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Stokes</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Green_(physicist)" title="Michael Green (physicist)">Michael Green</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cates" title="Michael Cates">Michael Cates</a> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Masters_of_the_Royal_Mint_(1331–1879)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Masters_of_the_Mint" title="Template:Masters of the Mint"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Masters_of_the_Mint" title="Template talk:Masters of the Mint"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Masters_of_the_Mint" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Masters of the Mint"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Masters_of_the_Royal_Mint_(1331–1879)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Mint" title="Master of the Mint">Masters</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint" title="Royal Mint">Royal Mint</a> (1331–1879)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a> (1216–1399)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Richard de Snowshill/Richard of Grimsby (1331)</li> <li>Henry de Bruselee and John Chichester (1351–?)</li> <li>Walter dei Bardi (1361–1361)</li> <li>John Chichester (1365–1367)</li> <li>Walter dei Bardi (1375–1391)</li> <li>John Wildeman (1391–1391)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Houses of <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a> (1399–1485)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Richard Garner (1411–1414)</li> <li>Sir Lewis John (1413–1414)</li> <li>Sir Lewis John (1418–1420)</li> <li>Bartholomew Goldbeter (1421–1432)</li> <li>John Paddesley (1435–1446)</li> <li>Robert Manfield (1446–1459)</li> <li>Sir Richard Tonstall (1459–1461)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">William Hastings</a> (1461–April 1483)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brackenbury" title="Robert Brackenbury">Robert Brackenbury</a> (April–June 1483)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brackenbury" title="Robert Brackenbury">Robert Brackenbury</a> (June 1483–1485)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a> (1485–1603)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sir Giles Daubeney (1485–1490)</li> <li>Sir Bartholomew Reed and Robert Fenrother (1492–1498)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount,_4th_Baron_Mountjoy" title="William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy">4th Baron Mountjoy</a> (1509–1534)</li> <li>Ralph Rowlet/Sir <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bowes" title="Martin Bowes">Martin Bowes</a> (1543)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bowes" title="Martin Bowes">Martin Bowes</a> (1544)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_York_(Master_of_the_Mint)" title="John York (Master of the Mint)">Sir John York</a> (1547–1553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Egerton_(mercer)" title="Thomas Egerton (mercer)">Thomas Egerton</a> (1553–1555)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stanley_(Royal_Mint)" title="Thomas Stanley (Royal Mint)">Thomas Stanley</a> (1560–1571)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lonyson" title="John Lonyson">John Lonyson</a> (1571–1582)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Martin_(Lord_Mayor_of_London)" title="Richard Martin (Lord Mayor of London)">Sir Richard Martin</a> (1582–1603)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a> (1603–1649)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Martin_(Lord_Mayor_of_London)" title="Richard Martin (Lord Mayor of London)">Sir Richard Martin</a> (1603–1609)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Villiers_(Master_of_the_Mint)" title="Edward Villiers (Master of the Mint)">Sir Edward Villiers</a> (1617–1623)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/w/index.php?title=Randal_Cranfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Randal Cranfield (page does not exist)">Randal Cranfield</a> (1623–1626)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Harley_(1579%E2%80%931656)" title="Robert Harley (1579–1656)">Robert Harley</a> (1626–1635)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Freeman_(lawyer)" title="Ralph Freeman (lawyer)">Ralph Freeman</a>/Sir <a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Aylesbury,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Thomas Aylesbury, 1st Baronet">Thomas Aylesbury</a> (1635–1643)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Harley_(1579%E2%80%931656)" title="Robert Harley (1579–1656)">Robert Harley</a> (1643–1649)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(1649%E2%80%931660)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interregnum (1649–1660)">Interregnum</a> (1649–1660)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aaron_Guerdon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aaron Guerdon (page does not exist)">Aaron Guerdon</a> (1649–1653)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a> (1660–1714)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Freeman_(lawyer)" title="Ralph Freeman (lawyer)">Ralph Freeman</a> (1660–1662)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Freeman_(lawyer)" title="Ralph Freeman (lawyer)">Ralph Freeman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Slingsby_(Master_of_the_Mint)" title="Henry Slingsby (Master of the Mint)">Henry Slingsby</a> (1662–1667)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Slingsby_(Master_of_the_Mint)" title="Henry Slingsby (Master of the Mint)">Henry Slingsby</a> (1667–1680)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Buckworth-Herne-Soame_baronets" title="Buckworth-Herne-Soame baronets">John Buckworth</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Duncombe_(English_banker)" title="Charles Duncombe (English banker)">Charles Duncombe</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Hoare_(gold_merchant)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Hoare (gold merchant) (page does not exist)">James Hoare</a> (1680–1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale" title="Thomas Neale">Thomas Neale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Duncombe_(Lord_Mayor_of_the_City_of_London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Duncombe (Lord Mayor of the City of London)">Charles Duncombe</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Hoare_(gold_merchant)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Hoare (gold merchant) (page does not exist)">James Hoare</a> (1684–1686)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale" title="Thomas Neale">Thomas Neale</a> (1686–1699)</li> <li>Sir <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a> (1700–1714)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">House of Hanover</a> (1714–1901)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Sir <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a> (1714–1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> (1727–1737)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Arundell_(died_1758)" title="Richard Arundell (died 1758)">Hon. Richard Arundell</a> (1737–1745)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Chetwynd,_3rd_Viscount_Chetwynd" title="William Chetwynd, 3rd Viscount Chetwynd">3rd Viscount Chetwynd</a> (1745–1769)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cadogan,_1st_Earl_Cadogan" title="Charles Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan">1st Earl Cadogan</a> (1769–1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_3rd_Earl_of_Effingham" title="Thomas Howard, 3rd Earl of Effingham">3rd Earl of Effingham</a> (1784–1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Stanhope,_5th_Earl_of_Chesterfield" title="Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl of Chesterfield">5th Earl of Chesterfield</a> (1789–1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Townshend,_2nd_Marquess_Townshend" title="George Townshend, 2nd Marquess Townshend">2nd Marquess Townshend</a> (1790–1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Yonge,_5th_Baronet" title="Sir George Yonge, 5th Baronet">Sir George Yonge</a> (1794–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jenkinson,_2nd_Earl_of_Liverpool" title="Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool">2nd Earl of Liverpool</a> (1799–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Perceval,_2nd_Baron_Arden" title="Charles Perceval, 2nd Baron Arden">2nd Baron Arden</a> (1801–1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(1748%E2%80%931811)" title="John Smyth (1748–1811)">John Smyth</a> (1802–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bathurst,_3rd_Earl_Bathurst" title="Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst">3rd Earl Bathurst</a> (1804–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Charles_Spencer" title="Lord Charles Spencer">Lord Charles Spencer</a> (1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bathurst" title="Charles Bathurst">Charles Bathurst</a> (1806–1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bathurst,_3rd_Earl_Bathurst" title="Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst">3rd Earl Bathurst</a> (1807–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Trench,_2nd_Earl_of_Clancarty" title="Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty">2nd Earl of Clancarty</a> (1812–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wellesley-Pole,_3rd_Earl_of_Mornington" title="William Wellesley-Pole, 3rd Earl of Mornington">3rd Earl of Mornington</a> (1814–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wallace,_1st_Baron_Wallace" title="Thomas Wallace, 1st Baron Wallace">1st Baron Wallace</a> (1823–1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Tierney" title="George Tierney">George Tierney</a> (1827–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Herries" title="John Charles Herries">John Charles Herries</a> (1828–1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Eden,_1st_Earl_of_Auckland" title="George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland">1st Earl of Auckland</a> (1830–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Abercromby,_1st_Baron_Dunfermline" title="James Abercromby, 1st Baron Dunfermline">1st Baron Dunfermline</a> (1834–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baring,_1st_Baron_Ashburton" title="Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton">1st Baron Ashburton</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Labouchere,_1st_Baron_Taunton" title="Henry Labouchere, 1st Baron Taunton">1st Baron Taunton</a> (1835–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> (1841–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Clerk,_6th_Baronet" title="Sir George Clerk, 6th Baronet">Sir George Clerk</a> (1845–1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lalor_Sheil" title="Richard Lalor Sheil">Richard Lalor Sheil</a> (1846–1850)</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> (1850–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Graham_(chemist)" title="Thomas Graham (chemist)">Thomas Graham</a> (1855–1869)</li> <li>Vacant (1869–1879)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Office abolished in 1879 with duties given to the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> (c. 200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (c. 80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a> (c. 270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a> (c. 1000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a> (1710)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> (1714)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a> (1981)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template talk:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brouncker,_2nd_Viscount_Brouncker" title="William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker">Viscount Brouncker</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Williamson_(English_politician)" title="Joseph Williamson (English politician)">Joseph Williamson</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> (1680)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Hoskyns,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet">John Hoskyns</a> (1682)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Wyche" title="Cyril Wyche">Cyril Wyche</a> (1683)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Vaughan,_3rd_Earl_of_Carbery" title="John Vaughan, 3rd Earl of Carbery">Earl of Carbery</a> (1686)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Southwell_(diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Southwell (diplomat)">Robert Southwell</a> (1690)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu</a> (1695)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">Lord Somers</a> (1698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a> (1703)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a> (1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Folkes" title="Martin Folkes">Martin Folkes</a> (1741)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Parker,_2nd_Earl_of_Macclesfield" title="George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield">Earl of Macclesfield</a> (1752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas,_14th_Earl_of_Morton" title="James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton">Earl of Morton</a> (1764)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_West_(antiquary)" title="James West (antiquary)">James West</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> (1778)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" title="Davies Gilbert">Davies Gilbert</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Compton,_2nd_Marquess_of_Northampton" title="Spencer Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton">Marquess of Northampton</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Earl of Rosse</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wrottesley,_2nd_Baron_Wrottesley" title="John Wrottesley, 2nd Baron Wrottesley">Lord Wrottesley</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">William Spottiswoode</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1895)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Lord Adrian</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Lord Todd</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Sir Michael Atiyah</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Sir Aaron Klug</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Lord May</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Lord Rees</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Sir Paul Nurse</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scientists whose names are used as units</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI derived units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Celsius" title="Anders Celsius">Anders Celsius</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Harold_Gray" title="Louis Harold Gray">Louis Harold Gray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Maximilian_Sievert" title="Rolf Maximilian Sievert">Rolf Maximilian Sievert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-SI metric (<a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">cgs</a>) units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Jonas_%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" title="Anders Jonas Ångström">Anders Jonas Ångström</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Debye" title="Debye">debye</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eotvos_(unit)" title="Eotvos (unit)">eotvos</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kayser" title="Heinrich Kayser">Heinrich Kayser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lambert_(unit)" title="Lambert (unit)">lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langley" title="Samuel Langley">Samuel Langley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Langley_(unit)" title="Langley (unit)">langley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_L%C3%A9onard_Marie_Poiseuille" title="Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille">Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes (unit)">stokes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rayl" title="Rayl">rayl</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_customary_units" title="United States customary units">US customary</a> units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit" title="Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit">Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foot-lambert" title="Foot-lambert">foot-lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquorn Rankine">William John Macquorn Rankine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">degree Rankine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bel_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel (unit)">bel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday (unit)">faraday</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Mache" title="Heinrich Mache">Heinrich Mache</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mache_(unit)" title="Mache (unit)">Mache</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">degree Réaumur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_(unit)" title="Thomson (unit)">thomson</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torr" title="Torr">torr</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as units</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">People whose names are used in chemical element names</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Offices_and_positions_held_by_Isaac_Newton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Offices_and_positions_held_by_Isaac_Newton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Offices and positions held by Isaac Newton</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics" title="Lucasian Professor of Mathematics">Lucasian Professor of Mathematics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> 1669–1702 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">The Lord Somers</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a> 1703–1727 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cccccc"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brady_(writer)" title="Robert Brady (writer)">Robert Brady</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Member of Parliament for <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)">Cambridge University</a> 1689–1690 With: <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Sawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Sawyer">Robert Sawyer</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Finch_(composer)" title="Edward Finch (composer)">Edward Finch</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hammond" title="Anthony Hammond">Anthony Hammond</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Member of Parliament for Cambridge University 1701–1702 With: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Boyle,_1st_Baron_Carleton" title="Henry Boyle, 1st Baron Carleton">The Lord Carleton</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Annesley,_5th_Earl_of_Anglesey" title="Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey">The Earl of Anglesey</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #bebebe;">Government offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Benjamin Overton</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Warden_of_the_Mint" title="Warden of the Mint">Warden of the Mint</a> 1696–1700 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Stanley,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir John Stanley, 1st Baronet">John Stanley</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neale" title="Thomas Neale">Thomas Neale</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Master of the Mint 1700–1727 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Isaac Newton at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" class="extiw" title="c:Isaac Newton">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" class="extiw" title="q:Isaac Newton">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Isaac_Newton" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Isaac Newton">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Astrophysics/Historical_Context/Isaac_Newton" class="extiw" title="b:Introduction to Astrophysics/Historical Context/Isaac Newton">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935" class="extiw" title="d:Q935">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000120997897">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/22146457">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1801333/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJk93d6bYmhP6RHXDkQcyd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118587544">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79007443">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119176085">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119176085">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00451249">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500330573">ULAN</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/934134">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118587544.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118587544">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td 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href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isaac_Newton&oldid=1259594906">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isaac_Newton&oldid=1259594906</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Isaac_Newton" title="Category:Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1642_births" title="Category:1642 births">1642 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1727_deaths" title="Category:1727 deaths">1727 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_alchemists" title="Category:17th-century alchemists">17th-century alchemists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_apocalypticists" title="Category:17th-century apocalypticists">17th-century apocalypticists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:17th-century_English_astronomers" title="Category:17th-century English 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[\"CITEREFIliffeSmith2016\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFInwood2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatz1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKean2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeighren2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeynes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaus_Mainzer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevenson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevitin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiYinFortunatoWang2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalament2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManuel1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarples2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaury1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayhew2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitra2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMore1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMárcia_Lemos2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1704\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1782\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1850\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNowlan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNumbers2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalomo2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPask2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPemberton1728\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfizenmaier1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPickover2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamati2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowlands2017\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRynasiewicz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanford1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSastry1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmitz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuchard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchultz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShamos1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnobelen1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSnobelen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnobelen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStorr1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStruik1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStukeley1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwetz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThony2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyson2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVining2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoltaire1727\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoltaire1786\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoltaire1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagner1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarntz1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestfall2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestminster_Abbey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteside1967–1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYonge1898\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Villamil1931\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Acad\"] = 1,\n [\"Age of Enlightenment\"] = 1,\n [\"Alchemy\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 7,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 87,\n [\"Cite episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 33,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 43,\n [\"Clear left\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Newton, Isaac\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 6,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 3,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Isaac Newton\"] = 1,\n [\"Isbn\"] = 5,\n [\"Lang\"] = 8,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"London Gazette\"] = 1,\n [\"Lucasian Professors of Mathematics\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Masters of the Mint\"] = 1,\n [\"Metaphysics\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"NHLE\"] = 1,\n [\"NPG name\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"OldStyleDateNY\"] = 2,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy of science\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Prone to spam\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 5,\n [\"Refend\"] = 5,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Royal Society presidents\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aca\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 6,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 6,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-gov\"] = 1,\n [\"S-par\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 6,\n [\"Scientists whose names are used as SI units\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Self-published inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 37,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"UK National Archives ID\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 3,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 23,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","24.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","11.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","10.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","180","8.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","5.7"],["type","100","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","80","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","3.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","2.8"],["[others]","460","21.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.canary-69676cf88-7gdzt","timestamp":"20241126002920","ttl":21600,"transientcontent":true}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Isaac 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