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data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মধ্যযুগীয় ইসলামী বিশ্বে পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগীয় ইসলামী বিশ্বে পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysik_under_Den_Islamiske_Guldalder" title="Fysik under Den Islamiske Guldalder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fysik under Den Islamiske Guldalder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_en_el_mundo_isl%C3%A1mico_medieval" title="Física en el mundo islámico medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física en el mundo islámico medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_Islam_abad_pertengahan" title="Fisika Islam abad pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisika Islam abad pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li 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dir="ltr"><p> The <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> saw various advancements during the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Islam">Golden Age of Islam</a> (from roughly the mid 8th to the mid 13th centuries), adding a number of innovations to the <a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission of the Classics">Transmission of the Classics</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classical_Arabic_philosophy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, Islamic theology was encouraging of thinkers to find knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thinkers from this period included <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Abu Bishr Matta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hassan_Ibn_al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham">al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These works and the important commentaries on them were the wellspring of science during the medieval period. They were <a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission of the Classics">translated</a> into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of this period. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Islamic scholarship in the sciences</a> had inherited <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a> from the Greeks and during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> developed it further. However the Islamic world had a greater respect for knowledge gained from empirical observation, and believed that the universe is governed by a single set of laws. Their use of empirical observation led to the formation of crude forms of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of physics in the Islamic world started in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thiele_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thiele-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fields of physics studied in this period include <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Islamic scholarship</a> had inherited <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a> from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori knowledge">a priori</a></i> reasoning, developing early forms of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. With Aristotelian physics, physics was seen as lower than demonstrative mathematical sciences, but in terms of a larger theory of knowledge, physics was higher than astronomy; many of whose principles derive from physics and metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-Islam,_Science,_and_the_Challenge_of_History_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Islam,_Science,_and_the_Challenge_of_History-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary subject of physics, according to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, was motion or change; there were three factors involved with this change, underlying thing, privation, and form. In his <i>Metaphysics</i>, Aristotle believed that the <i>Unmoved Mover</i> was responsible for the movement of the cosmos, which <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a> later generalized as the cosmos were eternal.<sup id="cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classical_Arabic_philosophy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> argued against the idea of the cosmos being eternal by claiming that the eternality of the world lands one in a different sort of absurdity involving the infinite; <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> asserted that the cosmos must have a temporal origin because traversing an infinite was impossible. </p><p>One of the first commentaries of Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i> is by <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>. In "'The Aims of Aristotle's Metaphysics", Al-Farabi argues that metaphysics is not specific to natural beings, but at the same time, metaphysics is higher in universality than natural beings.<sup id="cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classical_Arabic_philosophy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optics">Optics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Optics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg/170px-Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg/255px-Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Book_of_Optics_Cover_Page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Cover of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>'s <i>Book of Optics</i></figcaption></figure> <p>One field in physics, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, developed rapidly in this period. By the ninth century, there were works on physiological optics as well as mirror reflections, and geometrical and physical optics.<sup id="cite_ref-ahmad_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahmad-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the eleventh century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> not only rejected the Greek idea about vision, he came up with a new theory.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_(mathematician)" title="Ibn Sahl (mathematician)">Ibn Sahl</a> (c. 940–1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, wrote a treatise <i>On Burning Mirrors and Lenses</i> in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how <a href="/wiki/Curved_mirror" title="Curved mirror">curved mirrors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> bend and focus <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>. Ibn Sahl is credited with discovering the law of <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>, now usually called <a href="/wiki/Snell%27s_law" title="Snell's law">Snell's law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rashed90_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rashed90-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as <a href="/wiki/Anaclastic_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaclastic lens">anaclastic lenses</a>. </p><p>Ibn al-Haytham (known in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> as <i>Alhacen</i> or <i>Alhazen</i>) (<a href="/wiki/965" title="965">965</a>-<a href="/wiki/1040" title="1040">1040</a>), often regarded as the "father of optics"<sup id="cite_ref-Verma_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verma-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a pioneer of the scientific method, formulated "the first comprehensive and systematic alternative to Greek optical theories."<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He postulated in his "Book of Optics" that light was reflected upon different surfaces in different directions, thus causing different light signatures for a certain object that we see.<sup id="cite_ref-book_of_optics_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book_of_optics-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a different approach than that which was previously thought by Greek scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, who believed rays were <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emitted</a> from the eye to an object and back again. Al-Haytham, with this new theory of optics, was able to study the geometric aspects of the visual cone theories without explaining the physiology of perception.<sup id="cite_ref-ahmad_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahmad-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in his Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham used mechanics to try and understand optics. Using projectiles, he observed that objects that hit a target perpendicularly exert much more force than projectiles that hit at an angle. Al-Haytham applied this discovery to optics and tried to explain why direct light hurts the eye, because direct light approaches perpendicularly and not at an oblique angle.<sup id="cite_ref-book_of_optics_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book_of_optics-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed a <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> to demonstrate that light and color from different candles can be passed through a single aperture in straight lines, without intermingling at the aperture.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theories were transmitted to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work influenced <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a>, who built upon his work and ultimately transmitted it to <a href="/wiki/Kepler" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler">Kepler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" class="mw-redirect" title="Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqī al-Dīn</a> tried to disprove the widely held belief that light is emitted by the eye and not the object that is being observed. He explained that, if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_1164_fol_19b-20a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3601" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>14th century manuscript of <i>al-Mulakhkhas fi al-Hay’ah</i>, <a href="/wiki/Jaghmini" title="Jaghmini">Jaghmini</a>'s treatise on astronomy</figcaption></figure> <p>The Islamic understanding of the astronomical model was based on the Greek Ptolemaic system. However, many early astronomers had started to question the model. It was not always accurate in its predictions and was over complicated because astronomers were trying to mathematically describe the movement of the heavenly bodies. Ibn al-Haytham published <i>Al-Shukuk ala Batiamyus</i> ("Doubts on Ptolemy"), which outlined his many criticisms of the Ptolemaic paradigm. This book encouraged other astronomers to develop new models to explain celestial movement better than Ptolemy.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In al-Haytham's <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> he argues that the celestial spheres were not made of solid matter, and that the heavens are less dense than air.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosen_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosen-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some astronomers theorized about gravity too, <a href="/wiki/Al-Khazini" title="Al-Khazini">al-Khazini</a> suggests that the gravity an object contains varies depending on its distance from the center of the universe. The center of the universe in this case refers to the center of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impetus">Impetus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impetus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> had rejected the Aristotelian view of motion, and argued that an object acquires an inclination to move when it has a motive power impressed on it. In the eleventh century <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> had roughly adopted this idea, believing that a moving object has force which is dissipated by external agents like air resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-ibn_sina_and_buridan_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibn_sina_and_buridan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called "<i>mayl</i>"), he claimed that an object gained <i>mayl</i> when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. So he concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the <i>mayl</i> is spent. He also claimed that projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. This conception of motion is consistent with Newton's first law of motion, inertia, which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force.<sup id="cite_ref-Espinoza_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Espinoza-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was basically abandoned until it was described as "impetus" by <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Buridan">John Buridan</a>, who may have been influenced by Ibn Sina.<sup id="cite_ref-ibn_sina_and_buridan_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibn_sina_and_buridan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acceleration">Acceleration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Acceleration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ray%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī</a> text <i>Shadows</i>, he recognizes that non-uniform motion is the result of acceleration.<sup id="cite_ref-al-biruni_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-biruni-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn-Sina's theory of mayl tried to relate the velocity and weight of a moving object, this idea closely resembled the concept of momentum<sup id="cite_ref-Nasr_&_Razavi_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasr_&_Razavi-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's theory of motion stated that a constant force produces a uniform motion, <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a> contradicted this and developed his own theory of motion. In his theory he showed that velocity and acceleration are two different things and force is proportional to acceleration and not velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-Gutman_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutman-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">History of optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scientific_method" title="History of scientific method">History of scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in the Middle Ages">Science in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-classical_Arabic_philosophy-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-classical_Arabic_philosophy_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Classical Arabic Philosophy An Anthology of Sources</i>, Translated by Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. pg. xix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bakar, Osman. <i>The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science</i>. 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_studies" title="Template talk:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala" title="Hawala">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_poverty" title="Islam and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Usury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_of_Islam_in_early_modern_Europe" title="Reception of Islam in early modern Europe">Reception in early modern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">consultation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">use of analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">dialectic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">solidarity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">cosmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">ophthalmology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">elementary school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_studies" title="Sufi studies">Sufi studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_physics" title="Template:History of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_physics" title="Template talk:History of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light" title="Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_physics" title="Women in physics">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Shapley–Curtis</a></li> <li>Relativity priority <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute" title="Relativity priority dispute">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity_priority_dispute" title="General relativity priority dispute">General relativity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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