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particle">subatomic</a> physics, including <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>6th - 2nd Century BCE <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada (philosopher)</a> proposes that <i>anu</i> is an indestructible particle of matter, an "atom"; anu is an abstraction and not observable.<sup id="cite_ref-Roopa_Narayan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roopa_Narayan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>430 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-Teresi_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teresi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> speculates about fundamental indivisible particles—calls them "<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_beginning_of_chemistry">The beginning of chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The beginning of chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1766 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a> discovers and studies <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a></li> <li>1778 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Scheele" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Scheele">Carl Scheele</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> discover that <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">air</a> is composed mostly of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a></li> <li>1781 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> creates water by igniting hydrogen and oxygen</li> <li>1800 <a href="/wiki/William_Nicholson_(chemist)" title="William Nicholson (chemist)">William Nicholson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Carlisle" title="Anthony Carlisle">Anthony Carlisle</a> use <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen</li> <li>1803 <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> introduces <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic</a> ideas into <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and states that <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> is composed of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atoms of different weights</a></li> <li>1805 (approximate time) <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> conducts the <a href="/wiki/Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">double-slit experiment</a> with light</li> <li>1811 <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> claims that equal volumes of gases should contain equal numbers of molecules</li> <li>1815 <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> <a href="/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis" title="Prout's hypothesis">hypothesizes</a> that all matter is built up from <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, adumbrating the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>;</li> <li>1832 <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> states his laws of electrolysis</li> <li>1838 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laming" title="Richard Laming">Richard Laming</a> hypothesized a subatomic particle carrying <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>;</li> <li>1839 <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Edmond_Becquerel" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Edmond Becquerel">Alexandre Edmond Becquerel</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a></li> <li>1858 <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker" title="Julius Plücker">Julius Plücker</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode rays</a>;</li> <li>1871 <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitri Mendeleyev">Dmitri Mendeleyev</a> systematically examines the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> and predicts the existence of <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">scandium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a></li> <li>1873 <a href="/wiki/Johannes_van_der_Waals" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes van der Waals">Johannes van der Waals</a> introduces the idea of weak attractive forces between molecules</li> <li>1874 <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">George Johnstone Stoney</a> hypothesizes a minimum unit of electric charge. In 1891, he coins the word <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> for it;</li> <li>1885 <a href="/wiki/Johann_Balmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Balmer">Johann Balmer</a> finds a mathematical expression for observed <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_line" title="Hydrogen line">hydrogen line</a> <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a></li> <li>1886 <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein" title="Eugen Goldstein">Eugen Goldstein</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Anode_ray" title="Anode ray">anode rays</a>;</li> <li>1887 <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a></li> <li>1894 <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> discover <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopically</a> analyzing the gas left over after nitrogen and oxygen are removed from air</li> <li>1895 <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> discovers terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> by spectroscopically analyzing gas produced by decaying <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a></li> <li>1896 <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Henri_Becquerel" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Henri Becquerel">Antoine Henri Becquerel</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> of uranium</li> <li>1896 <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Pieter Zeeman</a> studies the splitting of <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_lines" title="Fraunhofer lines">sodium D lines</a> when sodium is held in a flame between strong <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnetic poles</a></li> <li>1897 <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>;</li> <li>1897 <a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Emil Wiechert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(physicist)" title="Walter Kaufmann (physicist)">Walter Kaufmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/J.J._Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Thomson">J.J. Thomson</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a></li> <li>1898 <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> discovered the existence of the radioactive elements <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> in their research of <a href="/wiki/Pitchblende" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitchblende">pitchblende</a></li> <li>1898 <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Travers" title="Morris Travers">Morris Travers</a> discover <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, and negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_age_of_quantum_mechanics">The age of quantum mechanics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The age of quantum mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1887 <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Rudolf Hertz">Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> that will play a very important role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a>'s explanation of this effect in terms of <i><a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quanta</a></i> of light</li> <li>1896 <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Conrad_R%C3%B6ntgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen">Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> while studying electrons in <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>; <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a> X-rays—that were considered as 'waves' of high-energy <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>—<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> will be able to demonstrate in 1922 the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.</li> <li>1899 <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a> emitted by <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>;</li> <li>1900 <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rydberg" title="Johannes Rydberg">Johannes Rydberg</a> refines the expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths</li> <li>1900 <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> states his <a href="/wiki/Quantum_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum hypothesis">quantum hypothesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planck%27s_law_of_black-body_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck's law of black-body radiation">blackbody radiation law</a></li> <li>1900 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ulrich_Villard" title="Paul Ulrich Villard">Paul Villard</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-ray">gamma-rays</a> while studying uranium decay</li> <li>1902 <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Philipp Lenard</a> observes that maximum <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectron</a> energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency</li> <li>1905 Albert Einstein explains the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a></li> <li>1906 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Barkla" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Barkla">Charles Barkla</a> discovers that each element has a characteristic <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</a> of the element</li> <li>1908-1911 <a href="/wiki/Jean_Perrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Perrin">Jean Perrin</a> proves the existence of <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation_equilibrium" title="Sedimentation equilibrium">experimental work</a> to test <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cber_die_von_der_molekularkinetischen_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rme_geforderte_Bewegung_von_in_ruhenden_Fl%C3%BCssigkeiten_suspendierten_Teilchen" title="Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen">Einstein's theoretical explanation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a></li> <li>1909 <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Royds" title="Thomas Royds">Thomas Royds</a> demonstrate that alpha particles are doubly <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionized</a> helium atoms</li> <li>1909 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a> discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils</li> <li>1911 <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> explains the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">Geiger–Marsden experiment</a> by invoking a nuclear atom model and derives the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_cross_section&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rutherford cross section (page does not exist)">Rutherford cross section</a></li> <li>1911 <a href="/wiki/%C8%98tefan_Procopiu" title="Ștefan Procopiu">Ștefan Procopiu</a> measures the magnetic dipole moment of the electron</li> <li>1912 <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> suggests using <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">crystal lattices</a> to <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffract</a> X-rays</li> <li>1912 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Friedrich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Friedrich (page does not exist)">Walter Friedrich</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Knipping&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Knipping (page does not exist)">Paul Knipping</a> diffract X-rays in zinc blende</li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> shows that nuclear charge is the real basis for numbering the elements</li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Johannes Stark</a> demonstrates that strong electric fields will split the Balmer spectral line series of hydrogen</li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> presents his <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">quantum model of the atom</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a> measures the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">fundamental unit of electric charge</a></li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a> work out the <a href="/wiki/Bragg%27s_law" title="Bragg's law">Bragg condition</a> for strong X-ray reflection</li> <li>1914 <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> suggests that the positively charged atomic nucleus contains <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1914 <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Hertz">Gustav Hertz</a> observe atomic excitation</li> <li>1915 <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> develops a modified <a href="/wiki/Bohr_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohr Model">Bohr atomic model</a> with elliptic orbits to explain relativistic fine structure</li> <li>1916 <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> formulate an electron shell model of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a></li> <li>1917 <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> introduces the idea of <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">stimulated radiation emission</a></li> <li>1918 Ernest Rutherford notices that, when <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> were shot into <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> gas, his <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintillation detector">scintillation detectors</a> showed the signatures of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> nuclei.</li> <li>1921 <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Land%C3%A9" title="Alfred Landé">Alfred Landé</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Land%C3%A9_g-factor" title="Landé g-factor">Landé g-factor</a></li> <li>1922 <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> studies X-ray photon <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a> by electrons demonstrating the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.</li> <li>1922 <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Otto Stern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Gerlach" title="Walther Gerlach">Walther Gerlach</a> show "<a href="/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">spin quantization</a>"</li> <li>1923 <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> discovers what is now referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Auger_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Auger electron">Auger process</a></li> <li>1924 <a href="/wiki/John_Lennard-Jones" title="John Lennard-Jones">John Lennard-Jones</a> proposes a semiempirical <a href="/wiki/Interatomic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Interatomic force">interatomic force</a> law</li> <li>1924 <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> suggests that electrons may have wavelike properties in addition to their 'particle' properties; the <i><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a></i> has been later extended to all fermions and bosons.</li> <li>1924 <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ant%C3%BAnez_de_Mayolo" title="Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo">Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo</a> proposes a neutron.</li> <li>1924 <a href="/wiki/Satyendra_Bose" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyendra Bose">Satyendra Bose</a> and Albert Einstein introduce <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics" title="Bose–Einstein statistics">Bose–Einstein statistics</a></li> <li>1925 <a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a> postulate electron <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a></li> <li>1925 <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victor_Auger" title="Pierre Victor Auger">Pierre Auger</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Auger_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Auger electron">Auger process</a> (2 years after <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>)</li> <li>1925 <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a> formulate quantum <a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a></li> <li>1925 <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> states the quantum <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">exclusion principle</a> for electrons</li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93statistics_theorem" title="Spin–statistics theorem">spin–statistics</a> connection, for particles that are now called 'fermions', such as the electron (of <a href="/wiki/Spin-1/2" title="Spin-1/2">spin-1/2</a>).</li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> proves that the wave and matrix formulations of quantum theory are mathematically equivalent</li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> states his nonrelativistic <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">quantum wave equation</a> and formulates <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum wave mechanics</a></li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> introduces the term "<i>photon</i>", thought by him to be "<i>the carrier of <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a>.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Klein" title="Oskar Klein">Oskar Klein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gordon_(physicist)" title="Walter Gordon (physicist)">Walter Gordon</a> state their relativistic quantum wave equation, now the <a href="/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation" title="Klein–Gordon equation">Klein–Gordon equation</a></li> <li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> introduces <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac statistics</a></li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Drummond_Ellis" title="Charles Drummond Ellis">Charles Drummond Ellis</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> and colleagues) finally establish clearly that the beta decay spectrum is in fact continuous and not discrete, posing a problem that will later be solved by theorizing (and later discovering) the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>.</li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Clinton Davisson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lester_Germer" title="Lester Germer">Lester Germer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">George Paget Thomson</a> confirm the <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wavelike nature</a> of electrons<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/L.H._Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="L.H. Thomas">Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a> develop the <a href="/wiki/Gas_in_a_box" title="Gas in a box">Thomas–Fermi model</a></li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> <a href="/wiki/Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">interprets the probabilistic nature</a> of wavefunctions</li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Oppenheimer_approximation" title="Born–Oppenheimer approximation">Born–Oppenheimer approximation</a></li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a> introduce the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a> and apply it to the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> molecule.</li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> states the quantum <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a></li> <li>1928 <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhara_Raman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandrasekhara Raman">Chandrasekhara Raman</a> studies optical photon scattering by electrons</li> <li>1928 <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Darwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles G. Darwin">Charles G. Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gordon_(physicist)" title="Walter Gordon (physicist)">Walter Gordon</a> solve the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a> for a Coulomb potential</li> <li>1928 <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hund" title="Friedrich Hund">Friedrich Hund</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a> introduce the concept of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbital</a></li> <li>1928 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> states the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a></li> <li>1929 <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Mott">Nevill Mott</a> derives the <a href="/wiki/Mott_scattering" title="Mott scattering">Mott cross section</a> for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons</li> <li>1929 <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Klein" title="Oskar Klein">Oskar Klein</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Klein_paradox" title="Klein paradox">Klein paradox</a></li> <li>1929 Oskar Klein and <a href="/wiki/Yoshio_Nishina" title="Yoshio Nishina">Yoshio Nishina</a> derive the Klein–Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons</li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> postulated the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> to explain the energy spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decays</a>;</li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> predicts the <a href="/wiki/Zitterbewegung" title="Zitterbewegung">zitterbewegung</a> motion</li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a> explains <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a> as due to the interacting fluctuating <a href="/wiki/Bond_dipole_moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond dipole moment">dipole moments</a> between molecules</li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> introduces electron hole theory</li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> using evaporation concentration techniques and spectroscopy</li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Frédéric Joliot">Frédéric Joliot</a> observe but misinterpret neutron scattering in paraffin</li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/John_Lennard-Jones" title="John Lennard-Jones">John Lennard-Jones</a> proposes the <a href="/wiki/Lennard-Jones_potential" title="Lennard-Jones potential">Lennard-Jones interatomic potential</a></li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> discovers resonance bonding and uses it to explain the high stability of symmetric planar molecules</li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> shows that <a href="/wiki/Charge_quantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge quantization">charge quantization</a> can be explained if <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">magnetic monopoles</a> exist</li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> puts forth the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> hypothesis to explain the apparent violation of <a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">energy conservation</a> in beta decay</li> <li>1932 <a href="/wiki/Carl_D._Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl D. Anderson">Carl D. Anderson</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a></li> <li>1932 <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a></li> <li>1932 <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a> split <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> nuclei using proton bombardment</li> <li>1932 <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> presents the proton–neutron model of the nucleus and uses it to explain isotopes</li> <li>1933 <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Stueckelberg" title="Ernst Stueckelberg">Ernst Stueckelberg</a> (1932), <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> (1932), and <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Zener" title="Clarence Zener">Clarence Zener</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Zener_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Landau–Zener transition">Landau–Zener transition</a></li> <li>1933 <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> suggests that quantum effects will cause photons to be scattered by an external electric field</li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> publishes a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced.</li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> suggests bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons to make a 93 proton element</li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Frédéric Joliot">Frédéric Joliot</a> bombard <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> atoms with alpha particles to create artificially radioactive <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-30" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphorus-30">phosphorus-30</a></li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a> realizes that <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reactions</a> may be possible</li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> tells <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> that non-linear molecules may have <a href="/wiki/Vibrational_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibrational mode">vibrational modes</a> which remove the <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_energy_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Degenerate energy level">degeneracy</a> of an orbitally degenerate state (<a href="/wiki/Jahn%E2%80%93Teller_effect" title="Jahn–Teller effect">Jahn–Teller effect</a>)</li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Pavel Cherenkov</a> reports that <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherenkov effect">light</a> is emitted by relativistic particles traveling in a nonscintillating liquid</li> <li>1935 <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Podolsky" title="Boris Podolsky">Boris Podolsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen" title="Nathan Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a> put forth the <a href="/wiki/EPR_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="EPR paradox">EPR paradox</a></li> <li>1935 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a> develops the <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a> theory</li> <li>1935 <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a> presents a theory of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> and predicts the scalar <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">meson</a></li> <li>1935 <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> presents his analysis of the EPR paradox</li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/Carl_D._Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl D. Anderson">Carl D. Anderson</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> while he studied <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">cosmic radiation</a>;</li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Alexandru Proca</a> formulates the relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector meson of spin-1 as a basis for nuclear forces</li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> develops the theory of neutron absorption by atomic nuclei</li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Arthur_Jahn" title="Hermann Arthur Jahn">Hermann Arthur Jahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> present their systematic study of the symmetry types for which the <a href="/wiki/Jahn%E2%80%93Teller_effect" title="Jahn–Teller effect">Jahn–Teller effect</a> is expected<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1937 Carl Anderson proves experimentally the existence of the pion predicted by Yukawa's theory.</li> <li>1937 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hellmann" title="Hans Hellmann">Hans Hellmann</a> finds the <a href="/wiki/Hellmann%E2%80%93Feynman_theorem" title="Hellmann–Feynman theorem">Hellmann–Feynman theorem</a></li> <li>1937 <a href="/wiki/Seth_Neddermeyer" title="Seth Neddermeyer">Seth Neddermeyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">Carl Anderson</a>, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson discover <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a> using <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chamber</a> measurements of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a></li> <li>1939 <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a> determine that <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> is taking place in the Hahn–Strassmann experiments</li> <li>1939 <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> bombard uranium salts with <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a> and discover <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> among the reaction products</li> <li>1939 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem</li> <li>1942 <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> makes the first controlled nuclear chain reaction</li> <li>1942 <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Stueckelberg" title="Ernst Stueckelberg">Ernst Stueckelberg</a> introduces the propagator to positron theory and interprets positrons as negative energy electrons moving backwards through spacetime</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantum_field_theory">Quantum field theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Quantum field theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1947 <a href="/wiki/George_Rochester" title="George Rochester">George Dixon Rochester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Charles_Butler" title="Clifford Charles Butler">Clifford Charles Butler</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">kaon</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Strange_particle" title="Strange particle">strange particle</a>;</li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Powell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cecil Powell">Cecil Powell</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes" title="César Lattes">César Lattes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini" title="Giuseppe Occhialini">Giuseppe Occhialini</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pi meson</a> by studying cosmic ray tracks</li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> presents <a href="/wiki/Path_integral_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Path integral formulation of quantum mechanics">his propagator approach to quantum electrodynamics</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Willis Lamb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Retherford" title="Robert Retherford">Robert Retherford</a> measure the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift#Lamb–Retherford_experiment" title="Lamb shift">Lamb–Retherford shift</a></li> <li>1948 <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Casimir" title="Hendrik Casimir">Hendrik Casimir</a> predicts a rudimentary attractive <a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir force</a> on a parallel plate capacitor</li> <li>1951 <a href="/wiki/Martin_Deutsch" title="Martin Deutsch">Martin Deutsch</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">positronium</a></li> <li>1952 <a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a> propose <a href="/wiki/Bohm_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohm interpretation">his interpretation of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li>1953 <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a> observes <a href="/wiki/Delbruck_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Delbruck scattering">Delbruck scattering</a> of 1.33 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei</li> <li>1953 Charles H. Townes, collaborating with J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds the first ammonia <a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">maser</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Chen_Ning_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Ning Yang">Chen Ning Yang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mills_(physicist)" title="Robert Mills (physicist)">Robert Mills</a> investigate a <a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">theory of</a> hadronic <a href="/wiki/Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a> by demanding local <a href="/wiki/Gauge_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge invariance">gauge invariance</a> under <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_spin" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopic spin">isotopic spin</a> space rotations, the first non-Abelian <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">gauge theory</a></li> <li>1955 <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Owen Chamberlain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Wiegand" title="Clyde Wiegand">Clyde Wiegand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ypsilantis" title="Thomas Ypsilantis">Thomas Ypsilantis</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiproton</a></li> <li>1955 and 1956 <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazuhiko_Nishijima" title="Kazuhiko Nishijima">Kazuhiko Nishijima</a> independently derive the <a href="/wiki/Gell-Mann%E2%80%93Nishijima_formula" title="Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula">Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula</a>, which relates the <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">baryon number</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Strangeness" title="Strangeness">strangeness</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a> to the charge, eventually leading to the systematic categorization of hadrons and, ultimately, the <a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">quark model</a> of hadron composition.</li> <li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a> discovered the (electron) <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>;</li> <li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Chen_Ning_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Ning Yang">Chen Ning Yang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsung_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsung Lee">Tsung Lee</a> propose <a href="/wiki/Parity_violation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parity violation">parity violation</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak nuclear force</a></li> <li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Chien_Shiung_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chien Shiung Wu">Chien Shiung Wu</a> discovers parity violation by the weak force in decaying cobalt</li> <li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Clyde Cowan</a> detect <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrino</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Pontecorvo" title="Bruno Pontecorvo">Bruno Pontecorvo</a> postulated the flavor oscillation;</li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Gerhart_Luders" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerhart Luders">Gerhart Luders</a> proves the <a href="/wiki/CPT_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="CPT theorem">CPT theorem</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/E.C.G._Sudarshan" class="mw-redirect" title="E.C.G. Sudarshan">E.C.G. Sudarshan</a> propose a vector/axial vector (VA) <a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_(field_theory)" title="Lagrangian (field theory)">Lagrangian</a> for weak interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1958 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Sparnaay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcus Sparnaay (page does not exist)">Marcus Sparnaay</a> experimentally confirms the <a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a></li> <li>1959 <a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a> predict the <a href="/wiki/Aharonov%E2%80%93Bohm_effect" title="Aharonov–Bohm effect">Aharonov–Bohm effect</a></li> <li>1960 <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Chambers" title="Robert G. Chambers">R.G. Chambers</a> experimentally confirms the Aharonov–Bohm effect<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Goldstone" title="Jeffrey Goldstone">Jeffrey Goldstone</a> considers the breaking of global phase symmetry</li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuval_Ne%27eman" title="Yuval Ne'eman">Yuval Ne'eman</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold Way</a> patterns, the <a href="/wiki/Special_unitary_group" title="Special unitary group">SU(3)</a> group</li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Leon_Lederman" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Lederman">Leon Lederman</a> shows that the electron neutrino is distinct from the muon neutrino</li> <li>1963 <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> discovers the fundamental roles played by quantum symmetries in atoms and molecules</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_formation_and_successes_of_the_Standard_Model">The formation and successes of the Standard Model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The formation and successes of the Standard Model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1963 <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Cabibbo" title="Nicola Cabibbo">Nicola Cabibbo</a> develops the mathematical matrix by which the first two (and ultimately three) generations of quarks can be predicted.</li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Zweig" title="George Zweig">George Zweig</a> propose the <a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">quark/aces model</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-arxiv1999_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">François Englert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brout" title="Robert Brout">Robert Brout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Peter Higgs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Guralnik" title="Gerald Guralnik">Gerald Guralnik</a>, <a href="/wiki/C._R._Hagen" title="C. R. Hagen">C. R. Hagen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kibble" title="Tom Kibble">Tom Kibble</a> postulate that a fundamental quantum field, now called the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Higgs field">Higgs field</a>, permeates space and, by way of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>, provides mass to all the elementary subatomic particles that interact with it. While the Higgs field is postulated to confer mass on quarks and leptons, it represents only a tiny portion of the masses of other subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons. In these, gluons that bind quarks together confer most of the particle mass. The result is obtained independently by three groups: François Englert and Robert Brout; Peter Higgs, working from the ideas of Philip Anderson; and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peter_W._Higgs_1964_508-509_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_W._Higgs_1964_508-509-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Zweig" title="George Zweig">George Zweig</a> independently propose the <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quark model</a> of hadrons, predicting the arbitrarily named <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up</a>, <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">strange</a> quarks. Gell-Mann is credited with coining the term <i>quark</i>, which he found in <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a></i>.</li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Sheldon Glashow</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Bjorken" title="James Bjorken">James Bjorken</a> predict the existence of the charm quark. The addition is proposed because it allows for a better description of the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a> (the mechanism that allows quarks and other particles to decay), equalizes the number of known <a href="/wiki/Quarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarks">quarks</a> with the number of known <a href="/wiki/Leptons" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptons">leptons</a>, and implies a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known <a href="/wiki/Mesons" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesons">mesons</a>.</li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" title="John Stewart Bell">John Stewart Bell</a> shows that all local <a href="/wiki/Hidden_variable_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidden variable theories">hidden variable theories</a> must satisfy <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell's inequality">Bell's inequality</a></li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Peter Higgs</a> considers the breaking of local phase symmetry</li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Val_Fitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Val Fitch">Val Fitch</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a> observe CP violation by the weak force in the decay of K mesons</li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Pontecorvo" title="Bruno Pontecorvo">Bruno Pontecorvo</a> postulated <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillation</a>;</li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> publish papers in which they describe <a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">Yang–Mills theory</a> using the SU(2) X U(1) <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a> group, thereby yielding a mass for the W particle of the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a> via <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">spontaneous symmetry breaking</a>.</li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a> puts forth his electroweak model of <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated489_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated489-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1968 <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>: <a href="/wiki/Deep_inelastic_scattering" title="Deep inelastic scattering">Deep inelastic scattering</a> experiments at the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Linear Accelerator Center">Stanford Linear Accelerator Center</a> (SLAC) show that the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> contains much smaller, point-like objects and is therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists at the time are reluctant to identify these objects with <a href="/wiki/Quarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarks">quarks</a>, instead calling them <i>partons</i> — a term coined by Richard Feynman. The objects that are observed at SLAC will later be identified as <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up</a> and <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down</a> quarks. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of <a href="/wiki/Hadrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrons">hadrons</a> (quarks, <a href="/wiki/Antiquarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarks">antiquarks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gluons" class="mw-redirect" title="Gluons">gluons</a>). The existence of the <a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">strange quark</a> is indirectly validated by the SLAC's scattering experiments: not only is it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provides an explanation for the <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">kaon</a> (K) and <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> (π) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.</li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">John Clauser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Horne_(physicist)" title="Michael Horne (physicist)">Michael Horne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abner_Shimony" title="Abner Shimony">Abner Shimony</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Holt_(physicist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Holt (physicist) (page does not exist)">Richard Holt</a> propose a polarization correlation test of <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell's inequality">Bell's inequality</a></li> <li>1970 <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Sheldon Glashow</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Iliopoulos" title="John Iliopoulos">John Iliopoulos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Maiani" title="Luciano Maiani">Luciano Maiani</a> propose the charm quark</li> <li>1971 <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">Gerard 't Hooft</a> shows that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg electroweak model can be renormalized<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1972 <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Freedman" title="Stuart Freedman">Stuart Freedman</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">John Clauser</a> perform the first polarization correlation test of <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell's inequality">Bell's inequality</a></li> <li>1973 <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Frank Anthony Wilczek</a> discover the quark asymptotic freedom in the theory of strong interactions; receives the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_Medal" title="Lorentz Medal">Lorentz Medal</a> in 2002, and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004 for his discovery and his subsequent contributions to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">quantum chromodynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1973 <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Makoto Kobayashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Toshihide Maskawa</a> note that the experimental observation of <a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP violation</a> can be explained if an additional pair of <a href="/wiki/Quarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarks">quarks</a> exist. The two new quarks are eventually named <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">bottom</a>.</li> <li>1973 <a href="/wiki/David_Politzer" class="mw-redirect" title="David Politzer">David Politzer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Frank Anthony Wilczek</a> propose the <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_freedom" title="Asymptotic freedom">asymptotic freedom</a> of quarks<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv1999_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1974 <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ting" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Ting">Samuel Ting</a>: Charm quarks are produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see <a href="/wiki/November_Revolution_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="November Revolution (physics)">November Revolution</a>) — one at <a href="/wiki/SLAC" class="mw-redirect" title="SLAC">SLAC</a> under Burton Richter, and one at <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> under Samuel Ting. The charm quarks are observed bound with charm <a href="/wiki/Antiquarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarks">antiquarks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesons" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesons">mesons</a>. The two discovering parties independently assign the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ψ; thus, it becomes formally known as the <a href="/wiki/J/%CF%88_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="J/ψ meson">J/ψ meson</a>. The discovery finally convinces the physics community of the quark model's validity.</li> <li>1974 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_J._Buenker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert J. Buenker (page does not exist)">Robert J. Buenker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sigrid_D._Peyerimhoff" title="Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff">Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Multireference_configuration_interaction" title="Multireference configuration interaction">multireference configuration interaction</a> method.</li> <li>1975 <a href="/wiki/Martin_Perl" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Perl">Martin Perl</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Tau_lepton" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau lepton">tau lepton</a></li> <li>1977 <a href="/wiki/Leon_Lederman" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Lederman">Leon Lederman</a> observes the <a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">bottom quark</a> with his team at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fermilabDiscoveries_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fermilabDiscoveries-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discovery is a strong indicator of the <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quark</a>'s existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would be without a partner that is required by the mathematics of the theory.</li> <li>1977 <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Martin Lewis Perl</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Tau_lepton" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau lepton">tau lepton</a> after a series of experiments;</li> <li>1977 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steve_Herb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steve Herb (page does not exist)">Steve Herb</a> finds the <a href="/wiki/Upsilon_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Upsilon particle">upsilon resonance</a> implying the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">beauty/bottom quark</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a> observed indirectly in <a href="/wiki/Three-jet_event" title="Three-jet event">three-jet events</a> at <a href="/wiki/DESY" title="DESY">DESY</a>;</li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Alain Aspect</a>, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger perform a polarization correlation test of <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell's inequality">Bell's inequality</a> that rules out conspiratorial polarizer communication</li> <li>1983 <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Simon van der Meer</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>;</li> <li>1983 <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Simon van der Meer</a>, and the CERN UA-1 collaboration find the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z intermediate vector bosons</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1989 The Z intermediate vector boson <a href="/wiki/Resonance#Theory" title="Resonance">resonance width</a> indicates three <a href="/wiki/Generation_(particle_physics)" title="Generation (particle physics)">quark–lepton generations</a></li> <li>1994 The <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> <a href="/wiki/LEAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LEAR">LEAR</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystal_Barrel_Experiment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crystal Barrel Experiment (page does not exist)">Crystal Barrel Experiment</a> justifies the existence of <a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">glueballs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Exotic_meson" title="Exotic meson">exotic meson</a>).</li> <li>1995 The <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quark</a> is finally observed by a team at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a> after an 18-year search.<sup id="cite_ref-fermilabDiscoveries_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fermilabDiscoveries-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a mass much greater than had been previously expected — almost as great as a gold atom.</li> <li>1995 The <a href="/wiki/D0_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="D0 experiment">D0</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collider_Detector_at_Fermilab" title="Collider Detector at Fermilab">CDF</a> experiments at the <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a> <a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quark</a>.</li> <li>1998 – The <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> (Japan) detector facility reports experimental evidence for <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillations</a>, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.<sup id="cite_ref-FukudaHayakawa1998_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FukudaHayakawa1998-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1998 <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> (Japan) observes evidence for <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillations</a>, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.</li> <li>1999 <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a> wins the Nobel prize in chemistry for his work on <a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">femtochemistry</a> for atoms and molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2000 scientists at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a> announce the first direct evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrino</a>, the third kind of neutrino in particle physics.<sup id="cite_ref-fermilabDiscoveries_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fermilabDiscoveries-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2000 <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> announced <a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">quark-gluon plasma</a>, a new phase of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2001 the <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a> (Canada) confirm the existence of neutrino oscillations. <a href="/wiki/Lene_Hau" title="Lene Hau">Lene Hau</a> stops a beam of light completely in a <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2001 The <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a> (Canada) confirms the existence of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino oscillations">neutrino oscillations</a>.</li> <li>2005 the <a href="/wiki/RHIC" class="mw-redirect" title="RHIC">RHIC</a> accelerator of <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> generates a "perfect" fluid, perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">quark–gluon plasma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2010 The <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> begins operation with the primary goal of searching for the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.</li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>-like particle discovered at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> (LHC).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2014 The <a href="/wiki/LHCb_experiment" title="LHCb experiment">LHCb experiment</a> observes particles consistent with <a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">tetraquarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">pentaquarks</a> <sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2014 The <a href="/wiki/T2K_experiment" title="T2K experiment">T2K</a> and <a href="/wiki/OPERA_experiment" title="OPERA experiment">OPERA experiment</a> observe the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrinos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrinos</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrino</a> <a href="/wiki/Accelerator_neutrino" title="Accelerator neutrino">beam</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">History of quantum field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the molecule">History of the molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">History of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_physics_technology" title="Timeline of particle physics technology">Timeline of particle physics technology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Roopa_Narayan-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roopa_Narayan_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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Electron Parmagnetic Resonance of Transition Ions, Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K., p. 911</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman2006" class="citation book cs1">Feynman, R.P. 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"Observation of Electron Neutrino Appearance in a Muon Neutrino Beam". <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>112</b> (6): 061802. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1311.4750">1311.4750</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PhRvL.112f1802A">2014PhRvL.112f1802A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.112.061802">10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.061802</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F20051">10044/1/20051</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24580687">24580687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2586182">2586182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Observation+of+Electron+Neutrino+Appearance+in+a+Muon+Neutrino+Beam&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=061802&rft.date=2014-02-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10044%2F1%2F20051&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2586182%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PhRvL.112f1802A&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1311.4750&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24580687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.112.061802&rft.au=T2K+Collaboration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+atomic+and+subatomic+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOPERA_Collaboration2014" class="citation journal cs1">OPERA Collaboration (28 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fptep%2Fptu132">"Observation of tau neutrino appearance in the CNGS beam with the OPERA experiment"</a>. <i>Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics</i>. <b>2014</b> (10): 101C01. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1407.3513">1407.3513</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fptep%2Fptu132">10.1093/ptep/ptu132</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+of+Theoretical+and+Experimental+Physics&rft.atitle=Observation+of+tau+neutrino+appearance+in+the+CNGS+beam+with+the+OPERA+experiment&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=101C01&rft.date=2014-10-28&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1407.3513&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fptep%2Fptu132&rft.au=OPERA+Collaboration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fptep%252Fptu132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+atomic+and+subatomic+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alainconnes.org/">Alain Connes official website</a> with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alainconnes.org/en/downloads.php">downloadable papers.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2007/02/alain-connes-standard-model.html">Alain Connes's Standard Model.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html">A History of Quantum Mechanics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191028220722/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html">Archived</a> 2019-10-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer/StrangeQM/history.html">A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics</a></li></ul> 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antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">Massless particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">Relativistic particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">Wave–particle duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_chauvinism" title="Particle chauvinism">Particle chauvinism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_physics" title="Template:History of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_physics" title="Template talk:History of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light" title="Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_physics" title="Women in physics">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Shapley–Curtis</a></li> <li>Relativity priority <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute" title="Relativity priority dispute">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity_priority_dispute" title="General relativity priority dispute">General relativity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_physics" title="Category:History of physics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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