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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt bomb</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кобальтавая бомба – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кобальтавая бомба" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кобалтова бомба – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кобалтова бомба" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кобальтла бомба – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кобальтла бомба" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobaltbombe_(Waffe)" title="Kobaltbombe (Waffe) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kobaltbombe (Waffe)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomba_de_cobalto_(arma)" title="Bomba de cobalto (arma) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bomba de cobalto (arma)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombe_au_cobalt" title="Bombe au cobalt – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bombe au cobalt" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%B0%9C%ED%8A%B8_%ED%8F%AD%ED%83%84" title="코발트 폭탄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="코발트 폭탄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3baltsprengja" title="Kóbaltsprengja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kóbaltsprengja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomba_al_cobalto" title="Bomba al cobalto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bomba al cobalto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomba_de_cobalto" title="Bomba de cobalto – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bomba de cobalto" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кобальтовая бомба – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кобальтовая бомба" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koboltbomb" title="Koboltbomb – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Koboltbomb" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobalt_bombas%C4%B1" title="Kobalt bombası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kobalt bombası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Кобальтова бомба – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кобальтова бомба" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%81" title="فلزلاجورد قنبلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلزلاجورد قنبلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bom_cobalt" title="Bom cobalt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bom cobalt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%92%B4%E5%BC%B9" title="钴弹 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hypothetical salted nuclear bomb</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For cancer radiation treatments delivered from a device with a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> isotope source, see <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_therapy" title="Cobalt therapy">cobalt therapy</a>.</div> <p>A <b>cobalt bomb</b> is a type of "<a href="/wiki/Salted_bomb" title="Salted bomb">salted bomb</a>": a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a> designed to produce enhanced amounts of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">radioactive fallout</a>, intended to contaminate a large area with <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive material">radioactive material</a>, potentially for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">radiological warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">mutual assured destruction</a> or as <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">doomsday devices</a>. There is no firm evidence that such a device has ever been built or tested. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> bomb was originally described in a radio program by physicist <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a> on February 26, 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His intent was not to propose that such a weapon be built, but to show that <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">nuclear weapon technology</a> would soon reach the point where a <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">doomsday device</a> could end human life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Bushan_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bushan-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sublette_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sublette-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_tests_at_Maralinga#Operation_Antler" title="British nuclear tests at Maralinga">Operation Antler</a>/Round 1 test by the British at the Tadje site in the <a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_tests_at_Maralinga" title="British nuclear tests at Maralinga">Maralinga range</a> in Australia on September 14, 1957, tested a bomb using cobalt pellets as a radiochemical tracer for estimating <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">nuclear weapon yield</a>. This was considered a failure, and the experiment was not repeated.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Russia, the triple "<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design#Clean_bombs" title="Nuclear weapon design">taiga</a>" nuclear salvo test, as part of the preliminary March 1971 <a href="/wiki/Pechora%E2%80%93Kama_Canal" title="Pechora–Kama Canal">Pechora–Kama Canal</a> project, produced relatively high amounts of <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> (<sup>60</sup>Co or Co-60) from the steel that surrounded the taiga devices, with this <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a>-generated <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a> product being responsible for about half of the <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> dose in 2011 at the test site. The high percentage contribution is largely because the devices primarily used fusion rather than <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> reactions, so the quantity of gamma-emitting <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> fallout was comparatively low. A <a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary forest</a> now exists around the lake that was formed by the detonation.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, a page from an apparent Russian <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_torpedo" title="Nuclear torpedo">nuclear torpedo</a> design was leaked. The design was titled "<a href="/wiki/Status-6_Oceanic_Multipurpose_System" title="Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System">Oceanic Multipurpose System Status-6</a>", later given the official name <i>Poseidon</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document states the torpedo would create "wide areas of radioactive contamination, rendering them unusable for military, economic or other activity for a long time." Its payload would be "many tens of megatons in yield". Russian government newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Rossiiskaya_Gazeta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossiiskaya Gazeta">Rossiiskaya Gazeta</a></i> speculated that the warhead would be a cobalt bomb. It is not known whether the Status-6 is a real project or whether it is Russian disinformation.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-Russia_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-Russia-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-npr_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018 the Pentagon's annual <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Posture_Review" title="Nuclear Posture Review">Nuclear Posture Review</a> stated Russia is developing a system called the "Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System". If Status-6 does exist, it is not publicly known whether the leaked 2015 design is accurate or whether the 2015 claim that the torpedo might be a cobalt bomb is genuine.<sup id="cite_ref-npr_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst other comments on it, Edward Moore Geist wrote a paper in which he says that "Russian decision makers would have little confidence that these areas would be in the intended locations"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Russian military experts are cited as saying that "robotic torpedoes could have other purposes, such as delivering deep-sea equipment or installing surveillance devices."<sup id="cite_ref-BBC-Russia_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-Russia-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobalt-60m-decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cobalt-60m-decay.svg/440px-Cobalt-60m-decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cobalt-60m-decay.svg/660px-Cobalt-60m-decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Cobalt-60m-decay.svg/880px-Cobalt-60m-decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>Decay of cobalt-60 showing the release of powerful <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A cobalt bomb could be made by placing a quantity of ordinary cobalt metal (<sup>59</sup>Co) around a <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapon</a>. When the bomb explodes, the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> produced by the fusion reaction in the secondary stage of the thermonuclear bomb's explosion would <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmute</a> the cobalt to the radioactive cobalt-60, which would be vaporized by the explosion. The cobalt would then condense and fall back to Earth with the dust and debris from the explosion, contaminating the ground. The deposited cobalt-60 would have a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 5.27 years, decaying into <a href="/wiki/Nickel-60" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-60"><sup>60</sup>Ni</a> and emitting two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 <a href="/wiki/Megaelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaelectronvolt">MeV</a>, hence the overall nuclear equation of the reaction is: </p><p><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">59</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">27</sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + n → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">27</sub></span></span>Co<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">60</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">28</sub></span></span>Ni<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + e<sup>−</sup> + gamma rays. </p><p>Nickel-60 is a stable isotope and undergoes no further decays after the transmutation is complete. </p><p>The 5.27 year half-life of the <sup>60</sup>Co is long enough to allow it to settle out before significant decay has occurred and to render it impractical to wait in <a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">shelters</a> for it to decay, yet short enough that intense radiation is produced.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many isotopes are more radioactive (<a href="/wiki/Gold-198" title="Gold-198">gold-198</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum-182" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantalum-182">tantalum-182</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc-65" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc-65">zinc-65</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium-24" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-24">sodium-24</a>, and many more), but they would decay faster, possibly allowing some population to survive in shelters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_fallout">Nuclear fallout</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">Fission products</a> are more deadly than neutron-activated cobalt in the first few weeks following detonation. After one to six months, the fission products from even a large-yield thermonuclear weapon decay to levels tolerable by humans. The large-yield thermonuclear weapon is thus automatically a weapon of radiological warfare, but its fallout decays much more rapidly than that of a cobalt bomb. A cobalt bomb's fallout on the other hand would render affected areas effectively stuck in this interim state for decades: habitable but not safe for constant habitation. </p><p>Initially, gamma radiation from the fission products of an equivalent size thermonuclear weapon are much more intense than Co-60: 15,000 times more intense at 1 hour; 35 times more intense at 1 week; 5 times more intense at 1 month; and about equal at 6 months. Thereafter fission product fallout radiation levels drop off rapidly, so that Co-60 fallout is 8 times more intense than fission at 1 year and 150 times more intense at 5 years. The very long-lived isotopes produced by fission would overtake the <sup>60</sup>Co again after about 75 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuclear_Weapons_FAQ:_1.6_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Weapons_FAQ:_1.6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Complete 100% conversion into Co-60 is unlikely; a 1957 British experiment at Maralinga showed that Co-59's <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">neutron absorption ability</a> was much lower than predicted, resulting in a very limited formation of Co-60 isotope in practice. In addition, fallout is not deposited evenly throughout the path downwind from a detonation, so some areas would be relatively unaffected by fallout, and the Earth would not be universally rendered lifeless by a cobalt bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-gandd_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gandd-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fallout and devastation following a nuclear detonation does not scale upwards linearly with the explosive yield. As a result, the concept of "overkill"—the idea that one can simply estimate the destruction and fallout created by a thermonuclear weapon of the size postulated by Leo Szilard's "cobalt bomb" thought experiment by extrapolating from the effects of thermonuclear weapons of smaller yields—is fallacious.<sup id="cite_ref-bmart_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmart-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_of_radiation_levels_vs._time">Example of radiation levels vs. time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Example of radiation levels vs. time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the type of radiation given by a cobalt bomb, the dosage measured in <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> (Sv) and <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (Gy) can be treated as equivalent. This is because the relevant harmful radiation from cobalt-60 is gamma rays. When converting between sievert and gray for gamma rays, the <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Radiation_type_weighting_factor_WR" title="Sievert">radiation type weighting factor</a> will be 1, and the radiation will be a highly penetrating radiation spread evenly over the body so the <a href="/wiki/Sievert#Tissue_type_weighting_factor_WT" title="Sievert">tissue type weighting factor</a> will also be 1. </p><p>Assume a cobalt bomb deposits intense fallout causing a dose rate of 10 Sv per hour. At this dose rate, any unsheltered person exposed to the fallout would receive a lethal dose in about 30 minutes (assuming a <a href="/wiki/LD50" class="mw-redirect" title="LD50">median lethal dose</a> of 5 Sv<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). People in well-built shelters would be safe due to <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">radiation shielding</a>. </p> <ul><li>After one half-life of 5.27 years, the dose rate in the affected area would be 5 Sv/hour. At this dose rate, a person exposed to the radiation would receive a lethal dose in 1 hour.</li> <li>After 10 half-lives (about 53 years), the dose rate would have decayed to around 10 mSv/hour. At this point, a healthy person could spend up to 4 days exposed to the fallout with no <i>immediate</i> effects. Long-term effects from this exposure would be increased risk to develop <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the 4th day, the accumulated dose will be about 1 Sv, at which point the first symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation syndrome</a> may appear.</li> <li>After 20 half-lives (about 105 years), the dose rate would have decayed to around 10 μSv/hour. At this stage, humans could remain unsheltered full-time since their yearly radiation dose would be about 80 mSv. This yearly dose rate is about 30 times greater than the average <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation#Background_dose_rate_examples" title="Background radiation">natural background radiation</a> rate of 2.4 mSv/year,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but within its variability. At this dose rate, causal connection to cancer incidence would be difficult to establish.</li> <li>After 25 half-lives (about 130 years), the dose rate from cobalt-60 would have decayed to less than 0.4 μSv/hour and could be considered negligible.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decontamination">Decontamination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decontamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cactus_Dome" class="mw-redirect" title="Cactus Dome">Cactus Dome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination#Decontamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination § Decontamination</a></div> <p>It may be possible to decontaminate relatively small areas contaminated by a cobalt bomb with equipment such as excavators and bulldozers covered with <a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">lead glass</a>, similar to those employed at the cleanup of the <a href="/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site" title="Semipalatinsk Test Site">Semipalatinsk Test Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By skimming off the thin layer of fallout on the <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> and burying it in the likes of a deep trench along with isolating it from <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground water</a> sources, the gamma air dose is cut by orders of magnitude.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decontamination after the <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a> in Brazil in 1987 and the possibility of a "<a href="/wiki/Dirty_bomb" title="Dirty bomb">dirty bomb</a>" with Co-60, which has similarities with the environment that one would be faced with after a nuclear yielding cobalt bomb's fallout had settled, has prompted the invention of "sequestration coatings" and cheap liquid phase <a href="/wiki/Sorbent" title="Sorbent">sorbents</a> for Co-60 that would further aid in <a href="/wiki/Decontamination" title="Decontamination">decontamination</a>, including that of water.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt_bomb&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" 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