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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Topics_subject_to_social-desirability_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics_subject_to_social-desirability_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Topics subject to social-desirability bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topics_subject_to_social-desirability_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_differences_in_socially_desirable_responding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_differences_in_socially_desirable_responding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Individual differences in socially desirable responding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_differences_in_socially_desirable_responding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_measures_of_individual_SDR" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_measures_of_individual_SDR"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Standard measures of individual SDR</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_measures_of_individual_SDR-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques_to_reduce_social-desirability_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques_to_reduce_social-desirability_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Techniques to reduce social-desirability bias</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques_to_reduce_social-desirability_bias-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques to reduce social-desirability bias subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques_to_reduce_social-desirability_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anonymity_and_confidentiality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anonymity_and_confidentiality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Anonymity and confidentiality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anonymity_and_confidentiality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialized_questioning_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_questioning_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Specialized questioning techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_questioning_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ballot_Box_Method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballot_Box_Method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Ballot Box Method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballot_Box_Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Randomized_response_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Randomized_response_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Randomized response techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Randomized_response_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominative_and_best-friend_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominative_and_best-friend_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Nominative and best-friend techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominative_and_best-friend_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unmatched-count_technique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unmatched-count_technique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Unmatched-count technique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unmatched-count_technique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grouped-answer_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grouped-answer_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Grouped-answer method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grouped-answer_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crosswise,_triangular,_and_hidden-sensitivity_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crosswise,_triangular,_and_hidden-sensitivity_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.6</span> <span>Crosswise, triangular, and hidden-sensitivity methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crosswise,_triangular,_and_hidden-sensitivity_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bogus_pipeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bogus_pipeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.7</span> <span>Bogus pipeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bogus_pipeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_response_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_response_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other response styles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_response_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziale_Erw%C3%BCnschtheit" title="Soziale Erwünschtheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziale Erwünschtheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deseabilidad_social" title="Deseabilidad social – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Deseabilidad social" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9sirabilit%C3%A9_sociale" title="Désirabilité sociale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Désirabilité sociale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%EC%A0%81_%EB%B0%94%EB%9E%8C%EC%A7%81%EC%84%B1_%ED%8E%B8%ED%96%A5" title="사회적 바람직성 편향 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회적 바람직성 편향" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiderabilit%C3%A0_sociale" title="Desiderabilità sociale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Desiderabilità sociale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הטיית רצייה חברתית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטיית רצייה חברתית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%9B%E3%81%BE%E3%81%97%E3%81%95%E3%81%AE%E3%83%90%E3%82%A4%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B9" title="社会的望ましさのバイアス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会的望ましさのバイアス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtimoiy_talab_effekti" title="Ijtimoiy talab effekti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtimoiy talab effekti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efekt_spo%C5%82ecznych_oczekiwa%C5%84" title="Efekt społecznych oczekiwań – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Efekt społecznych oczekiwań" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Эффект социальной желательности – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эффект социальной желательности" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiaalisen_suotavuuden_vinouma" title="Sosiaalisen suotavuuden vinouma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sosiaalisen suotavuuden vinouma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toplumsal_cazibe_yanl%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Toplumsal cazibe yanlılığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toplumsal cazibe yanlılığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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research">social science research</a>, <b>social-desirability bias</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">response bias</a> that is the tendency of <a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">survey</a> respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior. The tendency poses a serious problem with conducting research with <a href="/wiki/Self-report_study" title="Self-report study">self-reports</a>. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_subject_to_social-desirability_bias">Topics subject to social-desirability bias</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Topics subject to social-desirability bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Topics where socially desirable responding (SDR) is of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personality, sexual behavior, and drug use. When confronted with the question "How often do you <a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbate</a>?," for example, respondents may be pressured by a social <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a> against masturbation, and either under-report the frequency or avoid answering the question. Therefore, the mean rates of masturbation derived from self-report surveys are likely to be severely underestimated. </p><p>When confronted with the question, "Do you use drugs/illicit substances?" the respondent may be influenced by the fact that <a href="/wiki/Controlled_substance" title="Controlled substance">controlled substances</a>, including the more commonly used <a href="/wiki/Marijuana" class="mw-redirect" title="Marijuana">marijuana</a>, are generally illegal. Respondents may feel pressured to deny any drug use or <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">rationalize</a> it, e.g. "I only smoke marijuana when my friends are around." The bias can also influence reports of number of sexual partners. In fact, the bias may operate in opposite directions for different subgroups: Whereas men tend to inflate the numbers, women tend to underestimate theirs. In either case, the mean reports from both groups are likely to be distorted by social desirability bias. </p><p>Other topics that are sensitive to social-desirability bias include: </p> <ul><li>Self-reported personality traits will correlate strongly with social desirability bias<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Personal <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> and earnings, often inflated when low and deflated when high</li> <li>Feelings of low <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-worth</a> and/or powerlessness, often denied</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excretory_system" title="Excretory system">Excretory</a> functions, often approached uncomfortably, if discussed at all</li> <li>Compliance with medicinal-dosing schedules, often inflated</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a>, including use of <a href="/wiki/Contraceptives" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptives">contraceptives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a>, often either avoided or uncomfortably approached<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a>, either inflated or, if denied, done so with a fear of other party's judgment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigotry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigotry">Bigotry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">intolerance</a>, often denied, even if it exists within the responder</li> <li>Intellectual achievements, often inflated</li> <li>Physical appearance, either inflated or deflated</li> <li>Acts of real or imagined physical <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, often denied</li> <li>Indicators of charity or "benevolence," often inflated</li> <li>Illegal acts, often denied</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout" title="Voter turnout">Voter turnout</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_differences_in_socially_desirable_responding">Individual differences in socially desirable responding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Individual differences in socially desirable responding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1953, Allen L. Edwards introduced the notion of social desirability to psychology, demonstrating the role of social desirability in the measurement of personality traits. He demonstrated that social desirability ratings of personality trait descriptions are very highly correlated with the probability that a subsequent group of people will endorse these trait self-descriptions. In his first demonstration of this pattern, the correlation between one group of college students’ social desirability ratings of a set of traits and the probability that college students in a second group would endorse self-descriptions describing the same traits was so high that it could distort the meaning of the personality traits. In other words, do these self-descriptions describe personality traits or social desirability?<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edwards subsequently developed the first Social Desirability Scale, a set of 39, true-false questions extracted from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), questions that judges could, with high agreement, order according to their social desirability.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These items were subsequently found to be very highly correlated with a wide range of measurement scales, MMPI personality and diagnostic scales.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SDS is also highly correlated with the Beck Hopelessness Inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that people differ in their tendency to engage in socially desirable responding (SDR) is a special concern to those measuring individual differences with self-reports. Individual differences in SDR make it difficult to distinguish those people with good traits who are responding factually from those distorting their answers in a positive direction. </p><p>When SDR cannot be eliminated, researchers may resort to evaluating the tendency and then control for it. A separate SDR measure must be administered together with the primary measure (test or interview) aimed at the subject matter of the research/investigation. The key assumption is that respondents who answer in a socially desirable manner on that scale are also responding desirably to all self-reports throughout the study. </p><p>In some cases, the entire questionnaire package from high scoring respondents may simply be discarded. Alternatively, respondents' answers on the primary questionnaires may be statistically adjusted commensurate with their SDR tendencies. For example, this adjustment is performed automatically in the standard scoring of MMPI scales. </p><p>The major concern with SDR scales is that they confound style with content. After all, people actually differ in the degree to which they possess desirable traits (e.g. nuns versus criminals). Consequently, measures of social desirability confound true differences with social-desirability bias. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standard_measures_of_individual_SDR">Standard measures of individual SDR</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Standard measures of individual SDR"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the 1990s, the most commonly used measure of socially desirable responding was the <a href="/wiki/Marlowe%E2%80%93Crowne_Social_Desirability_Scale" title="Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale">Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crowne_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowne-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original version comprised 33 True-False items. A shortened version, the Strahan–Gerbasi only comprises ten items, but some have raised questions regarding the reliability of this measure.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1991, <a href="/wiki/Delroy_L._Paulhus" title="Delroy L. Paulhus">Delroy L. Paulhus</a> published the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR): a questionnaire designed to measure two forms of SDR.<sup id="cite_ref-Paulhus_review_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paulhus_review-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This forty-item instrument provides separate subscales for "<a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">impression management</a>," the tendency to give inflated self-descriptions to an audience; and <i>self-deceptive enhancement</i>, the tendency to give honest but inflated self-descriptions. The commercial version of the BIDR is called the "Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS)."<sup id="cite_ref-Paulhus_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paulhus-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scales designed to tap response styles are available in all major languages, including Italian<sup id="cite_ref-Roccato_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roccato-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Corbetta_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corbetta-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and German.<sup id="cite_ref-Stober_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stober-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_to_reduce_social-desirability_bias">Techniques to reduce social-desirability bias</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Techniques to reduce social-desirability bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anonymity_and_confidentiality">Anonymity and confidentiality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Anonymity and confidentiality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anonymous survey administration, compared with in-person or phone-based administration, has been shown to elicit higher reporting of items with social-desirability bias.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In anonymous survey settings, the subject is assured that their responses will not be linked to them, and they are not asked to divulge sensitive information directly to a surveyor. Anonymity can be established through self-administration of paper surveys returned by envelope, mail, or ballot boxes, or self-administration of electronic survey via <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_personal_interviewing" title="Computer-assisted personal interviewing">computer</a>, smartphone, or tablet.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McBurney2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBurney2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Audio-assisted electronic surveys have also been established for low-literacy or non-literate study subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confidentiality can be established in non-anonymous settings by ensuring that only study staff are present and by maintaining data confidentiality after surveys are complete. Including assurances of data confidentiality in surveys has a mixed effect on sensitive-question response; it may either increase response due to increased trust, or decrease response by increasing suspicion and concern.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_questioning_techniques">Specialized questioning techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Specialized questioning techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several techniques have been established to reduce bias when asking questions sensitive to social desirability.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complex question techniques may reduce social-desirability bias, but may also be confusing or misunderstood by respondents. </p><p>Beyond specific techniques, social-desirability bias may be reduced by neutral question and prompt wording.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ballot_Box_Method">Ballot Box Method</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ballot Box Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ballot Box Method (BBM) provides survey respondents anonymity by allowing them to respond in private by self-completing their responses to the sensitive survey questions on a secret ballot and submitting them to a locked box. The interviewer has no knowledge of what is recorded on the secret ballot and does not have access to the lock on the box, providing obscurity to the responses and limiting the potential for SDB. However, a unique control number on each ballot allows the answers to be reunited with a corresponding questionnaire that contains less sensitive questions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BBM has been used successfully to obtain estimates of sensitive sexual behaviours during an HIV prevention study,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as illegal environmental resource use.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a validation study where observed behaviour was matched to reported behaviour using various SDB control methods, the BBM was by far the most accurate bias reduction method, performing significantly better than the Randomized Response Technique (RRT).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Randomized_response_techniques">Randomized response techniques</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Randomized response techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Randomized_response" title="Randomized response">randomized response technique</a> asks a participant to respond with a fixed answer or to answer truthfully based on the outcome of a random act.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, respondents secretly throw a coin and respond "yes" if it comes up heads (regardless of their actual response to the question), and are instructed to respond truthfully if it comes up tails. This enables the researcher to estimate the actual prevalence of the given behavior among the study population without needing to know the true state of any one individual respondent. Research shows that the validity of the randomized response technique is limited.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Validation research has shown that the RRT actually performs worse than direct questioning for some sensitive behaviours and care should be taken when considering its use.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nominative_and_best-friend_techniques">Nominative and best-friend techniques</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nominative and best-friend techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nominative technique asks a participant about the behavior of their close friends, rather than about their own behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants are asked how many close friends they know have done for certain a sensitive behavior and how many other people they think know about that behavior. Population estimates of behaviors can be derived from the response. </p><p>The similar best-friend methodology asks the participant about the behavior of one best friend.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unmatched-count_technique">Unmatched-count technique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Unmatched-count technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Unmatched_count" title="Unmatched count">unmatched-count</a> technique asks respondents to indicate how many of a list of several items they have done or are true for them.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Respondents are randomized to receive either a list of non-sensitive items or that same list plus the sensitive item of interest. Differences in the total number of items between the two groups indicate how many of those in the group receiving the sensitive item said yes to it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grouped-answer_method">Grouped-answer method</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Grouped-answer method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The grouped-answer method, also known as the two-card or three-card method, combines answer choices such that the sensitive response is combined with at least one non-sensitive response option.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crosswise,_triangular,_and_hidden-sensitivity_methods"><span id="Crosswise.2C_triangular.2C_and_hidden-sensitivity_methods"></span>Crosswise, triangular, and hidden-sensitivity methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Crosswise, triangular, and hidden-sensitivity methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These methods ask participants to select one response based on two or more questions, only one of which is sensitive.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a participant will be asked whether their birth year is even and whether they have performed an illegal activity; if yes to both or no to both, to select A, and if yes to one but no to the other, select B. By combining sensitive and non-sensitive questions, the participant's response to the sensitive item is masked. Research shows that the validity of the crosswise model is limited.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bogus_pipeline">Bogus pipeline</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bogus pipeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bogus_pipeline" title="Bogus pipeline">Bogus-pipeline</a> techniques are those in which a participant believes that an objective test, like a lie detector, will be used along with survey response, whether or not that test or procedure is actually used.<sup id="cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researches using this technique must convince the participants that there is a machine that can measure accurately their true attitudes and desires. While this can raise ethical questions surrounding deception in psychological research, this technique quickly became widely popular in the 1970s. However, by the 1990s the use of this technique began to wane. Interested in this change, Roese and Jamison (1993) took twenty years of research to do a meta-analysis on the effectiveness of the Bogus pipeline technique in reducing social desirability bias. They concluded that while the Bogus pipeline technique was significantly effective, it had perhaps become less used simply because it went out of fashion, or became cumbersome for researchers to use regularly. However, Roese and Jamison argued that there are simple adjustments that can be made to this technique to make it more user-friendly for researchers. <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_response_styles">Other response styles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other response styles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Extreme-response style" (ERS) takes the form of exaggerated-extremity preference, e.g. for '1' or '7' on 7-point scales. Its converse, 'moderacy bias' entails a preference for middle-range (or midpoint) responses (e.g. 3–5 on 7-point scales). </p><p>"Acquiescence" (ARS) is the tendency to respond to items with agreement/affirmation independent of their content ("yea"-saying). </p><p>These kinds of response styles differ from social-desirability bias in that they are unrelated to the question's content and may be present in both socially neutral and in socially favorable or unfavorable contexts, whereas SDR is, by definition, tied to the latter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biased_random_walk_on_a_graph" title="Biased random walk on a graph">Biased random walk on a graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_effect" title="Bradley effect">Bradley effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_falsification" title="Knowledge falsification">Knowledge falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-opinion">Pseudo-opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(psychology)" title="Reactivity (psychology)">Reactivity (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self-censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_study" title="Self-report study">Self-report study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_majority" title="Silent majority">Silent majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias#Social_media_bias" title="Media bias">Social media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_signalling" title="Virtue signalling">Virtue signalling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watching-eye_effect" title="Watching-eye effect">Watching-eye effect</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social-desirability_bias&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Krumpal2013-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krumpal2013_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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"Sensitive Question Techniques and Careless Responding: Adjusting the Crosswise Model for Random Answers". <i>Methods, Data, Analyses</i>. <b>13</b>: 307–320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12758%2Fmda.2019.03">10.12758/mda.2019.03</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:88504613">88504613</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Methods%2C+Data%2C+Analyses&rft.atitle=Sensitive+Question+Techniques+and+Careless+Responding%3A+Adjusting+the+Crosswise+Model+for+Random+Answers&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=307-320&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12758%2Fmda.2019.03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A88504613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schnapp&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial-desirability+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roese, N. J., & Jamieson, D. W. (1993). Twenty years of bogus pipeline research: A critical review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(2), 363–375. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.363">https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.363</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Bias">Biases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> 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