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<li id="toc-Beginnings_of_the_empire_(1504–1521)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_the_empire_(1504–1521)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Beginnings of the empire (1504–1521)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_the_empire_(1504–1521)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles,_an_emperor_and_a_king_(1521–1558)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles,_an_emperor_and_a_king_(1521–1558)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Charles, an emperor and a king (1521–1558)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles,_an_emperor_and_a_king_(1521–1558)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_II_(1558–1598)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_II_(1558–1598)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Philip II (1558–1598)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_II_(1558–1598)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Turks,_the_Mediterranean,_and_North_Africa_during_Philip_II's_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Turks,_the_Mediterranean,_and_North_Africa_during_Philip_II's_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Ottoman Turks, the Mediterranean, and North Africa during Philip II's rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Turks,_the_Mediterranean,_and_North_Africa_during_Philip_II's_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflicts_in_North-West_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicts_in_North-West_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Conflicts in North-West Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicts_in_North-West_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Spanish America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Philippines,_the_Sultanate_of_Brunei_and_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Philippines,_the_Sultanate_of_Brunei_and_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>The Philippines, the Sultanate of Brunei and Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Philippines,_the_Sultanate_of_Brunei_and_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal_and_the_Iberian_Union_1580–1640" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal_and_the_Iberian_Union_1580–1640"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Portugal and the Iberian Union 1580–1640</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal_and_the_Iberian_Union_1580–1640-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Philip III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Philip IV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_last_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1643–1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_last_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1643–1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1700)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_last_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1643–1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_the_Spanish_Inquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_the_Spanish_Inquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Religion and the Spanish Inquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_the_Spanish_Inquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration_and_bureaucracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration_and_bureaucracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Administration and bureaucracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration_and_bureaucracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Art and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Habsburg Spain</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%BA" title="إسبانيا هابسبورغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إسبانيا هابسبورغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_d%27Austria" title="Casa d'Austria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Casa d'Austria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Se-pan-g%C3%A2" title="Habsburg Se-pan-gâ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Habsburg Se-pan-gâ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Габсбургская Іспанія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Габсбургская Іспанія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хабсбургска Испания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хабсбургска Испания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casal_d%27%C3%80ustria" title="Casal d'Àustria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Casal d'Àustria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsbursk%C3%A9_%C5%A0pan%C4%9Blsko" title="Habsburské Španělsko – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Habsburské Španělsko" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg-Spanien" title="Habsburg-Spanien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Habsburg-Spanien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburgide_Hispaania" title="Habsburgide Hispaania – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Habsburgide Hispaania" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%91%CF%88%CE%B2%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Ισπανία των Αψβούργων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισπανία των Αψβούργων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_de_Austria" title="Casa de Austria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Casa de Austria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="اسپانیای هابسبورگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسپانیای هابسبورگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espagne_des_Habsbourgs" title="Espagne des Habsbourgs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espagne des Habsbourgs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_dos_Austria" title="Casa dos Austria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Casa dos Austria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B8_%EA%B5%B0%EC%A3%BC%EA%B5%AD" title="스페인 군주국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스페인 군주국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanyol_Habsburg" title="Spanyol Habsburg – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Spanyol Habsburg" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spagna_degli_Asburgo" title="Spagna degli Asburgo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spagna degli Asburgo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ספרד ההבסבורגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרד ההבסבורגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хабсбуршка Шпанија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хабсбуршка Шпанија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Sepanyol" title="Habsburg Sepanyol – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Habsburg Sepanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%8F%E3%83%97%E3%82%B9%E3%83%96%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E6%9C%9D" title="スペイン・ハプスブルク朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スペイン・ハプスブルク朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg-Spania" title="Habsburg-Spania – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Habsburg-Spania" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabsburglar_davrida_Ispaniya" title="Gabsburglar davrida Ispaniya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gabsburglar davrida Ispaniya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiszpania_Habsburg%C3%B3w" title="Hiszpania Habsburgów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hiszpania Habsburgów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espanha_dos_Habsburgos" title="Espanha dos Habsburgos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espanha dos Habsburgos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spania_Habsburgic%C4%83" title="Spania Habsburgică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Spania Habsburgică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Габсбургская Испания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Габсбургская Испания" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A4%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A4%E0%B6%BA" title="හැබ්ස්බර්ග් ස්පාඤ්ඤය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="හැබ්ස්බර්ග් ස්පාඤ්ඤය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Habsburg Spain" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsbursk%C3%A9_%C5%A0panielsko" title="Habsburské Španielsko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Habsburské Španielsko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хабзбуршка Шпанија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хабзбуршка Шпанија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84" title="สเปนสมัยราชวงศ์ฮาพส์บวร์ค – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สเปนสมัยราชวงศ์ฮาพส์บวร์ค" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_%C4%B0spanyas%C4%B1" title="Habsburg İspanyası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Habsburg İspanyası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2y_Ban_Nha_Habsburg" title="Tây Ban Nha Habsburg – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tây Ban Nha Habsburg" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoansche_Habsburgers" title="Spoansche Habsburgers – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Spoansche Habsburgers" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%93%88%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF%E5%A0%A1%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="西班牙哈布斯堡王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="西班牙哈布斯堡王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%93%88%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF%E5%A0%A1%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="西班牙哈布斯堡王朝 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西班牙哈布斯堡王朝" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Monarchy of Spain</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div><div class="ib-country-names"><i>Monarchia Hispaniae</i><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1516–1700</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Spanish Empire"><img alt="Flag of Spanish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/125px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/188px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/250px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Burgundy" title="Cross of Burgundy">Cross of Burgundy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Burgundy#Habsburgs_and_Spain" title="Cross of Burgundy">(since <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1525</span>)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_(1668-1700).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Habsburg Spain (1668–1700) of Spanish Empire"><img alt="Coat of arms of Habsburg Spain (1668–1700) of Spanish Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg/85px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg/128px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Charles_II_of_Spain_%281668-1700%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Spain" title="Coat of arms of Spain"> Coat of arms of Habsburg Spain<br />(1668–1700)</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1570 map of the Iberian Peninsula"><img alt="1570 map of the Iberian Peninsula" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg/250px-MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg/375px-MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg/500px-MAPA_DE_ESPA%C3%91A_EN_1570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2710" data-file-height="2020" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">1570 map of the Iberian Peninsula</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> <small>(1561–1601; 1606–1700)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a> <small>(1601–1606)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniard</a>, Spanish</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Composite_monarchy" title="Composite monarchy">Composite monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchs#House_of_Habsburg_(1516–1700)" title="List of Spanish monarchs">Monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1516–1556 <small>(first)</small> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1665–1700 <small>(last)</small> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Cortes of Castile</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_Aragon" title="Cortes of Aragon">Courts of Aragon</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Courts" title="Catalan Courts">Courts of Catalonia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Corts_Valencianes" title="Corts Valencianes">Courts of Valencia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Navarre" title="Parliament of Navarre">Cortes of Navarre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cortes" title="Portuguese Cortes">Cortes of Portugal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Ascension of Charles I </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 January 1516</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1568–1648</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1580–1640</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%9359)" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)">Franco-Spanish War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1635–1659</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1640–1668</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Death of Charles II </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 November 1700</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_real" title="Spanish real">Spanish real</a> and others</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs of Spain</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931808)" title="History of Spain (1700–1808)">Kingdom of Spain</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/20px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/30px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/40px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/20px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/30px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/40px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg/20px-Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg/30px-Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg/40px-Civil_Flag_and_Civil_Ensign_of_the_Kingdom_of_Sardinia_%281816-1848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg/20px-Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg/30px-Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg/40px-Estandarte_Real_de_Felipe_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitaller</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Spain" title="Category:History of Spain">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">History of <span class="fn org label">Spain</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/250px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/375px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg/500px-Carte_historique_des_Royaumes_d%27Espagne_et_Portugal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="2313" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Prehistory" title="History of Spain">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Early_history_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="History of Spain">Early history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Iberia" title="Carthaginian Iberia">Carthaginian Spain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(575–206 BCE)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Roman Hispania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman Conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(206–27 BCE)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(218 BCE–472 CE)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hispania" title="Romanization of Hispania">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Hispania" title="Diocese of Hispania">Diocese of Hispania</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages#Early_medieval_Spain" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Kingdom of the Suebi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(409–585)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Kingdom of the Visigoths</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(418–721)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Byzantine Spania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(552–624)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Muslim conquest</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–716)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista"><i>Reconquista</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(711–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages#Medieval_Christian_Spain" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Christian kingdoms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(718–1479)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain#Early_Modern_Spain" title="History of Spain">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1479–1516)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">Granada War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1482–1492)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Colonisation of the Americas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1492–1898)</span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Habsburgs</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1516–1700)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1556–1659)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1580–1640)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Bourbons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1700–1808)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1701–1714)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta Decrees</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1707–1716)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdications_of_Bayonne" title="Abdications of Bayonne">Abdications of Bayonne</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1808)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_under_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Spain under Joseph Bonaparte">Napoleonic Spain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1808–1813)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1810–1814)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Constitution of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1812)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Valen%C3%A7ay" title="Treaty of Valençay">Treaty of Valençay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1813)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII#Restoration" title="Ferdinand VII">Absolutist restoration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1810%E2%80%931873)#Reaction_(1814–1820)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1810–1873)">Sexenio Absolutista</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1814–1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820–1823)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ominous_Decade" title="Ominous Decade">Ominous Decade</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1823–1833)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Reign of Isabella II of Spain">Reign of Isabella II</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regencies_on_behalf_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain#The_regency_of_Maria_Christina" class="mw-redirect" title="Regencies on behalf of Isabella II of Spain">Regency of María Cristina</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1833–1840)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carlist_War" title="First Carlist War">First Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1833–1840)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regencies_on_behalf_of_Isabella_II_of_Spain#The_regency_of_Espartero" class="mw-redirect" title="Regencies on behalf of Isabella II of Spain">Regency of Espartero</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1840–1843)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9cada_moderada" title="Década moderada">Década moderada</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1844–1854)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Carlist_War" title="Second Carlist War">Second Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846–1849)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bienio_progresista" title="Bienio progresista">Bienio progresista</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1854–1856)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_(Spain)" title="Glorious Revolution (Spain)">Glorious Revolution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1868)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><i><a href="/wiki/Sexenio_Democr%C3%A1tico" title="Sexenio Democrático">Sexenio Democrático</a></i></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_(1868%E2%80%931871)" title="Provisional Government (1868–1871)">Provisional Government</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1868–1871)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_I_of_Spain#King_of_Spain" title="Amadeo I of Spain">Reign of Amadeo I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1870–1873)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Carlist_War" title="Third Carlist War">Third Carlist War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1872–1876)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Spanish_Republic" title="First Spanish Republic">First Republic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1873–1874)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Restoration Spain</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Alfonso_XII" title="Reign of Alfonso XII">Reign of Alfonso XII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874–1885)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regency_of_Maria_Christina_of_Austria" title="Regency of Maria Christina of Austria">Regency of María Cristina</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1885–1902)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Alfonso_XIII" title="Reign of Alfonso XIII">Reign of Alfonso XIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1886–1931)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1898)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_I" title="Spain during World War I">Spain during World War I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1914–1918)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Rif War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(–1927)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Primo_de_Rivera" title="Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera">Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1923–1930)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictablanda_of_D%C3%A1maso_Berenguer" title="Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer"><i>Dictablanda</i> of Dámaso Berenguer</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930–1931)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Second Spanish Republic">Provisional Government</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1931)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Biennium" title="First Biennium">First Biennium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1931–1933)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War#The_"black_biennium"" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Second Biennium</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933–1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1934" title="Revolution of 1934">Revolution and Asturian miners' strike</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Spanish_general_election" title="1936 Spanish general election">1936 general election</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_coup_of_July_1936" title="Spanish coup of July 1936">1936 coup d'état</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Civil War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936–1939)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_offensive_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Final offensive of the Spanish Civil War">Nationalist victory</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain during World War II</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1945)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Division" title="Blue Division">Blue Division</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941–1944)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Maquis" title="Spanish Maquis">Spanish Maquis</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1965)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Republican_government_in_exile" title="Spanish Republican government in exile">Republican exile</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939–1977)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_conflict" title="Basque conflict">Basque conflict</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1959–2011)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1975%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Spain (1975–present)">Contemporary history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Transition to democracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1975–1978)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Spain" title="Constitution of Spain">Current constitution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1978)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_Spanish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1981 Spanish coup d'état attempt">1981 coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings" title="2004 Madrid train bombings">Madrid train bombings</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2004)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">2008–2014 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Barcelona_attacks" title="2017 Barcelona attacks">2017 Barcelona attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_declaration_of_independence" title="Catalan declaration of independence">Catalan declaration of independence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Spain" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Spain">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2020–2022)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3ff;;color: var(--color-base)">Topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Spain#History" title="Law enforcement in Spain">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Spain">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Spain" title="Military history of Spain">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain#History" title="Religion in Spain">Religious history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Spanish_history" title="Timeline of Spanish history">Timeline</a></b></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/16px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/24px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/32px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain portal</a></i></li><li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Spain" title="Template:History of Spain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Spain" title="Template talk:History of Spain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Spain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Spain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Habsburg Spain</b><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> refers to <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_Monarchy_(political_entity)" title="Hispanic Monarchy (political entity)">Hispanic Monarchy</a>, also known as the Catholic Monarchy, in the period from 1516 to 1700 when it was ruled by kings from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. It had territories around the world, including modern-day <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, a piece of <a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">south-eastern</a> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, eventually <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and many other lands outside the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, including in the Americas and Asia. Habsburg Spain was a <a href="/wiki/Composite_monarchy" title="Composite monarchy">composite monarchy</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a>. The Habsburg <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Spanish monarchs</a> of this period are <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a>. In this period the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> was at the zenith of its influence and power. Spain, or "the Spains", referring to Spanish territories across different continents in this period, initially covered the entire Iberian Peninsula, including the crowns of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> and from 1580 <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>. It then expanded to include territories over the five continents, consisting of much of the American continent and islands thereof, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">West Indies</a> in the Americas, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Low Countries, Belgium, Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Italy" title="Council of Italy">Italian territories</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">France</a> in Europe, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> possessions such as small enclaves like <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> in North Africa, and the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a> and other possessions in Southeast Asia. The period of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish history">Spanish history</a> has also been referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Expansion</a>". </p><p>The Habsburg name was not continuously used by the family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles. The dynasty was thus long known as the "House of Austria". Complementary, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth. <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>. When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles I of Spain, and after he was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, <i>Charles Quint</i>). In Spain, the dynasty was known as the <i><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_de_Austria" class="extiw" title="es:Casa de Austria">Casa de Austria</a></i>, including <a href="/wiki/Illegitimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegitimate">illegitimate</a> sons such as <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_of_Austria" title="John Joseph of Austria">John Joseph of Austria</a>. The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which the Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (ancient), as seen on the arms of John of Austria. Calling this era "Habsburg", is, to some extent, a convenience for historians. </p><p>The marriage of <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> in 1469 resulted in the union of the two main crowns, Castile and Aragon, which eventually led to the <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> unification of Spain after the culmination of the <i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> with the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Granada">conquest of Granada</a> in 1492 and of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre" title="Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre">Navarre</a> in 1512 to 1529. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of "<a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic King and Queen</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> in 1494.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Habsburgs, the term <i>Monarchia Catholica</i> (Catholic Monarchy, Modern Spanish: <i>Monarquía Católica</i>) remained in use. Spain continued to be one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> powers in Europe and the world for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Habsburg's period, Spain ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a> of arts and literature producing some of the world's most outstanding writers and painters and influential intellectuals, including <a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Calder%C3%B3n_de_la_Barca" title="Pedro Calderón de la Barca">Pedro Calderón de la Barca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Quevedo" title="Francisco de Quevedo">Francisco de Quevedo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Greco" title="El Greco">El Greco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Domingo de Soto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a>. After the death in 1700 of Spain's last Habsburg king, Charles II, the resulting <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> led to the ascension of <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon Spain">Bourbon dynasty</a>, which began a new centralising state formation, which came into being <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> after the <a href="/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees" title="Nueva Planta decrees">Nueva Planta decrees</a> that merged the multiple crowns of its former realms (except for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">History of Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain,_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_(1530-1556).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg/150px-Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg/225px-Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg/300px-Middle_Arms_of_Charles_I_of_Spain%2C_Charles_V_as_Holy_Roman_Emperor-Middle_%281530-1556%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Coat of arms of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Arms of Charles I</a>, representing his territories in Spain (top) and his other European possessions (bottom)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_the_empire_(1504–1521)"><span id="Beginnings_of_the_empire_.281504.E2.80.931521.29"></span>Beginnings of the empire (1504–1521)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Beginnings of the empire (1504–1521)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div> <p>In 1504, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> died, and although <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> tried to maintain his position over <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> in the wake of her death, the Castilian <span title="Spanish-language text"><span lang="es" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Cortes Generales</a></span></span> (the parliament) chose to crown Isabella's daughter <a href="/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile" title="Joanna of Castile">Joanna of Castile</a> as queen. Her husband, <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_Castile" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip I of Castile">Philip I of Castile</a>, was the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> son of <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary of Burgundy</a>. Shortly thereafter Joanna began to lapse into insanity, although the extent of her mental illness remains the topic of some debate. In 1506, Philip I was declared <i><a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris" title="Jure uxoris">jure uxoris</a></i> king, but he died later that year under mysterious circumstances, possibly poisoned by his father-in-law, Ferdinand II.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since their oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Joanna's father Ferdinand II to rule the country as the <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> of Queen Joanna and Charles. </p><p>Spain was now in <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> under Ferdinand II of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a>. As undisputed ruler in most of the Peninsula, Ferdinand adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella's husband, going on to crystallize his long-running designs over <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre" title="Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre">into a full-blown invasion</a> led initially by a Castilian military expedition, and supported later by Aragonese troops (1512). He also attempted to enlarge Spain's sphere of influence in Italy, strengthening it against France. As ruler of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> for control of Italy. These conflicts became the center of Ferdinand's foreign policy as king. Ferdinand's first investment of Spanish forces came in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai" title="War of the League of Cambrai">War of the League of Cambrai</a> against Venice, where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agnadello" title="Battle of Agnadello">Battle of Agnadello</a> (1509). Only a year later, Ferdinand joined the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(Italian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic League (Italian)">Holy League</a> against France, seeing a chance at taking both <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a> (to which he held a dynastic claim) and Navarre, which was claimed through his marriage to <a href="/wiki/Germaine_of_Foix" title="Germaine of Foix">Germaine of Foix</a>. The war was less of a success than that against Venice, and in 1516 France agreed to a truce that left <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a> under French control and recognized Spanish hegemony in northern Navarre. Ferdinand would die later that year. </p><p>Ferdinand's death led to the ascension of young Charles to both Spanish thrones as <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I of Castile and Aragon</a>, further solidifying the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">monarchy of Spain</a>. His inheritance included all the Spanish possessions in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> and around the Mediterranean. Upon the death of his Habsburg father in 1506, Charles had inherited the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">Franche-Comté</a>, growing up in Flanders. In 1519, with the death of his paternal grandfather <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</a>, Charles inherited the <a href="/wiki/Erblande" title="Erblande">Habsburg territories in Germany</a>, and was duly <a href="/wiki/Imperial_election_of_1519" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial election of 1519">elected</a> as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> that year. His mother Joanna remained titular queen of Castile until her death in 1555, but due to her mental health and worries of her being proposed as an alternative monarch by opposition (as happened in the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Revolt of the Comuneros</a>), Charles kept her imprisoned. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/220px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/330px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/440px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1702" /></a><figcaption>17th century painting depicting the 1521 <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Fall of Tenochtitlan</a>. Spanish colonists were led to invade the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a> by conquistador <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>At that point, Emperor and King Charles was the most powerful man in <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. The accumulation of so much power by one man and one dynasty greatly concerned <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I of France</a>, who found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories. In 1521 Francis <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1521-1526" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian War of 1521-1526">invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Iberian_Navarre#1521_French_invasion" title="Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre">Navarre</a>, which inaugurated a second round of Franco-Spanish conflict. The war was a disaster for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, which suffered defeats at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Biccoca" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Biccoca">Biccoca</a> (1522), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a> (1525, at which Francis was captured), and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a> (1529) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Spain's overseas possessions in the New World were <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">based in the Caribbean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> and consisted of a rapidly decreasing indigenous population, few resources of value to the crown, and a sparse Spanish settler population. The situation changed dramatically with the expedition of <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, who, with alliances with <a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">city-states</a> hostile to the <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> and thousands of indigenous Mexican warriors, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">conquered the Aztec Empire</a> in 1521. Following the pattern established in Spain during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and in the Caribbean, the first European settlements in the Americas, conquerors divided up the indigenous population in private holdings <i><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomiendas</a></i> and exploited their labor. With Americas colonization, Spain gained vast new indigenous populations to convert to Christianity and rule as vassals of the crown. Charles established the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> in 1524 to oversee all of Castile's overseas possessions. Charles appointed a <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">viceroy in Mexico</a> in 1535, capping the royal governance of the high court, <i><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Real Audiencia</a></i>, and treasury officials with the highest royal official. Officials were under the jurisdiction of the Council of the Indies. Charles promulgated the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> of 1542 to limit the power of the <a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a> to form a hereditary aristocracy that might challenge the power of the crown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles,_an_emperor_and_a_king_(1521–1558)"><span id="Charles.2C_an_emperor_and_a_king_.281521.E2.80.931558.29"></span>Charles, an emperor and a king (1521–1558)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Charles, an emperor and a king (1521–1558)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg/370px-Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg/555px-Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg/740px-Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1654" data-file-height="1029" /></a><figcaption>A map of the dominion of the Habsburg monarchy following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Battle of Mühlberg</a> (1547) as depicted in <i>The Cambridge Modern History Atlas</i> (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/220px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/330px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg/440px-Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1450" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Europa_regina" title="Europa regina">Europa regina</a></i>, associated with a Habsburg-dominated Europe under <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Charles's victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Battle of Pavia</a> (1525) surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain even greater power. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII" title="Pope Clement VII">Pope Clement VII</a> switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a>. In 1527, due to Charles' inability to pay them sufficiently, his armies in Northern Italy mutinied and <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">sacked Rome</a> itself for loot, forcing Clement, and succeeding popes, to be considerably more prudent in their dealings with secular authorities. In 1533, Clement's refusal to annul <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a>'s marriage to <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a> (Charles' aunt) was a direct consequence of his unwillingness to offend the Emperor and perhaps have his capital sacked a second time. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Barcelona" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Barcelona">Peace of Barcelona</a>, signed between Charles and the pope in 1529, established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders that effectively made Charles the protector of the Catholic cause and recognized Charles as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">King of Italy</a> in return for Imperial-Spanish intervention in overthrowing the rebellious <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> had begun in Germany in 1517. Charles, through his position as Holy Roman Emperor, his important holdings along Germany's frontiers, and his close relationship with his Habsburg relatives in Austria, had a vested interest in maintaining the stability of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> broke out in Germany in 1524 and ravaged the country until it was brutally put down in 1526. Charles, even as far away from Germany as he was, was committed to keeping order. After the Peasants' War the Protestants organized themselves into a defensive league to protect themselves from Emperor Charles. Under the protection of the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_League" title="Schmalkaldic League">Schmalkaldic League</a>, the Protestant states committed a number of outrages in the eyes of the Catholic Church (the confiscation of some ecclesiastical territories, among other things) and defied the authority of the Emperor. </p><p>In 1543, <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a>, King of France, announced his <a href="/wiki/Franco-Ottoman_alliance" title="Franco-Ottoman alliance">unprecedented alliance</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> sultan, <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nice" title="Siege of Nice">occupying</a> the Spanish-controlled city of <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a> in cooperation with Turkish forces. Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France. Although the Spanish army was soundly defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Battle of Ceresole</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a> Henry fared better, and France was forced to accept terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand</a>, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. With France defeated, Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League. </p><p>Perhaps more important to the strategy of the Spanish king, the League had allied itself with the French, and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed. Francis's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants, and Charles took advantage of the opportunity. He first tried the path of negotiation at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> in 1545, but the Protestant leadership, feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council, went to war, led by the <a href="/wiki/Elector_of_Saxony" class="mw-redirect" title="Elector of Saxony">Elector of Saxony</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Saxony" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice of Saxony">Maurice</a>. In response, Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch-Spanish army, hoping to restore the Imperial authority. The Emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Battle of Mühlberg</a> in 1547. In 1555, Charles signed the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a></i> ("whose realm, his religion"). Charles's involvement in Germany would establish a role for Spain as protector of the Catholic Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire. </p><p>In 1526, Charles married <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal" title="Isabella of Portugal">Infanta Isabella</a>, the sister of <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal" title="John III of Portugal">John III of Portugal</a>. In 1556 he abdicated from his positions, giving his Spanish empire to his only surviving son, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand</a>. Charles retired to the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Yuste" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuste">Yuste</a> (<a href="/wiki/Extremadura" title="Extremadura">Extremadura</a>, Spain), and died in 1558. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_II_(1558–1598)"><span id="Philip_II_.281558.E2.80.931598.29"></span>Philip II (1558–1598)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Philip II (1558–1598)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a></div> <p>Spain was not yet at peace, as the aggressive <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II of France</a> came to the throne in 1547 and <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1551%E2%80%931559" title="Italian War of 1551–1559">renewed the conflict</a> between the two countries four years later. Charles' successor, Philip II, aggressively conducted the war against France, crushing a French army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">Battle of St. Quentin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a> in 1557 and defeating Henry again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Battle of Gravelines</a> the following year. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis">Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis</a>, signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. In the celebrations that followed the treaty, Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance. France was stricken for the next forty years by <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">civil war</a> and unrest and was unable to effectively compete with Spain and the Habsburgs in the European power struggle. Freed from any serious French opposition, Spain saw the height of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> had grown substantially since the days of Ferdinand and Isabella. The <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a> empires were conquered during Charles' reign, from 1519 to 1521 and 1540 to 1558, respectively. Spanish settlements were established in the New World: <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, the most important colonial city established in 1524 to be the primary center of administration in the New World; <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, colonized in the 1560s; <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, established in 1536; and <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>), colonized in the 1530s. The Spanish Empire abroad became the source of Spanish wealth and power in Europe. But as precious metal shipments rapidly expanded late in the century it contributed to the general <a href="/wiki/Price_revolution" title="Price revolution">inflation</a> that was affecting the whole of Europe. Instead of fueling the Spanish economy, American silver made the country increasingly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods. In 1557, Spain was forced, for the first of many times, to declare a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_default" title="Sovereign default">sovereign default</a>, requiring it to partially repudiate its debt through <a href="/wiki/Debt_consolidation" title="Debt consolidation">consolidation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conversion_(law)" title="Conversion (law)">conversion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1920521–522_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1920521–522-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 concluded the war with France, leaving Spain at a considerable advantage. However, the government was still mired in debt, and declared bankruptcy that year. Most of the government's revenues came from taxes and excise duties, not imported silver and other goods. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> had long menaced the fringes of the Habsburg dominions in Austria and northwest Africa. In response Ferdinand and Isabella had sent expeditions to North Africa, <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Melilla" title="Conquest of Melilla">capturing Melilla</a> in 1497 and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1509)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)">Oran</a> in 1509. Charles had preferred to combat the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy, hampering Ottoman landings on the <a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean</a>. Only in response to raids on the eastern coast of Spain did Charles personally lead attacks against holdings in North Africa (1535). In 1560, the Ottomans battled the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a> off the coast of Tunisia, but in 1565 Ottoman troops <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">landing on the strategically vital island of Malta</a>, defended by the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_St._John" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights of St. John">Knights of St. John</a>, were defeated. The death of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> the following year and his succession by <a href="/wiki/Selim_II" title="Selim II">Selim II</a> emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry the war to the Ottoman homelands. In 1571, a mixed naval expedition of Spanish, Venetian, and Papal ships led by Charles' illegitimate son <a href="/wiki/Don_John_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Don John of Austria">Don John of Austria</a> annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a>, in the largest naval battle fought in European waters since <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a> in 31 BC. The fleet included <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>, future author of the historic Spanish novel <i><a href="/wiki/Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a></i>. The victory curbed the Ottoman naval threat against European territory, particularly in the western Mediterranean, and the loss of experienced sailors was to be a major handicap in facing Christian fleets. Yet the Turks succeeded in rebuilding their navy in a year, using it handily to consolidate Ottoman dominance over most of the Mediterranean's African coast and eastern islands. Philip lacked the resources to fight both the Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire at the same time, and the stalemate in the Mediterranean continued until Spain agreed to a truce in 1580. </p><p>The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a>-led riots in the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> (roughly equal to modern-day Netherlands and Belgium, inherited by Philip from Charles and his <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_State" title="Burgundian State">Burgundian</a> forebears) prompted <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a> to conduct a military expedition to restore order. Alba launched an ensuing reign of terror. In 1568, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a> led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. This attempt is generally considered to signal the start of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> that ended with the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a>. The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. In 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Watergeuzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergeuzen">watergeuzen</a></i> ("Sea Beggars") seized a number of Dutch coastal towns, proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership. </p><p>In 1574, the Spanish army under <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Reques%C3%A9ns" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis de Requeséns">Luis de Requeséns</a> was repulsed from the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Siege of Leiden</a> after the Dutch destroyed the dykes that held back the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> from the low-lying provinces. In 1576, faced with the costs of his 80,000-man army of occupation in the Netherlands and the massive fleet that had won at Lepanto, Philip was forced to accept <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a>. The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after, seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands, prompting several cities in the previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion. The Spanish chose the route of negotiation, and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arras" title="Union of Arras">Union of Arras</a> in 1579. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/480px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" decoding="async" width="480" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/720px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/960px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1303" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> in 1598, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Castile" title="Council of Castile">Council of Castile</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f5ab12; color:black;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Aragon" title="Council of Aragon">Council of Aragon</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0000ff; color:white;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Portugal" title="Council of Portugal">Council of Portugal</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800000; color:white;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Italia" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Italia">Council of Italy</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d87ada; color:black;"> </span> Territories appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_Flanders" title="Supreme Council of Flanders">Council of Flanders</a> comprising the disputed territories of the United Provinces.</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>The Arras agreement required all Spanish troops to leave the Netherlands. Meanwhile, Philip had his eye on uniting the entire Iberian Peninsula under his rule, a traditional objective of Spanish monarchs. The opportunity came in 1578 when the Portuguese king <a href="/wiki/Sebastian,_King_of_Portugal" title="Sebastian, King of Portugal">Sebastian</a> launched a crusade against the <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi Sultanate</a> of Morocco. The expedition ended in disaster and Sebastian's disappearance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A1cer_Quibir" title="Battle of Alcácer Quibir">Battle of the Three Kings</a>. His aged uncle <a href="/wiki/Henry,_King_of_Portugal" title="Henry, King of Portugal">Henry</a> ruled until he died in 1580. Although Philip had long prepared for the takeover of Portugal, he still found it necessary to launch a <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Portuguese_Succession" title="War of the Portuguese Succession">military occupation</a> led by the Duke of Alba. Philip took the title of King of Portugal, but otherwise the country remained autonomous, retaining its own laws, currency, and institutions. However, Portugal surrendered all independence in foreign policy, and relations between the two countries were never warm. </p><p>France formed the cornerstone of Spanish foreign policy. For 30 years after Cateau-Cambrésis, it was engulfed in civil war. After 1590, the Spanish intervened directly in France on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic League (France)">Catholic League</a>, winning battles, but failing to prevent <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry of Navarre</a> from becoming king as Henry IV. To Spain's dismay, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII" title="Pope Clement VIII">Pope Clement VIII</a> accepted Henry into the Catholic Church. </p><p>To keep the Netherlands under control required an extensive occupation force, and Spain was still financially strapped since the 1576 bankruptcy. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by a Catholic, and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was expected to bring an end to the war. However it did not happen. In 1586, Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a>, supported the Protestant cause in the Netherlands and France. Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, along with a particularly <a href="/wiki/Singeing_the_King_of_Spain%27s_Beard" title="Singeing the King of Spain's Beard">aggressive attack</a> on the port of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>. Philip sent the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> to attack England. Numbering 130 ships and 30,000 men, it was led by <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Guzm%C3%A1n_y_Sotomayor,_7th_Duke_of_Medina_Sidonia" title="Alonso de Guzmán y Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia">Alonso de Guzmán y Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia</a>. The Armada's goal was to ferry the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a> from the Netherlands to invade England. After three days of fighting with the English fleet, the Armada withdrew and was forced to make the journey around the coast of Scotland and Ireland, many ships being wrecked by storms. </p><p>Spain had invested itself in the religious warfare in France after Henry II's death. In 1589, <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry III</a>, the last of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a>, died at the walls of Paris. His successor, Henry IV, the first king from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>, was a man of great ability, winning key victories against the Catholic League at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arques" title="Battle of Arques">Arques</a> (1589) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ivry" title="Battle of Ivry">Ivry</a> (1590). Committed to stopping Henry from becoming king of France, the Spanish divided their army in the Netherlands and invaded France in 1590. </p><p>Faced with wars against England, France, and the Netherlands, the Spanish government found that neither the New World silver nor steadily increasing taxes were enough to cover their expenses, and went bankrupt again in 1596. To bring finances into order, military campaigns were reduced and the over-stretched forces went into a largely defensive mode. In 1598, shortly before his death, Philip II made <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins" title="Peace of Vervins">peace with France</a>, withdrawing his forces from French territory and stopping payments to the Catholic League after accepting the new convert to Catholicism, Henry IV, as the rightful French king. Meanwhile, Castile was ravaged by a plague that had arrived by ship from the north, losing half a million people. Yet as the 17th century began, and despite her travails, Spain was still unquestionably the dominant power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Turks,_the_Mediterranean,_and_North_Africa_during_Philip_II's_rule"><span id="Ottoman_Turks.2C_the_Mediterranean.2C_and_North_Africa_during_Philip_II.27s_rule"></span>Ottoman Turks, the Mediterranean, and North Africa during Philip II's rule</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ottoman Turks, the Mediterranean, and North Africa during Philip II's rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first years of his reign, from 1556 to 1566, Philip II was concerned principally with Muslim allies of the Turks, based in <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, the bases from which North African (Muslim) forces under the corsair <a href="/wiki/Dragut" title="Dragut">Dragut</a> preyed upon Christian shipping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003155_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003155-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1560, a Spanish-led Christian fleet was sent to recapture Tripoli (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Tripoli_(1510)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Tripoli (1510)">captured by Spain</a> in 1510), but the fleet was destroyed by the Ottomans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Battle of Djerba</a>. The Ottomans <a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir">attempted to seize</a> the Spanish military-bases of <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mers El Kébir</a> on the North African coast in 1563, but were repulsed. In 1565, the Ottomans sent a large expedition to <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">laid siege</a> to several forts on the island. A Spanish relief force from <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> drove the Ottomans (exhausted from a long siege) away from the island. The death of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> the following year and his succession by his less capable son <a href="/wiki/Selim_II" title="Selim II">Selim II</a> emboldened Philip, who resolved to carry the war to the Sultan himself. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/450px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/600px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1341" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> (1571)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1571, a Christian fleet, led by Philip's half-brother <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a>, annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Battle of Lepanto</a> in the waters off southwestern Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the significant victory, however, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)" title="Holy League (1571)">Holy League</a>'s disunity prevented the victors from capitalizing on their triumph. Plans to seize the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a> as a step towards recovering <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> for Christendom, were ruined by bickering amongst the allies. With a massive effort, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> rebuilt its navy. Within six months a new fleet was able to reassert Ottoman naval supremacy in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a>. John <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1573)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1573)">captured Tunis</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>) from the Ottomans in 1573, but it was soon <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">lost again</a>. The Ottoman sultan agreed to a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip in 1580.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the western Mediterranean, Philip pursued a defensive policy with the construction of a series of military forts (<a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">presidios</a>) and peace agreements with some of the Muslim rulers of North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003255_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003255-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first half of the 17th century, Spanish ships attacked the Anatolian coast, defeating larger Ottoman fleets at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Battle of Cape Celidonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Corvo" title="Battle of Cape Corvo">Battle of Cape Corvo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Larache" title="Larache">Larache</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Mamora" class="mw-redirect" title="La Mamora">La Mamora</a>, on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, and the island of <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_Alhucemas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peñón de Alhucemas">Alhucemas</a>, in the Mediterranean, were taken. However, during the second half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora were also lost. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conflicts_in_North-West_Europe">Conflicts in North-West Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Conflicts in North-West Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/170px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/255px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg/340px-CaminoEspa%C3%B1ol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="449" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a> (1567–1620)</figcaption></figure> <p>Philip led Spain into the final phase of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a>, crushing a French army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">Battle of St. Quentin (1557)</a> in Picardy and defeating the French again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Battle of Gravelines</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis">Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis</a>, signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. France was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">civil war</a> and unrest. During this period, it was removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games. Freed from effective French opposition, Spain attained the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/220px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/330px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif/440px-Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1522" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Haarlem" title="Siege of Haarlem">Siege of Haarlem</a> (1572–73)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1566, <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a>-led riots in the Netherlands prompted the <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a> to march into <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> at the head of a large army to restore order. In 1568, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William of Orange</a>, a German nobleman, led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rheindalen" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Rheindalen">Battle of Rheindalen</a> is often seen as the unofficial start of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> that led to the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a>. The Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the initial phase of the war, the revolt was largely unsuccessful. Spain regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. This period is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury" title="Spanish Fury">Spanish Fury</a>" due to the high number of massacres, instances of mass looting, and total destruction of multiple cities between 1572 and 1579. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/220px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/330px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg/440px-Incendio_Ayuntamiento_Amberes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1905" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury_at_Antwerp" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Fury at Antwerp">Spanish Fury at Antwerp</a>, demonstration of Spanish military power as a leading world power at the time.</figcaption></figure> <p>In January 1579, <a href="/wiki/Seignory_of_Frisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Seignory of Frisia">Friesland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guelders" title="Duchy of Guelders">Gelderland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Groningen" title="Lordship of Groningen">Groningen</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Overijssel" title="Lordship of Overijssel">Overijssel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Utrecht" title="Lordship of Utrecht">Utrecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Zeeland" title="County of Zeeland">Zeeland</a> formed the United Provinces which became the Dutch Netherlands of today. Meanwhile, Spain sent <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma</a> with 20,000 well-trained troops into the Netherlands. Groningen, <a href="/wiki/Breda" title="Breda">Breda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kampen,_Overijssel" title="Kampen, Overijssel">Kampen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>, Antwerp, and Brussels, among others, were put to siege. Farnese eventually secured the Southern provinces for Spain. After the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">capture of Maastricht</a> in 1579, the Dutch began to turn on William of Orange.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William was assassinated by a supporter of Philip in 1584. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif/170px-Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif/255px-Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif/340px-Routes_of_the_Spanish_Armada.gif 2x" data-file-width="415" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Routes of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Fall of Antwerp</a>, the Queen of England began to aid the Northern provinces and sent troops there in 1585. English forces under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dudley,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester" title="Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester">Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_Bertie,_13th_Baron_Willoughby_de_Eresby" title="Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby">Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby</a>, faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under Farnese in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganize their defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> suffered defeat at the hands of the English in 1588 and the situation in the Netherlands became increasingly difficult to manage. <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Nassau</a>, William's son, recaptured <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Deventer_(1591)" title="Siege of Deventer (1591)">Deventer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groningen_(1594)" title="Siege of Groningen (1594)">Groningen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nijmegen_(1591)" title="Siege of Nijmegen (1591)">Nijmegen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Zutphen_(1591)" title="Siege of Zutphen (1591)">Zutphen</a>. The Spanish were on the defensive, mainly because they had wasted too much resources on the attempted invasion of England and on expeditions in northern France. In 1595, <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a> declared war on Spain, further reducing its ability to launch offensive warfare on the United Provinces. Philip had been forced to declare bankruptcy in 1557, 1560, 1576 and 1596.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase the supply of gold and silver from America, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France. </p><p>Under financial and military pressure, in 1598 Philip ceded the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> to his daughter <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia" title="Isabella Clara Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a>, following the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Vervins" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Vervins">Treaty of Vervins</a> with France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spanish_America">Spanish America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Spanish America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg/150px-Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg/225px-Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg/300px-Lienzo_de_tlaxcala_full_SD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2459" data-file-height="5400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcalan</a> codex with their new Government, including the Spaniard in the top tier. Full <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tlaxcala" title="History of Tlaxcala">History of Tlaxcala</a></i>, 1585.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitulo-CIX.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/220px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/330px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/440px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cerro_de_Potos%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerro de Potosí">Potosi</a>, discovered in 1545, produced massive amounts of silver from a single site in upper Peru. The first image published in Europe. <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Cieza_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Pedro Cieza de León">Pedro Cieza de León</a>, 1553.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under Philip II, royal power over the Indies increased, but the crown knew little about its overseas possessions. Although the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> was tasked with oversight there, it acted without advice of high officials with direct colonial experience. Another serious problem was that the crown did not know what Spanish laws were in force there. To remedy the situation, Philip appointed Juan de Ovando, who was named president of the council, to give advice. Ovando appointed a "chronicler and cosmographer of the Indies", Juan López de Velasco, to gather information about the crown's holdings, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas" title="Relaciones geográficas">Relaciones geográficas</a> in the 1580s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1978113_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1978113-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TupacamaruI.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TupacamaruI.JPG/220px-TupacamaruI.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TupacamaruI.JPG/330px-TupacamaruI.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/TupacamaruI.JPG/440px-TupacamaruI.JPG 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The last Inca leader, <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru" title="Túpac Amaru">Túpac Amaru</a> was executed in 1572 at the order of the Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo" title="Francisco de Toledo">Francisco de Toledo</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The crown sought greater control over encomenderos, who had attempted to establish themselves as a local aristocracy; strengthened the power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; shored up religious orthodoxy by the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> (1571); and increased revenues from silver mines in Peru and in Mexico, discovered in the 1540s. Particularly important was the crown's appointment of two able viceroys, Don <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Toledo" title="Francisco de Toledo">Francisco de Toledo</a> as <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroy of Peru</a> (r. 1569–1581), and in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Enr%C3%ADquez_de_Almanza" title="Martín Enríquez de Almanza">Martín Enríquez de Almanza</a> (r. 1568–1580), who was subsequently appointed viceroy to replace Toledo in Peru. </p><p>In Peru, after decades of political unrest, with ineffective viceroys and encomenderos wielding undue power, weak royal institutions, a renegade <a href="/wiki/Neo-Inca_State" title="Neo-Inca State">Neo-Inca State</a> existing in <a href="/wiki/Vilcabamba,_Peru" title="Vilcabamba, Peru">Vilcabamba</a>, and waning revenue from the <a href="/wiki/Cerro_Rico" title="Cerro Rico">Cerro Rico</a> silver mine of <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosí</a>, Toledo's appointment was a major step forward for royal control. He built on reforms attempted under earlier viceroys, but he is often credited with a major transformation in crown rule in Peru. Toledo formalized the labor draft of Andean commoners, the <a href="/wiki/Mit%27a" title="Mit'a">mit'a</a>, to guarantee a labor supply for both the silver mine at Potosí and the mercury mine at <a href="/wiki/Huancavelica" title="Huancavelica">Huancavelica</a>. He established administrative districts of <i><a href="/wiki/Corregimiento" title="Corregimiento">corregimiento</a></i>, and resettled native Andeans in <a href="/wiki/Reducciones" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducciones">reducciones</a> to better rule them. Under Toledo, the last stronghold of the Inca state was destroyed and the last Inca emperor, <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru" title="Túpac Amaru">Túpac Amaru</a>, was executed. Silver from Potosí flowed to coffers in Spain and paid for Spain's wars in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In New Spain, Viceroy Enríquez organized the defense of the northern frontier against nomadic and bellicose indigenous groups, who attacked the transport lines of silver from the northern mines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1978114_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1978114-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the religious sphere, the crown sought to bring the power of the religious orders under control with the <i>Ordenanza del Patronazgo</i>, ordering friars to give up their Indian parishes and turn them over to the diocesan clergy, who were more closely controlled by the crown. </p><p>The Spanish Inquisition expanded to the Indies in 1565 and was in place by 1570 in Lima and Mexico City. It drew many colonial Spaniards into <a href="/wiki/Torture_chamber" title="Torture chamber">torture chambers</a>. Native Americans were exempt. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg/220px-Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg/330px-Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg/440px-Expedici%C3%B3n_de_Francis_Drake_1585-1586.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1787" data-file-height="1145" /></a><figcaption>Sir Francis Drake's voyage, 1585–86</figcaption></figure> <p>The crown expanded its global claims and defended existing ones in the Indies. Transpacific explorations had resulted in Spain claiming the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and the establishment of Spanish settlements and trade with New Spain. The viceroyalty of New Spain was given jurisdiction over the Philippines, which became the <a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a> for Asian trade. Philip's succession to the crown of Portugal in 1580 complicated the situation on the ground in the Indies between Spanish and Portuguese settlers, although <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a> were administered through separate councils in Spain. </p><p>Spain dealt with English encroachment on Spain's maritime control in the Indies, particularly by Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> and his cousin <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins_(naval_commander)" title="John Hawkins (naval commander)">John Hawkins</a>. In 1568, the Spanish defeated Hawkins' fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_de_Ul%C3%BAa_(1568)" title="Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)">Battle of San Juan de Ulúa</a> in present-day Mexico. In 1585, Drake sailed for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">West Indies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santo_Domingo_(1586)" title="Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)">sacked Santo Domingo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias_(1586)" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)">captured Cartagena de Indias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_St._Augustine" title="Raid on St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. Both Drake and Hawkins died of disease during the disastrous 1595–96 expedition against <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">Battle of San Juan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, and other targets in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a>, a severe setback in which the English suffered heavy losses in men and ships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Philippines,_the_Sultanate_of_Brunei_and_Southeast_Asia"><span id="The_Philippines.2C_the_Sultanate_of_Brunei_and_Southeast_Asia"></span>The Philippines, the Sultanate of Brunei and Southeast Asia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Philippines, the Sultanate of Brunei and Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Itinerario_legazpi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Itinerario_legazpi.jpg/220px-Itinerario_legazpi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="480" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Itinerario_legazpi.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Routes of early Spanish expeditions in the Philippines.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the conquest and settlement of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, the Spanish Empire reached its greatest extent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003154_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003154-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1564, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a> was commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of New Spain">viceroy of New Spain</a> (Mexico), Don <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Velasco" class="mw-redirect" title="Luís de Velasco">Luís de Velasco</a>, to lead an expedition in the Pacific Ocean to find the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a>, where earlier explorers <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a> had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The westward sailing to reach the sources of spices continued to be a necessity with the Ottomans still controlled major choke points in central Asia. It was unclear how the agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the Atlantic world affected finds on the other side of the Pacific. Spain had ceded its rights to the "Spice Islands" to Portugal in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saragossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Saragossa">Treaty of Saragossa</a> in 1529, but the appellation was vague as was their exact delineation. The Legazpi expedition was ordered by King Philip II, after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Ruy López de Villalobos, when Philip was heir to the throne. The King stated that "the main purpose of this expedition is to establish the return route from the western isles, since it is already known that the route to them is fairly short."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Viceroy died in July 1564, but the <a href="/wiki/Audiencia_Real" class="mw-redirect" title="Audiencia Real">Audiencia</a> and de Legazpi completed the preparations for the expedition. On embarking on the expedition, Spain lacked maps or information to guide the King's decision to authorize the expedition. That realization subsequently led to the creation of reports from the various regions of the empire, the <a href="/wiki/Relaciones_geogr%C3%A1ficas" title="Relaciones geográficas">relaciones geográficas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003160_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003160-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Philippines came under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalty of Mexico, and once the <a href="/wiki/Manila_Galleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila Galleon">Manila Galleon</a> sailings between <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a> were established, Mexico became the Philippines' link to the larger Spanish Empire. </p><p>Spanish colonization began in earnest when López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first settlements in <a href="/wiki/Cebu" title="Cebu">Cebu</a>. Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> friars, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for the colonization of the archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their Mexican recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies attacked and occupied <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Maynila" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Maynila">Maynila</a>, a vassal-state of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Brunei">Sultanate of Brunei</a>, and negotiated the incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tondo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Tondo">Kingdom of Tondo</a> which was liberated from the Bruneian Sultanate's control and of whom, their princess, <a href="/wiki/Princess_Kandarapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Kandarapa">Kandarapa</a>, had a tragic romance with the Mexican-born Conquistador and grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Salcedo" title="Juan de Salcedo">Juan de Salcedo</a>. The combined Spanish-Mexican-Filipino forces also built a Christian walled city over the burnt ruins of Muslim Maynila and made it as the new capital of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a> and renamed it Manila.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurlansky199964Joaquin1988_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurlansky199964Joaquin1988-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spaniards were few and life was difficult and they were often outnumbered by their Amerindian recruits and Filipino allies. They attempted to mobilize subordinated populations through the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a>. Unlike in the Caribbean where the indigenous populations rapidly disappeared, the indigenous populations continued to be robust in the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003203_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003203-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Spaniard described the climate as "cuatro meses de polvo, cuatro meses de lodo, y cuatro meses de todo" (four months of dust, four months of mud, and four months of everything).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legazpi built a fort in Manila and made overtures of friendship to <a href="/wiki/Lakan_Dula" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakan Dula">Lakan Dula</a>, Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, <a href="/wiki/Rajah_Sulayman" title="Rajah Sulayman">Rajah Sulayman</a>, who was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When <a href="/wiki/Tarik_Sulayman" title="Tarik Sulayman">Tarik Sulayman</a> and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bangkusay_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bangkusay Channel">Battle of Bangkusay</a>, he was finally defeated and killed. The Spanish also repelled an attack by Chinese pirate warlord <a href="/wiki/Limahong" title="Limahong">Limahong</a>. </p><p>Simultaneously, the establishment of a Christianized Philippines attracted Chinese traders who exchanged their silk for <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Mexican silver</a>. Indian and Malay traders also settled in the Philippines too, to trade their spices and gems for the same Mexican silver. The Philippines then became a center for Christian missionary activity that was also directed to Japan. The Philippines even accepted Christian converts from Japan after they were persecuted. Most of the soldiers and settlers sent by the Spanish to the Philippines were either from Mexico or Peru and very little people directly came from Spain. At one point, the royal officials in Manila complained that most of the soldiers who were being sent from New Spain were black, mulatto or Native American, with almost no Spaniards among the contingents.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1578, the <a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Castilian War</a> erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of the Philippine archipelago. The Spanish were joined by the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the <a href="/wiki/Madja-as" title="Madja-as">Kedatuan of Madja-as</a> who were Animists and <a href="/wiki/Rajahnate_of_Cebu" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajahnate of Cebu">Rajahnate of Cebu</a> who were Hindus, plus the <a href="/wiki/Rajahnate_of_Butuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rajahnate of Butuan">Rajahnate of Butuan</a> (who were from northern <a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a> and were Hindus with a Buddhist Monarchy), as well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan who were also Animists and had previously waged war against the Islamic nations of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> and Kingdom of Maynila. They fought against the Sultanate of Brunei and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-states of Maynila and Sulu, which had dynastic links with Brunei. The Spanish, its Mexican recruits and Filipino allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, <a href="/wiki/Kota_Batu,_Brunei-Muara" class="mw-redirect" title="Kota Batu, Brunei-Muara">Kota Batu</a>. This was achieved partly as a result of the assistance of two <a href="/wiki/Pengiran#Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Pengiran">noblemen</a>, Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Vassal kingdom">tributary</a> of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlip1964201,_317_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlip1964201,_317-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new <a href="/wiki/Bendahara" title="Bendahara">Bendahara</a>. In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Sande" title="Francisco de Sande">Francisco de Sande</a> himself, acting as <a href="/wiki/Captain_general" title="Captain general">Capitán General</a>, started its journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500 <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipino</a> natives and 300 Borneans.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign was one of many, which also included action in <a href="/wiki/Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Archipelago" title="Sulu Archipelago">Sulu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcAmis200233_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcAmis200233-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lantakas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Lantakas.jpg/170px-Lantakas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Lantakas.jpg/255px-Lantakas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Lantakas.jpg/340px-Lantakas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>Collection of Philippine <a href="/wiki/Lantaka" title="Lantaka">lantaka</a> gunpowder weapons in a European museum</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to <a href="/wiki/Jerudong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerudong">Jerudong</a>. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to a <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> outbreak.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankhamAlexander2008278Atiyah200271_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankhamAlexander2008278Atiyah200271-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on 26 June 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders200254–60_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders200254–60-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the ruling Sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_people" title="Tagalog people">Tagalog</a>, named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo, and had children in the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders200257_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders200257-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1587, <a href="/wiki/Magat_Salamat" title="Magat Salamat">Magat Salamat</a>, one of the children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when the <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Maharlikas" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy of the Maharlikas">Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588</a> failed.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico. </p><p>The Spanish then conducted the centuries long <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a> against the Sultanates of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Maguindanao</a>, Lanao and Sulu. War was also waged against the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Ternate" title="Sultanate of Ternate">Sultanate of Ternate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a>, in response to Ternatean slaving and piracy against Spain's allies: <a href="/wiki/Bohol" title="Bohol">Bohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butuan" title="Butuan">Butuan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RICKLEFSp25_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RICKLEFSp25-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Spanish–Moro conflict, the Moros of Muslim Mindanao conducted piracy and slave-raids against Christian settlements in the Philippines. The Spanish fought back by establishing Christian fort-cities such as <a href="/wiki/Zamboanga_City" title="Zamboanga City">Zamboanga City</a> on Muslim Mindanao. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>, a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that included a <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">rivalry with the Ottoman Caliphate</a>, which had a center of operations at its nearby vassal, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_expedition_to_Aceh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman expedition to Aceh">Sultanate of Aceh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1593, the governor-general of the Philippines, <a href="/wiki/Luis_P%C3%A9rez_Dasmari%C3%B1as" title="Luis Pérez Dasmariñas">Luis Pérez Dasmariñas</a>, set out to conquer <a href="/wiki/Post-Angkor_period" title="Post-Angkor period">Cambodia</a>, igniting the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Spanish_War" title="Cambodian–Spanish War">Cambodian–Spanish War</a>. Some 120 Spaniards, Japanese, and Filipinos, sailing aboard three junks, launched an expedition to Cambodia. After an altercation between the Spanish expedition members and some Chinese merchants at the port left a few Chinese dead, the Spanish were forced to confront the newly declared king, Anacaparan, burning much of his capital while defeating him. In 1599, Malay Muslim merchants defeated and massacred almost the entire contingent of Spanish troops in Cambodia, putting an end to Spanish plans to conquer it. Another expedition, one to conquer Mindanao, was also lacking in success. In 1603, during a <a href="/wiki/Sangley_Rebellion" title="Sangley Rebellion">Chinese rebellion</a>, Pérez Dasmariñas was beheaded, and his head was mounted in Manila along with those of several other Spanish soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-RICKLEFSp25_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RICKLEFSp25-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal_and_the_Iberian_Union_1580–1640"><span id="Portugal_and_the_Iberian_Union_1580.E2.80.931640"></span>Portugal and the Iberian Union 1580–1640</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Portugal and the Iberian Union 1580–1640"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ImperioDeFelipeII.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/ImperioDeFelipeII.svg/310px-ImperioDeFelipeII.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/ImperioDeFelipeII.svg/465px-ImperioDeFelipeII.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/ImperioDeFelipeII.svg/620px-ImperioDeFelipeII.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="858" /></a><figcaption>Spanish Empire of Philip II, III and IV including all charted and claimed territories, maritime claims (mare clausum) and other features.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the fact that during the Iberian Union a certain degree of autonomy and the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a> was maintained, many historians agree that the dynastic union was in fact a Spanish conquest by keeping Portugal and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> as part of the Spanish colonial empire under the sovereignty of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> and his successors after the Spanish victory in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Portuguese_Succession" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Portuguese Succession">War of Portuguese Succession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker,_Geoffrey_2010._Page_728_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker,_Geoffrey_2010._Page_728-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_2013,_Page_297_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Hugh_2013,_Page_297-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Braudel,_Fernand_1976,_pp._713_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Braudel,_Fernand_1976,_pp._713-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1580, King Philip saw the opportunity to strengthen his position in Iberia when the last member of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aviz" title="House of Aviz">Portuguese royal family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry,_King_of_Portugal" title="Henry, King of Portugal">Henry, King of Portugal</a>, died. Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a> with an army to <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> to assure his succession.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip famously remarked upon his acquisition of the Portuguese throne: "I inherited, I bought, I conquered," a variation on <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veni,_Vidi,_Vici" class="mw-redirect" title="Veni, Vidi, Vici">Veni, Vidi, Vici</a>. Spanish forces led by Admiral <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Álvaro de Bazán">Álvaro de Bazán</a> captured the Azores Islands in 1583, completing the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast colonial empire in Africa, <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire_in_the_Indonesian_Archipelago" title="Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago">East Indies</a>, seeing a flood of new revenues coming to the Habsburg crown. The success of colonization all around his empire improved his financial position, enabling him to show greater aggression towards his enemies. The <a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a> of 1589 failed to liberate Portugal. </p><p>Philip established the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Portugal" title="Council of Portugal">Council of Portugal</a>, on the pattern of the <a href="/wiki/Polysynodial_System" title="Polysynodial System">royal councils</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Castile" title="Council of Castile">Council of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Aragon" title="Council of Aragon">Council of Aragon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a>, that oversaw particular jurisdictions, but all under the same monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a>, Phillip II's enemies became Portugal's enemies, such as the Dutch in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" title="Dutch–Portuguese War">Dutch–Portuguese War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>. War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia, including <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon">Ceylon</a> and commercial interests in Japan, Africa (<a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">Mina</a>), and South America. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a> (Philip III of Portugal) in 1640, the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">revolted and fought</a> successfully for their independence from the rest of Iberia, although Spain continued to attempt to crush the revolt until 1668. The Council of Portugal was subsequently dissolved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_III">Philip III</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philip III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III of Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg/170px-Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg/255px-Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg/340px-Velazquez-felipeIII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="2952" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III of Spain</a> (r. 1598–1621)</figcaption></figure> <p>Philip III succeeded his father in 1598 but had no interest in politics or government, preferring to engage in lavish court festivities, religious indulgences, and the theatre. He needed someone to do the work of governing, and he settled on <a href="/wiki/Francisco_G%C3%B3mez_de_Sandoval_y_Rojas,_Duke_of_Lerma" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma">Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma</a>. </p><p>Under the guidance of Lerma, Philip III's government resorted to a tactic that had been resolutely resisted by Philip II, paying for the budget deficits by the mass minting of increasingly worthless vellones, causing inflation. In 1607, the government faced bankruptcy. </p><p>Peace with <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins" title="Peace of Vervins">France in 1598</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1604)" title="Treaty of London (1604)">England in 1604</a> meant that Spain could focus her energies on restoring her rule to the Dutch provinces. The Dutch, led by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_of_Nassau" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice of Nassau">Maurice of Nassau</a>, the son of William the Silent, had succeeded in taking a number of border cities since 1590, including the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Breda" title="Breda">Breda</a>. Following the peace with England, the new Spanish commander <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola" title="Ambrogio Spinola">Ambrogio Spinola</a> pressed hard against the Dutch. Spinola, a general of abilities to match Maurice, was prevented from conquering the Netherlands only by Spain's renewed bankruptcy in 1607. Fortunately, Spanish forces had regained enough of the military initiative to convince a politically divided <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> to sign a <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years%27_Truce" title="Twelve Years' Truce">Twelve Years' Truce</a> in 1609. </p><p>Spain recovered during the truce, ordering her finances and doing much to restore her prestige and stability in the run-up to the last war in which she would participate as the leading power. In the Spanish Netherlands, the rule of Philip II's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Clara_Eugenia" title="Isabella Clara Eugenia">Isabella Clara Eugenia</a>, and her husband, <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Albert_(1559-1621)" class="mw-redirect" title="Archduke Albert (1559-1621)">Archduke Albert</a>, restored stability. But Philip III and Lerma lacked the ability to make any meaningful change in the country's foreign policy. They clung to the idea of placing the Infanta Isabella on the English throne after Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>'s death and sent a limited expeditionary force to Ireland to aid the Spanish-supplied rebels. The English <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kinsale" title="Siege of Kinsale">defeated it</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">long war</a> of attrition there had drained England of money, men, and morale: Elizabeth's successor, <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a>, wanted a fresh start to his reign. The war that had been going on between the two countries since 1585 finally ended. War with France threatened in 1610, but shortly after, <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV</a> was assassinated, and the regency of the boy king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII" title="Louis XIII">Louis XIII</a> was not stable. Up until 1630, Spain was at peace and continued its dominant position in Europe. Meanwhile, Lerma's enemies expelled him from office in 1617, and <a href="/wiki/Baltasar_de_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga" title="Baltasar de Zúñiga">Baltasar de Zúñiga</a> began calling for a more aggressive foreign policy. </p><p>In 1618, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Defenestration_of_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Defenestration of Prague">Defenestration of Prague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, embarked on a campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a>. Zúñiga encouraged Philip to join the Austrian Habsburgs in the war, and Ambrogio Spinola, the rising star of the Spanish army, was sent at the head of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a> to intervene. Thus, Spain entered into the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_IV">Philip IV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philip IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV of Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg/170px-Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg/255px-Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg/340px-Philip_IV_by_Velazquez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="1313" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV of Spain</a> (r. 1621–1665) by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1621, Philip III died and his son succeeded as Philip IV. The militarists now were firmly in charge. The following year, Zúñiga was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares" title="Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares">Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares</a>, an able man who believed that the center of all Spain's woes lay in Holland. After certain initial setbacks, the Bohemians were defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a> in 1621, and again at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stadtlohn" title="Battle of Stadtlohn">Stadtlohn</a> in 1623. The war with the Netherlands was renewed with Spinola taking the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a> in 1625. The intervention of the Danish king <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV</a> in the war worried some, because Christian was one of Europe's few monarchs who had no worries over his finances. However, the victory of the Imperial general <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Wallenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert of Wallenstein">Albert of Wallenstein</a> over the Danes at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dessau_Bridge" title="Battle of Dessau Bridge">Dessau Bridge</a> and again at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lutter" title="Battle of Lutter">Lutter</a>, both in 1626, eliminated the threat. There was hope in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> that the Netherlands might finally be reincorporated into the empire, and after the defeat of Denmark the Protestants in Germany seemed subdued. France was once again involved in her own instabilities and the famous <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Siege of La Rochelle">Siege of La Rochelle</a> began in 1627. Spain's eminence seemed irrefutable. The Count-Duke Olivares stridently affirmed "God is Spanish and fights for our nation these days."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Olivares was a man out of his time. He realized that Spain needed to reform and to reform it needed peace. The destruction of the United Provinces of the Netherlands was necessary. Dutch colonial policy tried to undermine Spanish and Portuguese hegemony. Spinola and the Spanish army were focused on the Netherlands, and the war seemed to be going in Spain's favor. </p><p>In 1627, the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castilian</a> economy collapsed. The Spanish had been <a href="/wiki/Debasement" title="Debasement">debasing</a> their currency to pay for the war and <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">prices exploded</a> in Spain just as they had in previous years in Austria. Until 1631, parts of Castile operated on a <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> economy as a result of the currency crisis, and the government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry, depending instead on its colonies (via the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a>). The Spanish armies in Germany resorted to "paying themselves" on the land. Olivares, who had backed certain tax measures in Spain pending the completion of the war, was further blamed for the fruitless <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession" title="War of the Mantuan Succession">War of the Mantuan Succession</a> in Italy. The Dutch, who during the Twelve Years' Truce had made their navy a priority, proceeded to plunder Spanish and (especially) Portuguese maritime trade, on which Spain was wholly dependent after the economic collapse. Spanish victories in Germany and Italy were not enough to matter, and their navy began suffering losses. </p><p>In 1630, <a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a> of Sweden landed in Germany and relieved the port of <a href="/wiki/Stralsund" title="Stralsund">Stralsund</a> that was the last stronghold on the continent held by German forces belligerent to the Emperor. Gustav then marched south winning notable victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breitenfeld_(1631)" title="Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)">Breitenfeld</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1632)" title="Battle of Lützen (1632)">Lutzen</a>, attracting greater support for the Protestant cause the further he went. The situation for the Catholics improved with Gustav's death at Lutzen in 1632 and a shocking victory for Imperial forces under <a href="/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand">Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand III of Hungary</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nordlingen</a> in 1634. From a position of strength, the Emperor approached the war-weary German states with a peace in 1635. Many accepted, including the two most powerful, <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburg-Prussia">Brandenburg-Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu" title="Cardinal Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a> had been a strong supporter of the Dutch and Protestants since the beginning of the war, sending funds and equipment in an attempt to stem Habsburg strength in Europe. Richelieu decided that the recently signed <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1635)" title="Peace of Prague (1635)">Peace of Prague</a> was contrary to French interests and <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">declared war</a> on the Holy Roman Emperor and Spain within months of the peace being signed. The more experienced Spanish forces scored initial successes. Olivares ordered a lightning campaign into northern France from the Spanish Netherlands, hoping to shatter the resolve of King Louis XIII's ministers and topple Richelieu before the war exhausted Spanish finances and France's military resources could be fully deployed. In the <i>"année de Corbie"</i>, 1636, Spanish forces advanced as far south as <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corbie" title="Corbie">Corbie</a>, threatening <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> and quite nearly ending the war on their terms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg/310px-La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg/465px-La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/La_Bataille_de_Rocroi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a> (1643), the symbolic end of the greatness of Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>After 1636, however, Olivares stopped the advance. The French thus gained time to properly mobilise. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Battle of the Downs</a> in 1639 a Spanish fleet was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Navy" title="Dutch States Navy">Dutch States Navy</a>, and the Spanish found themselves unable to adequately reinforce and supply their forces in the Netherlands. The Spanish <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a>, which represented the finest of Spanish soldiery and leadership, faced a French advance led by <a href="/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis, Grand Condé">Louis, Grand Condé</a> in northern France at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a> in 1643. The Spanish, led by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Melo" title="Francisco de Melo">Francisco de Melo</a>, were routed. One of Spain's best and most famous armies had suffered defeat on the battlefield and the waning power of Spain was eclipsed by that of France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_last_Spanish_Habsburgs_(1643–1700)"><span id="The_last_Spanish_Habsburgs_.281643.E2.80.931700.29"></span>The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1700)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1700)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain_in_the_seventeenth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg Spain in the seventeenth century">Habsburg Spain in the seventeenth century</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Spain" title="Decline of Spain">Decline of Spain</a></div> <p>Burdened by wartime taxes and supported by the French, the <a href="/wiki/Reapers_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Reapers War">Catalans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647)">Neapolitans</a> rose up in revolt against the Spanish in the 1640s. With the Spanish Netherlands now very much on the defensive between French and Dutch forces after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lens" title="Battle of Lens">Battle of Lens</a> in 1648, the Spanish made peace with the Dutch and recognized the independent United Provinces in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> that ended both the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>. </p><p>Olivares attempted to suppress the Catalan Revolt by launching an invasion of southern France. The quartering of Spanish troops in the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a> only made the situation worse. The Catalans decided to secede from Spain altogether and unite with France. French troops soon arrived in Catalonia, but when a renewed civil war (<a href="/wiki/The_Fronde" title="The Fronde">The Fronde</a>) broke out at home, their domestically distracted forces were driven out in 1652 by Catalan and Spanish Habsburg forces. </p><p>England now entered the war and occupied Jamaica. The long, desultory and weary struggle effectively ended at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">Battle of the Dunes (1658)</a> where the French army under <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Viscount_of_Turenne" title="Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne">Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne</a> (along with some English help) defeated the Spanish Army of Flanders. Spain agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a> in 1659 that ceded to France <a href="/wiki/County_of_Artois" title="County of Artois">Artois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">Roussillon</a>, and portions of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Lorraine</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg/170px-Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg/255px-Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg/340px-Juan_de_Miranda_Carreno_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2993" data-file-height="3798" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a>, the last Habsburg king of Spain (r. 1665–1700)</figcaption></figure> <p>Meanwhile, the Portuguese took advantage of the Catalan revolt to declare their own independence in 1640. The 60 years of union between Portugal and Spain were not happy. The Portuguese fluent Philip II visited the country twice, but Philip III only once, in a short formal visit. Philip IV never bothered to. The Spanish, hard pressed elsewhere, were blamed for inadequately protecting Portugal's overseas colonies from the Dutch who <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">annexed parts of Colonial Brazil</a>. In a time of economic downturn, the Spanish colonies did not enjoy having to trade and compete with their Portuguese counterparts. Moreover, Portugal's autonomous status as an equal in the union went into decline after Philip II and was treated increasingly in the great councils of state as a province. After Portugal declared independence and chose the Duke of Braganza as King <a href="/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal" title="John IV of Portugal">John IV</a>, Spain was distracted with a <a href="/wiki/Andalusian_independentist_conspiracy_(1641)" title="Andalusian independentist conspiracy (1641)">revolt in Andalusia</a> and thus was unable to do anything about it. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Revolt</a> was partially what led Spain to conclude peace with France in 1659. But the government had gone bankrupt again in 1647 and 1653, and the nobility would not give an inch on financial and tax reforms. Portuguese victories in 1663 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ameixial" title="Battle of Ameixial">Ameixial</a> and in 1665 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a> secured their independence. Spain finally recognized Portugal's sovereignty in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon_(1668)" title="Treaty of Lisbon (1668)">Treaty of Lisbon (1668)</a>. </p><p>Philip IV, who had seen over the course of his life the declining influence of Spain's empire, sank slowly into depression after he had to dismiss his favorite courtier, Olivares, in 1643. In 1646, his eldest son and heir <a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Charles,_Prince_of_Asturias" title="Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias">Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias</a> died at the age of 16. <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" title="Charles II of Spain">Charles II</a> suffered from generations of Habsburg inbreeding and was physically and mentally incapable of governing, being manipulated by various political factions throughout his life. For a short time under Don <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Austria the Younger">Juan José de Austria</a>, illegitimate son of Philip IV, as <a href="/wiki/Favourite" title="Favourite">valido</a> the nobility came to dominate Spain once again. Most were self-serving, but there were a few such as <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Joaqu%C3%ADn_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo" title="Manuel Joaquín Álvarez de Toledo">Manuel Joaquín Álvarez de Toledo</a>, Count of Oropesa, who managed to stabilize the currency, despite ruinous deflation. Others tried to weaken the power of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>, which however was not abolished until 1808, and encourage economic development. </p><p>Even so, Spain's economy declined, especially in Castile, and its population decreased by nearly two million people during the 17th century. This was partially due to plague outbreaks, and partially due to the huge casualties caused by almost continuous warfare. The period 1677-1686 was a low point, with famine, plague, natural disasters, and economic upheaval. Emigration to the New World increased. </p><p>France was now strong and united under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> and after the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) took Spain's place as the dominant power in Europe. Three wars were fought during this period, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Devolution" title="War of Devolution">War of Devolution</a> (1667–1668), the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a> (1672–1678), and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a> (1688–1697). Although Spain's territorial losses (the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">Franche-Comté</a>, some towns in the Southern Netherlands and <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">part of the island of Hispaniola</a>) were relatively few, it had demonstrated some vulnerability. Louis XIV and other European rulers had plans for when Charles II's death came, as it was clear that he would produce no children and the Habsburg line in Spain would die with him. The end came with Charles' passing at the age of 39 on November 1, 1700. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_the_Spanish_Inquisition">Religion and the Spanish Inquisition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Religion and the Spanish Inquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg/300px-Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg/450px-Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg/600px-Francisco_rizi-auto_de_fe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3071" data-file-height="1946" /></a><figcaption>An <i><a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">auto-da-fé</a></i>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rizi" title="Francisco Rizi">Francisco Rizi</a>, 1683</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was formally launched during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>, continued by their Habsburg successors, and only ended in the 19th century. Under <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I</a>, the Inquisition became a formal department in the Spanish government, hurtling out of control as the 16th century progressed. </p><p>Philip II greatly expanded the Inquisition and made church orthodoxy a goal of public policy. In 1559, three years after Philip came to power, students in Spain were forbidden to travel abroad, the leaders of the Inquisition were placed in charge of censorship, and books could no longer be imported. Philip vigorously tried to excise Protestantism from Spain, holding innumerable campaigns to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> literature from the country, hoping to avoid the chaos taking place in France. </p><p>Philip was more religious than his father, and was convinced that if the Protestants were resorting to military force, then he must do likewise. He was willing to do whatever it took to fight the heretics and preserve Spanish hegemony, even intervening in <a href="/wiki/Papal_conclave" title="Papal conclave">papal conclaves</a> to ensure the choosing of a pro-Spanish pope. Philip succeeded three times with popes <a href="/wiki/Urban_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban VII">Urban VII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_XIV" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory XIV">Gregory XIV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Innocent_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Innocent IX">Innocent IX</a>. But the fourth time, he failed to prevent the election of the pro-French <a href="/wiki/Clement_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Clement VIII">Clement VIII</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Spain" title="Catholic Church in Spain">Catholic Church in Spain</a> had been purged of many of its administrative excesses in the 15th century by Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Xim%C3%A9nez_de_Cisneros" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros">Francisco Ximénez de Cisneros</a>. The Inquisition served to expurgate many of the more radical reformers who sought to change church theology as the Protestant reformers wanted. Instead, Spain became the scion of the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> as it emerged from the <i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i>. Spain bred two unique threads of counter-reformationary thought in the persons of Saint <a href="/wiki/Theresa_of_Avila" class="mw-redirect" title="Theresa of Avila">Theresa of Avila</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basque_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque people">Basque</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignatius Loyola">Ignatius Loyola</a>. Theresa advocated strict <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monasticism</a> and a revival of more ancient traditions of penitence. She experienced a <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">mystical ecstasy</a> that became profoundly influential on Spanish culture and art. Ignatius Loyola, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> Order, was influential across the world in his stress on spiritual and mental excellence and contributed to a resurgence of learning across Europe. In 1625, a peak of Spanish prestige and power, the Count-Duke of Olivares established the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Colegio_Imperial_de_Madrid" title="Colegio Imperial de Madrid">Colegio Imperial de Madrid</a> to train Spanish nobles in the humanities and military arts. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg/300px-Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg/450px-Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg/600px-Embarco_moriscos_en_el_Grao_de_valencia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1835" data-file-height="1195" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">expulsion of the Moriscos</a> from <a href="/wiki/Valencia,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Valencia, Spain">Valencia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Moriscos" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriscos">Moriscos</a> of southern Spain had been forcibly converted to Christianity in 1502, but under the rule of Charles I they had been able to obtain a degree of tolerance from their Christian rulers. They were allowed to practice their former custom, dress, and language, and religious laws were laxly enforced. However, Charles also passed the <i><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Limpieza de sangre</a></i>, a law that excluded those not of pure Old Christian, non-Jewish blood from public office. Philip began to put back into place the restrictive laws of generations before and in 1568 the Moriscos <a href="/wiki/Morisco_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Morisco Revolt">rebelled</a>. The revolt was only put down by Italian troops under <a href="/wiki/Don_John_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Don John of Austria">Don John of Austria</a>. Even then the Moriscos retreated to the highlands and were not defeated until 1570. The revolt was followed by a massive resettlement program in which 12,000 Christian peasants replaced the Moriscos. In 1609, on the advice of the <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Gom%C3%A9z_de_Sandoval_y_Rojas,_Duke_of_Lerma" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma">Duke of Lerma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">expelled the 300,000 Moriscos</a> of Spain. </p><p>The expulsion of the industrious Jews, Moors, and Moriscos did nothing to advance the Spanish economy. The small scattered groups of Moriscos lived largely by subsistence farming in marginal mountain areas or by unskilled laboring in a country that had very many underemployed hands. A council set up to investigate the matter in Castile found little effect, but in parts of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> and especially the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>, where half the Moriscos had lived, and had made up a substantial minority of the population, the impact was certainly noticeable for the noblemen who had lost rents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration_and_bureaucracy">Administration and bureaucracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Administration and bureaucracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Spanish received a large influx of gold from the colonies in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> as plunder when they were conquered, much of which Charles I used to prosecute his wars in Europe. In the 1520s silver began to be extracted from the rich deposits at <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato" title="Guanajuato">Guanajuato</a>, but it was not until the 1540s, with the opening of the mines at <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosí</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zacatecas" title="Zacatecas">Zacatecas</a>, that silver was to become the fabled source of wealth it has assumed in legend. The Spanish left mining to private enterprise but instituted a tax known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Royal_fifth" title="Royal fifth">Royal fifth</a></i> whereby a fifth of the metal was collected by the government. They were quite successful in enforcing the tax throughout their vast empire in the New World. All <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a> had to pass through the <a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">House of Trade</a> in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, under the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a>. The supply of <a href="/wiki/Almad%C3%A9n" title="Almadén">Almadén</a> <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, vital to <a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">extracting silver</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>, was controlled by the state and contributed to the rigor of Spanish tax policy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a>, both in Spain and in the rest of Europe, was primarily caused by debt, but a level of debt made possible later by the rising silver imports. Charles had conducted most of his wars on credit. In 1557, a year after he abdicated, Spain was forced into its first <a href="/wiki/Debt_moratorium" title="Debt moratorium">debt moratorium</a>, setting a pattern that would be repeated with ever more disruptive economic consequences. </p><p>Few Spaniards initially gave a thought to the wholesale slaughter, enslavement, and forced conversion of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> either, although some men such as <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> argued for more humane treatment of them. This led to much debate and governmental action. The <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a>, and other legal and institutional changes somewhat alleviated conditions for Native Americans, including the freeing of all Native American slaves. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Galleon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Spanish_Galleon.jpg/200px-Spanish_Galleon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Spanish_Galleon.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>A Spanish <a href="/wiki/Galleon" title="Galleon">galleon</a>, the symbol of Spain's maritime empire</figcaption></figure> <p>Faced with the growing threat of <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>, in 1564 the Spanish adopted a convoy system far ahead of its time, with <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">treasure fleets</a> leaving America in April and August. The policy proved efficient, and was quite successful. Only two convoys were captured: one in 1628 when it was captured by the Dutch, and another in 1656, captured by the English, but by then the convoys were a shadow of what they had been at their peak at the end of the previous century. Nevertheless, even without being completely captured they frequently came under attack, which inevitably took its toll. Not all shipping of the dispersed empire could be protected by large convoys, allowing the Dutch, English and French <a href="/wiki/Privateers" class="mw-redirect" title="Privateers">privateers</a> and pirates the opportunity to attack trade along the American and Spanish coastlines and raid isolated settlements. This became particularly savage from the 1650s, with all sides falling to extraordinary levels of barbarity, even by the harsh standards of the time. Spain also responded with no small amount of privateering, using the recaptured city of <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> as a base for its <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_Raiders" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunkirk Raiders">Dunkirk Raiders</a> to molest Dutch, English and French trade. More seriously, the Portuguese part of the empire, with its chronically undermanned African and Asian forts, proved nearly impossible to defend adequately, and with Spain so fully engaged on so many fronts, it could spare little for their defense. Spain also had to deal with Ottoman backed <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> in the Mediterranean, a vastly greater menace than Caribbean piracy, as well as Oriental and Dutch piracy in the waters around the Philippines. </p><p>The growth of Spain's empire in the New World was accomplished from Seville, without the close direction of the leadership in Madrid. Charles I and Philip II were primarily concerned with their duties in Europe, and thus control of the Americas was handled by <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroys</a> and colonial administrators who operated with virtual autonomy. The Habsburg kings regarded their colonies as feudal associations rather than integral parts of Spain. No Spanish king ever visited the new world. The Habsburgs, whose family had traditionally ruled over diverse, non-contiguous domains and had been forced to devolve autonomy to local administrators, replicated and continued those feudal policies in Spain, with the Basques, the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> and each of its constituent kingdoms retaining their <a href="/wiki/Fuero" title="Fuero">Fuero</a> rights. </p><p>This meant that taxes, infrastructure improvement, and internal trade policy were defined independently by each territory, leading to many internal customs barriers and tolls, and conflicting policies even within the Habsburg domains. Charles I and Philip II had been able to master the various courts through their impressive political energy, but the much weaker Philip III and IV allowed it to decay. At the end, Charles II was incapable of controlling anything at all. The development of Spain itself was hampered by the fact that Charles I and Philip II spent most of their time abroad. For most of the 16th century, Spain was administered from <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>. It was only during the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Dutch Revolt</a> that Philip returned to Spain, where he spent most of his time in the seclusion of the monastic palace of <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial" title="El Escorial">El Escorial</a>. The empire, held together by a determined king keeping the bureaucracy together, experienced a setback when a less-trusting ruler came to the throne. Philip II distrusted the nobility and discouraged any independent initiative among them. While writers of the time offered novel solutions to Spain's problems such as using irrigation in agriculture and encouragement of economic activity, the nobility never really produced anyone that could bring about serious reforms. </p><p>Charles I, on becoming king, clashed with his nobles during the <a href="/wiki/Castilian_War_of_the_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Castilian War of the Communities">Castilian War of the Communities</a> when he attempted to fill government positions with effective Dutch and Flemish officials. Philip II encountered major resistance when he tried to enforce his authority over the Netherlands, contributing to the rebellion in that country. The <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares" title="Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares">Count-Duke of Olivares</a>, Philip IV's chief minister, always regarded it as essential to Spain's survival that the bureaucracy be centralized. He even backed the full union of Portugal with Spain, though he never had an opportunity to realize his ideas. The bureaucracy became so increasingly bloated and corrupt that by the time of Olivares's dismissal in 1643, its deterioration had rendered it largely ineffective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg/300px-Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg/450px-Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg/600px-Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="1502" /></a><figcaption><i>View of <a href="/wiki/Zaragoza" title="Zaragoza">Zaragoza</a></i>, 1647, by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Bautista_Mart%C3%ADnez_del_Mazo" title="Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo">Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Like most of Europe, Spain had suffered from famine and plague during the 14th and 15th centuries. By 1500, Europe was beginning to emerge from these demographic disasters, and populations began to explode. <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>, which was home to 60,000 people in 1500 burgeoned to 150,000 by the end of the century. There was a substantial movement to the cities of Spain to capitalize on new opportunities as shipbuilders and merchants to service Spain's impressive and growing empire. The 16th century was a time of development in Spain as both agriculture and trade burgeoned. Throughout the harsh interior of Castile grain and wool production grew. The former fed an expansion of the population. The latter fed both local textile manufacturing and a lucrative trade with the Netherlands. The <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castilian</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Burgos" title="Burgos">Burgos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Segovia" title="Segovia">Segovia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuenca,_Spain" title="Cuenca, Spain">Cuenca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>, flourished with the expansion of the textile and metallurgical industries. <a href="/wiki/Santander,_Spain" title="Santander, Spain">Santander</a>, on the northern Atlantic coast, grew in wealth from its traditional roles as a port linking the country's interior with <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> and as a ship building centre. Southern cities like <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> and Seville expanded rapidly from the commerce and shipbuilding spurred on by the demands of the American colonies and enjoyed a monopoly on trade with Spanish America. <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, already one of Europe's most important and sophisticated trading port cities in the Middle Ages, continued to develop. By 1590, Spain's population was far greater than what it had been in any previous period. It was during this last decade when Castile began to suffer crop failures and was struck by a <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Seville" title="Great Plague of Seville">plague</a> from 1596 that brought about the first serious reversal in population numbers, a cycle that would repeat itself a number of times in different parts of the country through the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the 16th century had worn on, inflation in Spain triggered hardship for the peasantry. it was a result of state debt and, more importantly, the importation of silver and gold from the New World. The average cost of goods quintupled in the 16th century in Spain, led by wool and grain. While reasonable when compared to the 20th century, prices in the 15th century changed very little, and the European economy was shaken by the so-called <a href="/wiki/Price_revolution" title="Price revolution">price revolution</a>. Spain, which along with England was Europe's only producer of wool, initially benefited from the rapid growth. However, like in England, there began in Spain an <a href="/wiki/Inclosure" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclosure">inclosure</a> movement that stifled the growth of food and depopulated whole villages whose residents were forced to move to cities. The higher inflation, the burden of the Habsburgs' wars and the many customs duties dividing the country and restricting trade with the Americas, stifled the growth of industry that may have provided an alternative source of income in the towns. Another factor was the militaristic nature of the Castilian nobility, which had developed during the centuries of the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. They preferred careers in the government bureaucracy, the military, or the church, shunning economic activities. This militarism also meant that Spain exhausted its wealth and manpower in near-continuous wars. Under Philip II, these wars had much to do with combating Protestantism, but in the 17th century it became clear that the world that had existed before 1517 could not be restored. Spain's wars during that century became increasingly more to do with preserving the hegemonic power of the Habsburg alliance in Europe. Although the Habsburg alliance was successful in buttressing the Catholic Church against the rise of Protestantism. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">Sheep</a>-farming was practiced extensively in Castile, and grew rapidly with rising wool prices with the backing of the king. <a href="/wiki/Merino" title="Merino">Merino</a> sheep were <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">annually moved</a> from the mountains of the north to the warmer south every winter, ignoring <a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ada_Real" title="Cañada Real">state-mandated trails</a> that were intended to prevent the sheep from trampling the farmland. Complaints lodged against the shepherds' guild, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mesta" title="Mesta">Mesta</a></i>, were ignored by Philip II who received a great deal of revenue from wool. Eventually, overtaxed Castile became barren, and Spain, particularly Castile, became dependent on large imports of grain to make up for crop shortfalls. That, given the cost of transportation and the risk of piracy, made staples far more expensive in Spain than elsewhere. As a result, Spain's population, and especially Castile's, never dense on the generally very dry, rocky, mountainous peninsula, grew much more slowly than France's. By <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>'s time (1661-1715), France had a population greater than that of Spain and England combined. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/450px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/600px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21851" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Harvesters_(painting)" title="The Harvesters (painting)">The Harvesters</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Brueghel the Elder">Pieter Brueghel the Elder</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Credit emerged as a widespread tool of Spanish business in the 17th century. The city of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>, lay at the heart of European commerce and its bankers financed most of Charles V's and Philip II's wars on credit. The use of "notes of exchange" became common as Antwerp's banks became increasingly powerful and led to extensive speculation that helped to exaggerate price shifts. Although these trends laid the foundation for the development of capitalism in Spain and Europe as a whole, the total lack of regulation and pervasive corruption meant that small landowners often lost everything with a single stroke of misfortune. Estates in Spain, and especially in Castile, grew progressively <a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">larger</a> and the economy became increasingly uncompetitive, particularly during the reigns of Philip III and IV when repeated speculative crises shook Spain. </p><p>Since the medieval period the Catholic Church had always been important to the Spanish economy. This importance increased greatly in the reigns of Philip III and IV, who had bouts of intense personal piety and church philanthropy, donating large areas of the country to the Church. The later Habsburgs did nothing to promote the redistribution of land. By the end of Charles II's reign, most of Castile was in the hands of a select few landowners, the largest of which by far was the Church. It has been estimated that at the end of the 17th century the holdings of the Spanish church had expanded to include nearly 20% of Castilian land and that the clergy made up as much as 10% of adult males in Castile. Government policy under the succeeding Bourbon dynasty was directed to steadily reducing the Church's vast holdings, which by then had come to be seen as an impediment to the country's development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art_and_culture">Art and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Art and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></div> <p>The Spanish Golden Age was a flourishing period of arts and letters in Spain which spanned roughly from 1550 to 1650. Some of the outstanding figures of the period were <a href="/wiki/El_Greco" title="El Greco">El Greco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Calder%C3%B3n_de_la_Barca" title="Pedro Calderón de la Barca">Pedro Calderón de la Barca</a>. </p><p>El Greco was a Greek painter whose dramatic and expressionistic style was met with puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation in the 20th century. Velázquez's work became a model for 19th century realist and impressionist painters. </p><p>Cervantes and de la Barca were both writers. <i><a href="/wiki/Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a> de la Mancha</i>, by Cervantes, is one of the most famous works of the period and probably the best-known piece of Spanish literature of all time. It is a parody of the romantic, chivalric aspects of knighthood and a criticism of contemporary social structures and societal norms. <a href="/wiki/Juana_In%C3%A9s_de_la_Cruz" title="Juana Inés de la Cruz">Juana Inés de la Cruz</a>, the last great writer of this golden age, died in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> in 1695. </p><p>This period also saw a flourishing in intellectual activity, now known as the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a>, producing thinkers that were studied throughout Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">History of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">List of largest empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also known as Kingdom of Spain (Old Spanish: <i>Reyno de España</i> (often also spelled, <i>Eſpana</i>, <i>Eſpaña</i> or <i>Eſpanna</i>), Modern Spanish: <i>Reino de España</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In modern Spanish: <i>Monarquía de España</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contemporary historiographical term.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The battle ended the threat of Ottoman naval hegemony in the Mediterranean. The victory was aided by the participation of various military leaders and contingents from parts of Italy under Philip's rule. German soldiers took part in the capture of <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera</a> in North Africa in 1564. By 1575, German soldiers were three-quarters of Philip's troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003166–167_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003166–167-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to <a href="/wiki/Luc-Normand_Tellier" title="Luc-Normand Tellier">Luc-Normand Tellier</a>, "It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Americas</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Duke of Alba's Spanish army defeated the Portuguese at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A2ntara_(1580)" title="Battle of Alcântara (1580)">Battle of Alcântara</a> on 25 August 1580, and Alba conquered the capital of Lisbon two days later. In 1582, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_1st_Marquess_of_Santa_Cruz" class="mw-redirect" title="Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquess of Santa Cruz">Álvaro de Bazán</a> assembled an armada against the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> and in July sailed from Lisbon. <a href="/wiki/Filippo_di_Piero_Strozzi" title="Filippo di Piero Strozzi">Filippo di Piero Strozzi</a>, a Florentine mercenary, clashed with Bazán at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Battle of Ponta Delgada</a>, off the island of São Miguel, but was defeated and killed. In 1583, Bazán returned with an invasion force and <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Azores" title="Conquest of the Azores">conquered Terceira</a>. Triumphant, he suggested that he invade England with a 500-ship, 94,000-man armada, but Philip shelved the suggestion.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In Portugal, the Duke of Alba and the Spanish occupation were little more popular in Lisbon than in <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>. The combined Spanish and Portuguese empires placed into Philip's hands included almost the entirety of the explored New World along with a vast trading empire in Africa and Asia. In 1582, when Philip II moved his court back to Madrid from the Atlantic port of Lisbon, where he had temporarily settled to pacify his new Portuguese kingdom, the pattern was sealed, in spite of what every observant commentator privately noted. "Sea power is more important to the ruler of Spain than any other prince", wrote one commentator, "for it is only by sea power that a single community can be created out of so many so far apart." A writer on tactics in 1638 observed, "The might most suited to the arms of Spain is that which is placed on the seas, but this matter of state is so well known that I should not discuss it, even if I thought it opportune to do so."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portugal and her kingdoms, including Brazil and her African colonies, were under the dominion of the Spanish monarch.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The plague arrived by ship at Santander in 1596, presumably from a plague afflicted northwestern Europe. It then spread south along the main routes through the centre of Castile, reaching <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> in 1599 and Seville by 1600. It finally petered out in Seville's hinterland in 1602.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=alVBAAAAcAAJ">Monarchia Hispanica</a>.google.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.ub.uni-paderborn.de/eab/content/pageview/858016">Monarchia Hispaniae</a>. digital.ub.uni.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YrTieE39TzEC&q=Reyno+de+Espa%C3%B1a">Reyno de España</a>, google.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKamen2005" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, H. (2005). <i>Spain 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict</i>. Routledge:Oxford. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+1469%E2%80%931714%3A+A+Society+of+Conflict&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Routledge%3AOxford&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xs4all.nl/~kvenjb/madmonarchs/juana/juana_bio.htm">Biography of Juana</a>, xs4all.nl</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Renau_AtienzaHowden2016" class="citation cs2">Fernández-Renau Atienza, Daniel; Howden, David (21 January 2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/library/three-centuries-boom-bust-spain"><i>Three Centuries of Boom-Bust in Spain</i></a>, Mises Institute</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Centuries+of+Boom-Bust+in+Spain&rft.pub=Mises+Institute&rft.date=2016-01-21&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Renau+Atienza&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Howden%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Flibrary%2Fthree-centuries-boom-bust-spain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1920521–522-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1920521–522_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1920">Smith 1920</a>, p. 521–522.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003155-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003155_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003166–167-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003166–167_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, pp. 166–167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sLD6aT7QfYgC&pg=PA122">The Tempest and Its Travels – Peter Hulme – Google Libros</a>. Books.google.es. Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003255-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003255_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellier2009" class="citation cs2">Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC"><i>Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective</i></a>, PUQ, p. 308, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7605-1588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7605-1588-8"><bdi>978-2-7605-1588-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+world+history%3A+an+economic+and+geographical+perspective&rft.pages=308&rft.pub=PUQ&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-2-7605-1588-8&rft.aulast=Tellier&rft.aufirst=Luc-Normand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXuCjDbxC1YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA308">Extract of page 308</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durant-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Durant_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1961" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0"><i>The Age of Reason Begins: A History of European Civilization in the Period of Shakespeare, Bacon, Montaigne, Rembrandt, Galileo, and Descartes: 1558–1648</i></a></span>. Simon and Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofreasonbegin07dura_0/page/454">454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671013202" title="Special:BookSources/9780671013202"><bdi>9780671013202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reason+Begins%3A+A+History+of+European+Civilization+in+the+Period+of+Shakespeare%2C+Bacon%2C+Montaigne%2C+Rembrandt%2C+Galileo%2C+and+Descartes%3A+1558%E2%80%931648&rft.pages=454&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780671013202&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofreasonbegin07dura_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1</i>. ABC-CLIO. 2002. p. 45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ground+Warfare%3A+An+International+Encyclopedia%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkholder1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Burkholder, Suzanne Hiles (1996). "Philip II of Spain". <i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i>. Vol. 4. pp. 393–394.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philip+II+of+Spain&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Latin+American+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=393-394&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Burkholder&rft.aufirst=Suzanne+Hiles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1978113-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1978113_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1978">Parker 1978</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakewell1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bakewell, Peter (1996). "Francisco de Toledo". <i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i>. Vol. 5. p. 249.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Francisco+de+Toledo&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Latin+American+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=249&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Bakewell&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1978114-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParker1978114_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1978">Parker 1978</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003154-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003154_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in <a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003160-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003160_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurlansky199964Joaquin1988-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurlansky199964Joaquin1988_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKurlansky1999">Kurlansky 1999</a>, p. 64; <a href="#CITEREFJoaquin1988">Joaquin 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2003203-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamen2003203_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamen2003">Kamen 2003</a>, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushner1971" class="citation book cs1">Cushner, Nicholas P. (1971). <i>Spain in the Philippines</i>. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain+in+the+Philippines&rft.place=Quezon+City&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Ateneo+de+Manila+University&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Cushner&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephanie J. Mawson, Convicts or Conquistadores ? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific, Past & Present, Volume 232, Issue 1, August 2016, pp. 87–125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlip1964201,_317-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlip1964201,_317_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlip1964">Alip 1964</a>, pp. 201, 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._War_Dept1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_War_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="United States War Department">United States. War Dept</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BE9DHAAACAAJ"><i>Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1903</i></a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Government Printing Office">Government Printing Office</a>. p. 379.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Reports+of+the+War+Department+for+the+Fiscal+Year+Ended+June+30%2C+1903&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1903&rft.au=United+States.+War+Dept&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBE9DHAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcAmis200233-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcAmis200233_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcAmis2002">McAmis 2002</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014220759/http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=P40000000008&query=Francisco%20de%20Sande">"Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=P40000000008&query=Francisco%20de%20Sande">the original</a> on 14 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+from+Francisco+de+Sande+to+Felipe+II%2C+1578&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.filipiniana.net%2FArtifactView.do%3FartifactID%3DP40000000008%26query%3DFrancisco%2520de%2520Sande&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankhamAlexander2008278Atiyah200271-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrankhamAlexander2008278Atiyah200271_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrankhamAlexander2008">Frankham & Alexander 2008</a>, p. 278; <a href="#CITEREFAtiyah2002">Atiyah 2002</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders200254–60-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders200254–60_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaunders2002">Saunders 2002</a>, pp. 54–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaunders200257-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaunders200257_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaunders2002">Saunders 2002</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomas_L." class="citation web cs1">Tomas L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071212002729/http://www.geocities.com/sinupan/magatsalamat.htm">"Magat Salamat"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geocities.com/sinupan/magatsalamat.htm">the original</a> on 12 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magat+Salamat&rft.au=Tomas+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeocities.com%2Fsinupan%2Fmagatsalamat.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernando_A._Santiago_Jr." class="citation web cs1">Fernando A. Santiago Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090814203000/http://www.philjol.info/index.php/MALAY/article/viewFile/80/77">"Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philjol.info/index.php/MALAY/article/viewFile/80/77">the original</a> on 14 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Isang+Maikling+Kasaysayan+ng+Pandacan%2C+Maynila+1589%E2%80%931898&rft.au=Fernando+A.+Santiago+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philjol.info%2Findex.php%2FMALAY%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F80%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RICKLEFSp25-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RICKLEFSp25_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RICKLEFSp25_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicklefs1993" class="citation book cs1">Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). <i>A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300</i> (2nd ed.). London: MacMillan. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-57689-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-57689-2"><bdi>978-0-333-57689-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Indonesia+Since+c.+1300&rft.place=London&rft.pages=25&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-333-57689-2&rft.aulast=Ricklefs&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruxillo2012" class="citation book cs1">Truxillo, Charles A. (2012). <i>Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War</i>. Fremont, CA: Jain. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780895818645" title="Special:BookSources/9780895818645"><bdi>9780895818645</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusaders+in+the+Far+East%3A+The+Moro+Wars+in+the+Philippines+in+the+Context+of+the+Ibero-Islamic+World+War&rft.place=Fremont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Jain&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780895818645&rft.aulast=Truxillo&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacockGallop2015" class="citation book cs1">Peacock; Gallop (2015). <i>From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197265819" title="Special:BookSources/9780197265819"><bdi>9780197265819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Anatolia+to+Aceh%3A+Ottomans%2C+Turks+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780197265819&rft.au=Peacock&rft.au=Gallop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker,_Geoffrey_2010._Page_728-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parker,_Geoffrey_2010._Page_728_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, Geoffrey. Philip II. The definitive biography. Planet. 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-08-09484-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-08-09484-5">978-84-08-09484-5</a>: "No entanto, a conquista rápida e completa de todo Portugal é listada como um dos feitos militares mais impressionantes do século XVI." Página 728. "Dez dias depois de saber da morte de Henrique, Felipe tirou a máscara e assinou ordens para a mobilização de tropas em toda Castela para a “Jornada de Portugal”. Página 721. “Em maio, Felipe viajou para Mérida (...) para revisar um impressionante exército de 20.000 soldados de infantaria italianos, alemães e espanhóis, 1.500 cavaleiros e 136 peças de artilharia." Page 725. "The seventy-three-year-old Duke (of Alba) then fought one of the most successful campaigns of the sixteenth century." Page 726. «The viceroy of India proclaimed him king (Philip II) in Goa in September 1581, followed by other outposts of the Portuguese empire, creating the first global empire in history: from Madrid and through Lisbon, Madeira, Mexico, Manila, Macao and Malacca, to India, Mozambique, Angola, Guinea, Tangier, and again to Madrid. The fifteen triumphal arches erected for the king's entry into Lisbon in June 1581 reflected this unprecedented concentration of power. ' Page 730.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas,_Hugh_2013,_Page_297-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_2013,_Page_297_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. The lord of the world. Felipe II and his empire, 2013, Planeta, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-08-11849-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-08-11849-7">978-84-08-11849-7</a>: «On June 13, Felipe realized that some military action might be necessary to win the Lisbon crown and mobilized an army of 20,000 infantrymen and 1,500 cavalry under the command of the now loaded but always ready Duke of Alba. In two weeks he ordered this force to enter Portugal. Despite his defeat in the Azores, Antonio de Crato had proclaimed himself king and, had Philip not intervened, he would certainly have ruled. The main cities of Setúbal, Santarém and even Lisbon had taken sides for him. He followed a military campaign of some importance. (...) The fight was greater than expected, but anyway it ended with the victory of the Duke of Alba. The battle of Alcántara culminated the rapid and triumphant military campaign. Then all Portugal passed to the dominion of Felipe, who was declared king on September 12, 1580. Don Antonio fled but was defeated again in Terceira, in the Azores ». Page 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schneider, Reinhold. The King of God, 2002, page 148, Edit. Figure. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-95894-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/84-95894-04-1">84-95894-04-1</a>: «There was never a peak moment of any nation as brilliant as the conquest of Portugal by Felipe (...) When Felipe had realized, both through diplomatic means and through war, his claims, that they were, at least, as well founded as those of the other claimants and that, in addition, they represented the right, regardless of documents, of the most capable, the circle of Spanish power around the earth was in fact closed.»</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuel Fernández Álvarez, "Felipe II and his time" Edit. Espasa Calpe, 1998, p. 537, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-239-9736-7" title="Special:BookSources/84-239-9736-7">84-239-9736-7</a>: "Definitely, under the reign of Felipe II, Portugal became a province."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Lynch, Los Austrias (1516–1598) (1993), Edit. CRITICA, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-7423-565-0" title="Special:BookSources/84-7423-565-0">84-7423-565-0</a>, p. 370: «In the first months of 1580, and encouraged by the government, the Castilian nobles began to recruit forces at their own expense, while the cities contributed troops, ships and money in a national effort that further highlighted the inaction Portuguese. (...) Felipe II boasted saying: "I inherited it, I bought it, I conquered it" »</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Braudel,_Fernand_1976,_pp._713-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Braudel,_Fernand_1976,_pp._713_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the time of Felipe II, Volume II, Edit. Fondo de Cultura Económica, second edition in Spanish, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-375-0097-4" title="Special:BookSources/84-375-0097-4">84-375-0097-4</a>, pp. 713–716: «The war in Portugal, which was no more than a simple military walk, was developed according to plans. (...) It was the speed with which the Spaniards acted, and not the weakness attributed by some to the prior, that led to the failure of the suitor. For Portugal to be entirely occupied by the Spaniards, then, four months were enough. Upon receiving the news, the Portuguese Indies submitted in turn, without combat. The only serious difficulties arose in the Azores. (...) the Azores affair in the years 1582 and 1583, where the archipelago was saved and where, at the same time, with the Strozzi disaster, the dream of a French Brazil was dispelled; (...) ». The resistance in the Azores was put down by Álvaro de Bazán and his fleet.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagnerSchmid" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, John A.; Schmid, Susan Walters. <i>Encyclopedia of Tudor England, Volume 1</i>. p. 100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Tudor+England%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=100&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Schmid%2C+Susan+Walters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFBraudel1992">Braudel 1992</a>, p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown and Elliott, 1980, p. 190</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habsburg_Spain&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlip1964" class="citation book cs1">Alip, Eufronio Melo (1964). <i>Political and cultural history of the Philippines, Volumes 1-2</i>. Alip & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+and+cultural+history+of+the+Philippines%2C+Volumes+1-2&rft.pub=Alip+%26+Sons&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Alip&rft.aufirst=Eufronio+Melo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Armstrong, Edward (1902). <i>The Emperor Charles V</i>. New York: The Macmillan Company</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtiyah2002" class="citation book cs1">Atiyah, Jeremy (2002). <i>Rough guide to Southeast Asia</i>. Rough Guide. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-893-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-893-2"><bdi>978-1-85828-893-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rough+guide+to+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Rough+Guide&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85828-893-2&rft.aulast=Atiyah&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Black, Jeremy (1996). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47033-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47033-1">0-521-47033-1</a></li> <li>Braudel, Fernand (1972). <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II</i>, trans. Siân Reynolds. New York: Harper & Row. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-090566-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-090566-2">0-06-090566-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1992" class="citation book cs1">Braudel, Fernand (1992) [1979]. <i>The Perspective of the World</i>. Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century. Vol. III. Berkeley: University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-08116-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-08116-1"><bdi>0-520-08116-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Perspective+of+the+World&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Civilization+and+Capitalism%2C+15th-18th+Century&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-520-08116-1&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown, J. and Elliott, J. H. (1980). <i>A palace for a king. The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press</li> <li>Brown, Jonathan (1998). <i>Painting in Spain: 1500–1700</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06472-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06472-1">0-300-06472-1</a></li> <li>Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). <i>The golden age of Spain, 1516–1659.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-00405-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-00405-0">0-297-00405-0</a></li> <li>Edwards, John (2000). <i>The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474–1520</i>. New York: Blackwell. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-16165-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-16165-1">0-631-16165-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankhamAlexander2008" class="citation book cs1">Frankham, Steve; Alexander, James (2008). <i>Footprint Borneo</i>. Footprint Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906098-14-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906098-14-8"><bdi>978-1-906098-14-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Footprint+Borneo&rft.pub=Footprint+Guides&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-906098-14-8&rft.aulast=Frankham&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.au=Alexander%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Harman, Alec (1969). <i>Late Renaissance and Baroque music</i>. New York: Schocken Books.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoaquin1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Joaquin" title="Nick Joaquin">Joaquin, Nick</a> (1988). <i>Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming</i>. Solar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+History%3A+Occasional+Notes+on+the+Process+of+Philippine+Becoming&rft.pub=Solar&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Joaquin&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamen, Henry (1998). <i>Philip of Spain</i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07800-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07800-5">0-300-07800-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2003" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2003). <i>Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763</i>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-093264-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-093264-3"><bdi>0-06-093264-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+How+Spain+Became+a+World+Power%2C+1492%E2%80%931763&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-06-093264-3&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurlansky1999" class="citation book cs1">Kurlansky, Mark (1999). <i>The Basque History of the World</i>. Walker & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802713490" title="Special:BookSources/9780802713490"><bdi>9780802713490</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basque+History+of+the+World&rft.pub=Walker+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780802713490&rft.aulast=Kurlansky&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamen, Henry (2005). <i>Spain 1469–1714. A Society of Conflict</i> (3rd ed.) London and New York: Pearson Longman. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6">0-582-78464-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAmis2002" class="citation book cs1">McAmis, Robert Day (2002). <i>Malay Muslims: the history and challenge of resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4945-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4945-8"><bdi>978-0-8028-4945-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malay+Muslims%3A+the+history+and+challenge+of+resurgent+Islam+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4945-8&rft.aulast=McAmis&rft.aufirst=Robert+Day&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey (1997). <i>The Thirty Years' War</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-12883-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-12883-8">0-415-12883-8</a></li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey (1972). <i>The Army of Flanders and the Spanish road, 1567–1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars.</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08462-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08462-8">0-521-08462-8</a></li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey (1977). <i>The Dutch revolt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-1136-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-1136-X">0-8014-1136-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1978" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Geoffrey (1978). <i>Philip II</i>. Boston: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-69080-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-69080-5"><bdi>0-316-69080-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+II&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-316-69080-5&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey (1997). <i>The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century</i>. New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16518-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-16518-0">0-415-16518-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders2002" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, Graham E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ4t_OJgSjAC"><i>A History of Brunei</i></a>. RoutledgeCurzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1698-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1698-2"><bdi>978-0-7007-1698-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Brunei&rft.pub=RoutledgeCurzon&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1698-2&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=Graham+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQ4t_OJgSjAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stradling, R. A. (1988). <i>Philip IV and the Government of Spain</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32333-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32333-9">0-521-32333-9</a></li> <li>Various (1983). <i>Historia de la literatura espanola</i>. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel</li> <li>Gallardo, Alexander (2002), "Spanish Economics in the 16th Century: Theory, Policy, and Practice", Lincoln, NE: Writers Club Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-595-26036-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-595-26036-5">0-595-26036-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1920" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Preserved_Smith" title="Preserved Smith">Smith, Preserved</a> (1920). <a href="/wiki/Charles_Homer_Haskins" title="Charles Homer Haskins">Haskins, Charles Homer</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226293"><i>The Age of the Reformation</i></a>. American Historical Series. New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226293/page/n530">522</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/403814">403814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Reformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=American+Historical+Series&rft.pages=522&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F403814&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Preserved&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.226293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabsburg+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spain_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spain_topics" title="Template:Spain topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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title="Timeline of Spanish history">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Iberia" title="Prehistoric Iberia">Prehistoric Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hispania" title="Timeline of Hispania">Ancient History Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Roman Hispania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Medieval Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Union</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1808%E2%80%931874)" title="History of Spain (1808–1874)">Reaction and revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Spanish_Republic" title="First Spanish Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)" title="Restoration (Spain)">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Spain under Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history_of_Spain" title="Contemporary history of Spain">Contemporary Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1975%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Spain (1975–present)">1975–present</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">General overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Spain" title="Military history of Spain">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_miracle" title="Spanish miracle">Spanish miracle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Spain" title="Geography of Spain">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain#Autonomous_cities" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous communities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ranked_lists_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities" title="Ranked lists of Spanish autonomous communities">ranked lists</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Europe_and_North_America" title="World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Europe and North America">Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Spain" title="Template:Borders of Spain">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Spain" title="Climate of Spain">Climate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comarcas_of_Spain" title="Comarcas of Spain">Comarcas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Spain" title="List of earthquakes in Spain">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Spain" title="List of extreme points of Spain">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Forests of the Iberian Peninsula">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Spain" title="Peninsular Spain">Peninsular Spain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Spain" title="List of islands of Spain">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Spain" title="List of municipalities of Spain">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Spain" title="List of national parks of Spain">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sites_of_Community_Importance_in_Spain" title="List of Sites of Community Importance in Spain">Natural Sites of Community Importance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa" title="Plazas de soberanía">Plazas de soberanía</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Spain" title="Provinces of Spain">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Spain" title="Wildlife of Spain">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Spain" title="Politics of Spain">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous communities of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Spain" title="Constitution of Spain">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Spain" title="Corruption in Spain">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_VI" title="Felipe VI">Head of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Spain" title="Constitutional Court of Spain">Constitutional Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Cortes Generales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Spain" title="Judiciary of Spain">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Spain" title="Government of Spain">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Spain" title="Prime Minister of Spain">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Spain" title="Elections in Spain">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Spain" title="Foreign relations of Spain">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Spain" title="Human rights in Spain">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Spain">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Spain" title="Intersex rights in Spain">Intersex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armed_Forces" title="Spanish Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Spain" title="List of political parties in Spain">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Spain" title="List of wars involving Spain">Wars and armed conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Spain" title="Economy of Spain">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Spain" title="Agriculture in Spain">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Spain" title="List of banks in Spain">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Spain" title="Automotive industry in Spain">Car industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Communities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_gross_domestic_product" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by gross domestic product">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by unemployment rate">unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_median_income" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by median income">median income</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Spain" title="Energy in Spain">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Spain" title="Forestry in Spain">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Spanish_companies" title="List of largest Spanish companies">Largest companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Spain" title="Taxation in Spain">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_property_bubble" title="Spanish property bubble">Property bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="Science and technology in Spain">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Spain" title="Tourism in Spain">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Spain" title="List of trade unions in Spain">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Spain" title="Transport in Spain">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_wine" title="Spanish wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Spain" title="Category:Society of Spain">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Spain" title="Abortion in Spain">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Spain" title="Crime in Spain">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Spain" title="Demographics of Spain">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_Spain" title="Disability in Spain">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Spain" title="Euthanasia in Spain">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Spain" title="Health care in Spain">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Spain" title="Homelessness in Spain">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Spain" title="Immigration to Spain">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Spain" title="Irreligion in Spain">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Spanish provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturism_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturism in Spain">Naturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Spain" title="Pensions in Spain">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Spain" title="Prostitution in Spain">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Spain" title="Time in Spain">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Spain" title="Culture of Spain">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_architecture" title="Spanish architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_art" title="Spanish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullfighting" title="Bullfighting">Bullfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Spain" title="Cinema of Spain">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_cuisine" title="Spanish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li>Fiestas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiestas_of_National_Tourist_Interest_of_Spain" title="Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain">National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiestas_of_International_Tourist_Interest_of_Spain" title="Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain">International Interest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Spain" title="Mass media in Spain">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Spain" title="Music of Spain">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_mythology" title="Spanish mythology">Myths and legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_and_regional_identity_in_Spain" title="National and regional identity in Spain">National and regional identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_Spain" title="National Day of Spain">National Day of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Spain" title="Public holidays in Spain">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Spain" title="Sport in Spain">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Spain" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Spain">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_Lists" title="UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists">UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Spain" title="National symbols of Spain">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcha_Real" title="Marcha Real">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Spain" title="Coat of arms of Spain">Coat of arms</a></li> <li>Cultural icons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Spain" title="Flag of Spain">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_bull" title="Osborne bull"><i>Toro de Osborne</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spain" title="Category:Spain">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_Empire" title="Template talk:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" 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