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id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monophthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monophthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Monophthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monophthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_and_short_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_and_short_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Long and short vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_and_short_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adoption_of_Greek_upsilon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption_of_Greek_upsilon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Adoption of Greek upsilon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adoption_of_Greek_upsilon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sonus_medius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sonus_medius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Sonus medius </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sonus_medius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_nasalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_nasalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.5 Vowel nasalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_nasalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.6 Diphthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_and_consonant_length" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_and_consonant_length"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Vowel and consonant length </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_and_consonant_length-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Table_of_orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Table_of_orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Table of orthography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Table_of_orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllables_and_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllables_and_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Syllables and stress </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syllables_and_stress-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Syllables and stress subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Syllables_and_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nature_of_the_accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_of_the_accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Nature of the accent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_of_the_accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Latin_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Latin_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Old Latin stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Latin_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Latin_syllables_and_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Latin_syllables_and_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Classical Latin syllables and stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Latin_syllables_and_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syllable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Syllable </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Nucleus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Onset_and_coda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Onset_and_coda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Onset and coda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Onset_and_coda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavy_and_light_syllables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavy_and_light_syllables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.4 Heavy and light syllables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heavy_and_light_syllables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.5 Stress rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iambic_shortening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iambic_shortening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.6 Iambic shortening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iambic_shortening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Elision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_conventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_conventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Modern conventions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_conventions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern conventions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_conventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Spelling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diacritics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diacritics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Diacritics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diacritics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Pronunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-Medieval_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Medieval_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Post-Medieval Latin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Medieval_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loan_words_and_formal_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loan_words_and_formal_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Loan words and formal study </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loan_words_and_formal_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecclesiastical_pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecclesiastical_pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Ecclesiastical pronunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecclesiastical_pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronunciation_shared_by_Vulgar_Latin_and_Romance_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation_shared_by_Vulgar_Latin_and_Romance_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation_shared_by_Vulgar_Latin_and_Romance_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Examples </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Examples subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-From_Classical_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Classical_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 From Classical Latin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Classical_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_Medieval_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Medieval_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 From Medieval Latin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Medieval_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateinische_Aussprache" title="Lateinische Aussprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lateinische Aussprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciaci%C3%B3n_y_ortograf%C3%ADa_del_lat%C3%ADn" title="Pronunciación y ortografía del latín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pronunciación y ortografía del latín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravopis_latinskog_jezika" title="Pravopis latinskog jezika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pravopis latinskog jezika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrittura_e_pronuncia_del_latino" title="Scrittura e pronuncia del latino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scrittura e pronuncia del latino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronuntiatus_Latinus" title="Pronuntiatus Latinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pronuntiatus Latinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotyn%C5%B3_kalbos_fonologija" title="Lotynų kalbos fonologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lotynų kalbos fonologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uitspraak_van_het_Latijn" title="Uitspraak van het Latijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Uitspraak van het Latijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Латинское произношение и орфография – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Латинское произношение и орфография" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Phonology of the Latin language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> Latin phonology is the system of sounds used in various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. This article largely deals with what features can be deduced for <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> as it was spoken by the educated from the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> to the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>. Evidence comes in the form of comments from Roman grammarians, common spelling mistakes, transcriptions into other languages, and the outcomes of various sounds in the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Latin orthography refers to the writing system used to spell Latin from its <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">archaic stages</a> down to the present. Latin was nearly always spelt in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, but further details varied from period to period. The alphabet developed from <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Italic script">Old Italic script</a>, which had developed from a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, which had developed from a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>. The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet that can be seen on <a href="/wiki/Black-figure_pottery" title="Black-figure pottery">black-figure pottery</a> dating to c. 540 BC. As the language continued to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> long after it <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">ceased being</a> a native language, pronunciation and – to a lesser extent – spelling diverged significantly from the classical standard with Latin words being <a href="/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation" title="Latin regional pronunciation">pronounced differently</a> by native speakers of different languages. While nowadays a reconstructed classical pronuncation aimed to be that of the 1st century AD <a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> is usually employed in the teaching of Latin, the Italian-influenced ecclesiastical pronunciation as used by the Catholic church is still in common use. The <a href="/wiki/Traditional_English_pronunciation_of_Latin" title="Traditional English pronunciation of Latin">Traditional English pronunciation of Latin</a> has all but disappeared from classics education but continues to be used for Latin-based loanwords and use of Latin e.g. for <a href="/wiki/Binominal_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Binominal name">binominal names</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomy</a>. During most of the time written Latin was in widespread use, authors variously complained about <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a> or attempted to "restore" an earlier standard. Such sources are of great value in reconstructing various stages of the spoken language (the <a href="/wiki/Appendix_Probi" title="Appendix Probi">Appendix Probi</a> is an important source for the spoken variety in the 4th century CE, for example) and have in some cases indeed influenced the development of the language. The efforts of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> authors were to a large extent successful in removing innovations in grammar, spelling and vocabulary present in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> but absent in both classical and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">contemporary Latin</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letterforms">Letterforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Letterforms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg/300px-I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg/450px-I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg/600px-I_littera_in_manuscripto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="227" /></a><figcaption>A papyrus fragment in <a href="/wiki/Roman_cursive" title="Roman cursive">Roman cursive</a> with portions of speeches delivered in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/Latin phonology and orthography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In Classical times there was no modern-like distinction between <a href="/wiki/Letter_case" title="Letter case">upper case and lower case</a>. <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Inscriptions</a> typically use <a href="/wiki/Roman_square_capitals" title="Roman square capitals">square capitals</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Letterform" title="Letterform">letterforms</a> largely corresponding to modern upper-case, and <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwritten text</a> was generally in the form of <a href="/wiki/Roman_cursive" title="Roman cursive">cursive</a>, which includes letterforms corresponding to modern lowercase. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letters_and_phonemes">Letters and phonemes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Letters and phonemes">edit</a>]</div> In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes (<a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">alphabetic principle</a>). Exceptions include: <ol><li>The letters ⟨a e i o u y⟩, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with <a href="/wiki/Apex_(diacritic)" title="Apex (diacritic)">apices</a>, as in ⟨á é ó ú ý⟩, while long /iː/ could be marked with <a href="/wiki/Long_I" title="Long I">the special character</a> ⟨ꟾ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-Sihler_alphabet-3">[3]</a> since the 19th century, long vowels have been marked with <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macrons</a>, as in ⟨ā ē ī ō ū ȳ⟩; sometimes <a href="/wiki/Breve" title="Breve">breves</a> may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in ⟨ă ĕ ŏ ŭ y̆⟩.</li> <li>The letters ⟨i u⟩, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants /j w/ respectively. In modern times the letters ⟨j v⟩ began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).</li> <li>Digraphs such as ⟨ae au oe⟩, which represented the diphthongs /ae̯ au̯ oe̯/. In a few words ⟨ae oe⟩ also stood for sequences of two adjacent vowels.</li> <li>Digraphs such as ⟨ph th ch⟩, standing for the aspirated consonants /pʰ tʰ kʰ/.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Below are the distinctive (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a>) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɡʷ</a>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td>†<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> </td> <td>†<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>†<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>†<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonetics">Phonetics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonetics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Latin may have had the labialized velar stops /kʷ ɡʷ/ as opposed to the stop + semivowel sequences /kw ɡw/ (as in the English quick or penguin). The argument for /kʷ/ is stronger than that for /ɡʷ/.<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a></li> <li>The former could occur between vowels, where it always counted as a single consonant in Classical poetry, whereas the latter only occurred after /n/, where it is impossible to tell whether it counted as one consonant or two.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_gm_and_gw-5">[4]</a> The labial element, whether [ʷ] or [w], appears to have been palatalised before a front vowel, resulting in [ᶣ]/[ɥ] (for instance quī would have sounded something like <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/82\/La-cls-qui.ogg\/La-cls-qui.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-qui.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/82/La-cls-qui.ogg/La-cls-qui.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-qui.ogg" title="File:La-cls-qui.ogg">ⓘ</a>). This palatalisation did not affect the independent consonant /w/ before front vowels.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></li> <li>/kʷ ɡʷ/ before /u/ were not distinct from /k ɡ/, which were allophonically labialized to [kʷ ɡʷ] by a following /u/ such that writing a double uu was unnecessary. This is suggested by the fact that equus and unguunt (from Old Latin equos and unguont) are also found spelt as ecus and ungunt.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></li> <li>/p t k/ were less aspirated than the corresponding English consonants, as implied by their usually being transliterated into Ancient Greek as ⟨π τ κ⟩ and their pronunciation in most Romance languages. In many cases however it was not the Latin /p k/ but rather /b ɡ/ that were used to render Greek word-initial /p k/ in borrowings (as in πύξος, κυβερνῶ > buxus, guberno), especially borrowings of a non-learned character. This might suggest that the Latin /p k/ had some degree of aspiration, making /b ɡ/ more suitable to approximate the Greek sounds.<a href="#cite_note-tenues-8">[7]</a></li> <li>/pʰ tʰ kʰ/ were pronounced with notable aspiration, like the initial consonants of the English pot, top, and cot respectively. They are attested beginning c. 150 BC, in the spellings ⟨ph th ch⟩, at first only used to render the Greek ⟨φ θ χ⟩ in loanwords. (Previously these had been rendered in Latin as ⟨p t c⟩.) From c. 100 BC onward ⟨ph th ch⟩ spread to a number of native Latin words as well, such as pulcher and lachrima. When this occurred it was nearly always in the vicinity of the consonant /r/ or /l/, and the implication is that Latin /p t k/ had become aspirated in that context.<a href="#cite_note-aspirate1-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-aspirate2-10">[9]</a></li> <li>/z/ was found as a rendering of the Greek ⟨ζ⟩ in borrowings starting around the first century BC. (In earlier borrowings, the Greek sound had been rendered in Latin as /ss/.) In initial position this appears to have been pronounced [z], and between vowels it appears to have been <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">doubled</a> to [zz] (counted as two consonants in poetry).<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allen_Z-12">[11]</a></li> <li>/s/ was unvoiced in all positions in Classical Latin. Previously however Old Latin /s/ appears to have voiced to [z] between vowels, ultimately <a href="/wiki/Rhotacism" title="Rhotacism">turning to</a> /r/. Cicero reports the family-name Papisius being changed to Papirius in the fourth century BC, which may give some idea of the chronology. Afterward new instances of /s/ developed between vowels from sound-changes like the degemination of /ss/ after long vowels and diphthongs (as in caussa > causa), which <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> reports to have happened a little after the time of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_s-13">[12]</a></li> <li>In Old Latin, final /s/ after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first <a href="/wiki/Debuccalization" title="Debuccalization">debuccalizing</a> to [h], as in the inscriptional form Cornelio for Cornelios (Classical Cornelius). Often in the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, final /s/ did not count as a consonant when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. By the Classical period this practice was described as characteristic of non-urban speech by Cicero.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_s-13">[12]</a></li> <li>/f/ was <a href="/wiki/Labiodental" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental">labiodental</a> in Classical Latin but may have been a <a href="/wiki/Bilabial" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial">bilabial</a> /ɸ/ in Old Latin,<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> or perhaps [ɸ] in free variation with [f]. Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on misspellings in early inscriptions, the fact that many instances of Latin /f/ descend from Proto-Indo-European */bʰ/, and the outcomes of the sound in Romance (particularly in Spain).<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></li> <li>In most cases /m/ was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), leaving <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasalization</a> on the preceding vowel<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd_81-16">[15]</a> (such that decem may have sounded something like <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/61\/La-cls-decem.ogg\/La-cls-decem.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-decem.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/La-cls-decem.ogg/La-cls-decem.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-decem.ogg" title="File:La-cls-decem.ogg">ⓘ</a>). In Old Latin inscriptions, final ⟨m⟩ is often omitted, as in ⟨viro⟩ for virom (Classical virum). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in poetry and lost without a trace (apart from perhaps lengthening) in the Romance languages,<a href="#cite_note-Allen_-Vm-17">[16]</a> except in a number of monosyllabic words, where it often survives as /n/ or a further development thereof.</li> <li>/n/ and /m/ <a href="/wiki/Phoneme#Neutralization_and_archiphonemes" title="Phoneme">merged</a> via assimilation before a following consonant, with the following consonant determining the resulting pronunciation: bilabial [m] before a bilabial consonant (/p b/), coronal [n] before a coronal consonant (/t d/) and velar [ŋ] before a velar consonant (/k kʷ ɡ/). This occurred both within words (e.g. quīnque may have sounded something like <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/85\/La-cls-quinque.ogg\/La-cls-quinque.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-quinque.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/La-cls-quinque.ogg/La-cls-quinque.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-quinque.ogg" title="File:La-cls-quinque.ogg">ⓘ</a>) and across word-boundaries (for instance in causā with [ŋ], or im pace).<a href="#cite_note-Allen_n-18">[17]</a></li> <li>/ɡ/ assimilated to a <a href="/wiki/Velar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar nasal">velar nasal</a> [ŋ] before /n/.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Allen and <a href="/wiki/James_B._Greenough" title="James B. Greenough">Greenough</a> say that a vowel before [ŋn] is always long,<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an <a href="/wiki/Interpolation_(manuscripts)" title="Interpolation (manuscripts)">interpolation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a>, and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example rēgnum from the root of rēx but magnus from the root of magis.<a href="#cite_note-Vgn-21">[20]</a> /ɡ/ probably did not assimilate to [ŋ] before /m/. The cluster /ɡm/ arose by <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">syncope</a>, as for example tegmen from tegimen. Original /ɡm/ developed into /mm/ in flamma, from the root of flagrō.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_gm_and_gw-5">[4]</a> At the start of a word, original /ɡn/ was reduced to [n], and this change was reflected in the orthography of later texts, as in gnātus, gnōscō > nātus, nōscō.</li> <li>In Classical Latin, the <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic</a> /r/ was most likely an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar trill">alveolar trill</a> [r] in some positions and when doubled. <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Lucilius" title="Gaius Lucilius">Gaius Lucilius</a> likened it to the sound of a dog, and later writers described it as being produced by vibration. /d/ was sometimes written as ⟨r⟩, possibly suggesting a tap [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>] (like the single /ɾ/ in Spanish).<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></li> <li>/l/ was strongly <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarized</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a> and probably somewhat <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a> when <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a> or followed by /i(ː)/. In <a href="/wiki/Intervocalic_consonant" title="Intervocalic consonant">intervocalic</a> position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except /i(ː)/.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></li> <li>/j/ generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in iaceō, except in compound words such as adiaceō (pronounced something like <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d0\/La-cls-iaceo%2C_adiaceo.ogg\/La-cls-iaceo%2C_adiaceo.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/La-cls-iaceo%2C_adiaceo.ogg/La-cls-iaceo%2C_adiaceo.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-iaceo,_adiaceo.ogg" title="File:La-cls-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg">ⓘ</a>). Between vowels, it was generally as a geminate /jj/, as in cuius (pronounced something like <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-5" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/5f\/La-cls-cuius.ogg\/La-cls-cuius.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-cuius.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/La-cls-cuius.ogg/La-cls-cuius.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-cuius.ogg" title="File:La-cls-cuius.ogg">ⓘ</a>) except in compound words such as trāiectus. This /jj/ is sometimes marked in modern editions by a <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a> on the preceding vowel, e.g. cûius, êius, mâior, etc. /j/ could also varied with /i/ in the same <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, as in iam /jam/ and etiam /ˈe.ti.am/, and in poetry one could be replaced with the other for <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metrical</a> purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_j-24">[23]</a></li> <li>/w/ was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when /w/ and intervocalic /b/ began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, /w/ and /u/ could be replaced with each other, as in /ˈsilua/~/ˈsilwa/ or /ˈɡenua/~/ˈɡenwa/. Unlike /j/ it remained a single consonant in most words, e.g. in cavē, although it did represent a double /ww/ in borrowings from Greek such as the name Evander.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_v-25">[24]</a></li> <li>/h/ was generally still pronounced in Classical Latin, at least by educated speakers, but in many cases it appears to have been lost early on between vowels, and sometimes in other contexts as well (diribeō < *dis-habeō being a particularly early example). Where intervocalic /h/ survived, it was likely voiced<a href="#cite_note-Allen_h-26">[25]</a> (that is, [ɦ]).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Notes_on_spelling">Notes on spelling</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Notes on spelling">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">doubled</a> consonants, as in ⟨cc⟩ for /kk/. In <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>, geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.<a href="#cite_note-27">[b]</a> Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the <a href="/wiki/Sicilicus" title="Sicilicus">sicilicus</a>, a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></li> <li>⟨c⟩ and ⟨k⟩ both represented /k/, whereas ⟨qu⟩ represented /kʷ/. ⟨c⟩ and ⟨q⟩ distinguish minimal pairs such as cui /kui̯/ and quī /kʷiː/.<a href="#cite_note-ui-29">[27]</a> In Classical Latin ⟨k⟩ appeared in only a few words like kalendae, Karthagō - which could also be spelt calendae, Carthagō.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_C-30">[28]</a></li> <li>⟨x⟩ represented /ks/. In Old Latin, /ks/ was also spelled in other ways like ⟨ks cs xs⟩. The letter ⟨x⟩ was borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets#Aspirate_and_consonant_cluster_symbols" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Western Greek alphabet</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a> ⟨χ⟩ stood for /ks/ as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Ionic alphabet</a>, where it stood for /kʰ/, with /ks/ instead represented by the letter <a href="/wiki/Xi_(letter)" title="Xi (letter)">xi</a> ⟨ξ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a></li> <li>In Old Latin inscriptions, /k/ and /ɡ/ were not distinguished. They were both represented by ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e i⟩, by ⟨q⟩ before ⟨o u⟩, and by ⟨k⟩ before consonants or ⟨a⟩.<a href="#cite_note-Sihler_alphabet-3">[3]</a> The letterform ⟨c⟩ derives from the Greek <a href="/wiki/Gamma" title="Gamma">gamma</a> ⟨Γ⟩, which represented /ɡ/. Its use for /k/ may come from <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a>, which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, ⟨c⟩ represented /ɡ/ only in the abbreviations c and cn, for Gaius and Gnaeus respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_C-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></li> <li>⟨g⟩ was created in the third century BC to distinguish /ɡ/ from /k/.<a href="#cite_note-OL_letters-33">[31]</a> Its letterform derived from ⟨c⟩ with the addition of a <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Typeface_anatomy" title="Typeface anatomy">stroke</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> attributes this innovation to <a href="/wiki/Spurius_Carvilius_Ruga" title="Spurius Carvilius Ruga">Spurius Carvilius Ruga</a> around 230 BC,<a href="#cite_note-Sihler_alphabet-3">[3]</a> but it may have originated with <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</a> in the fourth century BC.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a></li> <li>The combination gn probably represented the consonant cluster [ŋn], at least between vowels, as in agnus [ˈäŋ.nʊs] <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-6" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d7\/La-cls-agnus2.ogg\/La-cls-agnus2.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-agnus2.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/La-cls-agnus2.ogg/La-cls-agnus2.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-agnus2.ogg" title="File:La-cls-agnus2.ogg">ⓘ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd_81-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.<a href="#cite_note-Vgn-21">[20]</a></li> <li>The digraphs ph, th, and ch represented the aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /tʰ/ and /kʰ/. They began to be used in writing around 150 BC,<a href="#cite_note-OL_letters-33">[31]</a> primarily as a transcription of Greek <a href="/wiki/Phi" title="Phi">phi</a> Φ, <a href="/wiki/Theta" title="Theta">theta</a> Θ, and <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">chi</a> Χ, as in Philippus, cithara, and achāia. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as pulcher, lachrima, gracchus, triumphus, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near /r/ and /l/. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative /h/ were also used <a href="/wiki/Hypercorrection" title="Hypercorrection">hypercorrectively</a>, an affectation satirized in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Catullus_84" class="extiw" title="s:Translation:Catullus 84">Catullus 84</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aspirate1-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-aspirate2-10">[9]</a></li> <li>In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial /z/ and /zz/ between vowels were represented by s and ss, as in sona from ζώνη and massa from μᾶζα. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter <a href="/wiki/Zeta" title="Zeta">zeta</a> Ζ was adopted to represent /z/ and /zz/.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_Z-12">[11]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> spellings z or zi for earlier di and d before e, and the spellings di and dz for earlier z, suggest the pronunciation /dz/, as for example ziomedis for diomedis, and diaeta for zeta.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a></li> <li>In ancient times u and i represented the <a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">approximant</a> consonants /w/ and /j/, as well as the close vowels /u(ː)/ and /i(ː)/.</li> <li>i representing the consonant /j/ was usually not doubled in writing, so a single i represented double /jː/ or /jj/ and the sequences /ji/ and /jːi/, as in cuius for *cuiius /ˈkuj.jus/, conicit for *coniicit /ˈkon.ji.kit/, and reicit for *reiiicit /ˈrej.ji.kit/. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of i could occur in some of the same environments: compare māius /ˈmaj.jus/ with Gāius /ˈɡaː.i.us/, and Iūlius /ˈjuː.li.us/ with Iūlus /iˈuː.lus/. The vowel before a doubled /jː/ is sometimes marked with a <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a>, as in cūius. It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">heavy</a> from the double consonant.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_j-24">[23]</a></li> <li>v between vowels represented single /w/ in native Latin words but double /ww/ in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of v sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in genua [ˈɡɛ.nu.ä] and silva [ˈsɪl.wä].<a href="#cite_note-Allen_v-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monophthongs">Monophthongs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Monophthongs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Latin_vowel_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Latin_vowel_space.png/220px-Latin_vowel_space.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Latin_vowel_space.png/330px-Latin_vowel_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Latin_vowel_space.png/440px-Latin_vowel_space.png 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="1034" /></a><figcaption>The Latin vowel-space per <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 47</figcaption></figure> Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs, five <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a> /i e a o u/ and five long /iː eː aː oː uː/. Some <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from Greek had ⟨y⟩, which would have been pronounced as /y(ː)/ by educated speakers but approximated with the native vowels /i(ː)/ or /u(ː)/ by the less-educated. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> (<a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y yː</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a> <a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">aː</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long_and_short_vowels">Long and short vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Long and short vowels">edit</a>]</div> The short vowels /i e o u/ appear to have been pronounced with a relatively <a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">open</a> quality, which may be approximated as [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>], and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>] [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>].<a href="#cite_note-38">[c]</a> That the short /i u/ were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long /eː oː/ is suggested by attested misspellings such as:<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> <ul><li>⟨trebibos⟩ for tribibus</li> <li>⟨minsis⟩ for mēnsis</li> <li>⟨sob⟩ for sub</li> <li>⟨punere⟩ for pōnere</li></ul> /e/ most likely had a more open allophone before /r/.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> /e/ and /i/ were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. mea written as ⟨mia⟩ in some inscriptions. Short /i/ before another vowel is often written with the so-called <a href="/wiki/Long_I" title="Long I">i longa</a>, as in ⟨dꟾes⟩ for diēs, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long /iː/; it was almost never confused with e in this position.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adoption_of_Greek_upsilon">Adoption of Greek upsilon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Adoption of Greek upsilon">edit</a>]</div> y was used in Greek loanwords with <a href="/wiki/Upsilon_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Upsilon (letter)">upsilon</a> Υ. This letter represented the <a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">close front rounded vowel</a>, both short and long: /y yː/.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with /u uː/ in Old Latin and /i iː/ in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce /y yː/. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sonus_medius">Sonus medius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sonus medius">edit</a>]</div> An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel [<a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a>] or possibly its rounded counterpart [<a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a>]), called sonus medius, can be reconstructed for the classical period.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> Such a vowel is found in documentum, optimus, lacrima (also spelled docimentum, optumus, lacruma) and other words. It developed out of a historical short /u/, later fronted by vowel reduction. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short /u/ [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>].<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Claudian_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudian letter">Claudian letter</a> Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the <a href="/wiki/Upsilon" title="Upsilon">upsilon</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowel_nasalization">Vowel nasalization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vowel nasalization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/75px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/100px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="listen-header">Examples of nasalized vowels at ends of words and before -ns-, -nf- sequences</div> <div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-monstrum.ogg" title="File:La-cls-monstrum.ogg">monstrum</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="2" data-mwtitle="La-cls-monstrum.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/La-cls-monstrum.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/La-cls-monstrum.ogg/La-cls-monstrum.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description"></div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-mensis.ogg" title="File:La-cls-mensis.ogg">mensis</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="2" data-mwtitle="La-cls-mensis.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/La-cls-mensis.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f6/La-cls-mensis.ogg/La-cls-mensis.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description"></div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-infans,_infantem.ogg" title="File:La-cls-infans, infantem.ogg">infans, infantem</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="4" data-mwtitle="La-cls-infans,_infantem.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/La-cls-infans%2C_infantem.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/14/La-cls-infans%2C_infantem.ogg/La-cls-infans%2C_infantem.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description"></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowels</a> in two environments:<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> <ul><li>Before word-final m:<a href="#cite_note-Allen_-Vm-17">[16]</a> <ul><li>monstrum /ˈmon.strum/ > [ˈmõː.strʊ̃]</li> <li>dentem /ˈden.tem/ > [ˈdɛn.tɛ̃]</li></ul></li> <li>Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:<a href="#cite_note-Allen_n-18">[17]</a> <ul><li>censor /ˈken.sor/ > [ˈkẽː.sɔr] (in early inscriptions, often written as cesor)</li> <li>consul /ˈkon.sul/ > [ˈkõː.sʊɫ̪] (often written as cosol and abbreviated as cos)</li> <li>inferōs /ˈin.fe.roːs/ > [ˈĩː.fæ.roːs] (written as iferos)</li></ul></li></ul> Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish costar from Vulgar Latin cōstāre (originally constāre) and Italian mese from Vulgar Latin mēse (Classical Latin mensem). On the other hand, the short vowel and /n/ were restored, for example, in French enseigne and enfant from insignia and infantem (e is the normal development of Latin short i), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix in-.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> When a final -m occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, tan dūrum [tan ˈduː.rũː] was written for tam dūrum in inscriptions, and cum nōbīs [kʊn ˈnoː.biːs] was a <a href="/wiki/Double_entendre" title="Double entendre">double entendre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Allen_-Vm-17">[16]</a> presumably for cunnō bis [ˈkʊnnoː bɪs]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Diphthongs">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Diphthongs classified by beginning sound </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Front</th> <th>Back </th></tr> <tr> <th>Close </th> <td></td> <td>ui    ui̯ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mid </th> <td>ei    ei̯ eu    eu̯</td> <td>oe    oe̯ ~ eː </td></tr> <tr> <th>Open </th> <td colspan="2">ae    ae̯ ~ ɛː au    au̯ </td></tr></tbody></table> ae, oe, au, ei, eu could represent diphthongs: ae represented /ae̯/, oe represented /oe̯/, au represented /au̯/, ei represented /ei̯/, and eu represented /eu̯/. ui sometimes represented the diphthong /ui̯/, as in cui <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-7" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/70\/La-cls-cui.oga\/La-cls-cui.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"listen"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"La-cls-cui.oga"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/70/La-cls-cui.oga/La-cls-cui.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">listen</a><a href="/wiki/File:La-cls-cui.oga" title="File:La-cls-cui.oga">ⓘ</a> and huic.<a href="#cite_note-ui-29">[27]</a> The diphthong ei mostly had changed to ī by the classical epoch; ei remained only in a few words such as the interjection hei. If there is a <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A9ma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tréma">tréma</a> above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: aë [ä.ɛ], aü [a.ʊ], eü [e.ʊ] and oë [ɔ.ɛ]. However, disyllabic eu in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: meus [ˈme.ʊs] 'my'. In Old Latin, ae, oe were written as ai, oi and probably pronounced as [äi̯, oi̯], with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-8" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/b\/ba\/Fr-travail.ogg\/Fr-travail.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"travail<\/i>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Fr-travail.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Fr-travail.ogg/Fr-travail.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">travail</a><a href="/wiki/File:Fr-travail.ogg" title="File:Fr-travail.ogg">ⓘ</a>. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to [e],<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> so that the diphthongs were pronounced [äe̯] and [oe̯] in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to [ɛː] and [eː] respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.<a href="#cite_note-48">[d]</a> The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-49">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_and_consonant_length">Vowel and consonant length</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vowel and consonant length">edit</a>]</div> Vowel and consonant <a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">length</a> were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macrons</a> are frequently used to mark long vowels: ⟨ā ē ī ō ū ȳ⟩, while the <a href="/wiki/Breve" title="Breve">breve</a> is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ y̆⟩. Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of i and v. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Accius" title="Lucius Accius">Lucius Accius</a>. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an <a href="/wiki/Apex_(Latin_spelling)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apex (Latin spelling)">apex</a> (a diacritic similar to an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter (<a href="/wiki/Long_i" class="mw-redirect" title="Long i">long i</a>); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf. Italian nono "ninth" versus nonno "grandfather".<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="3" data-mwtitle="La-cls-anus,_annus,_anus.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:La-cls-anus,_annus,_anus.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/La-cls-anus%2C_annus%2C_anus.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/La-cls-anus%2C_annus%2C_anus.ogg/La-cls-anus%2C_annus%2C_anus.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Recording of ānus, annus, anus</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal set</a> showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is ānus /ˈaː.nus/ ('anus'), annus /ˈan.nus/ ('year'), anus /ˈa.nus/ ('old woman'). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Table_of_orthography">Table of orthography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Table of orthography">edit</a>]</div> The letters b, d, f, h, m, n are always pronounced as in English [b], [d], [f], [h], [m], [n] respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Pronunciation of Latin consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin grapheme</th> <th>Latin phoneme</th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩ </th> <th>[k] </th> <td>Always hard as k in sky, never <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C" title="Hard and soft C">soft</a> as in cellar, cello, or social. ⟨k⟩ is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by c. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ch⟩ </th> <th>[kʰ] </th> <td>As ch in chemistry, and aspirated; never as in challenge or change and also never as in Bach or chutzpah. Transliteration of Greek ⟨χ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨g⟩ </th> <th>[ɡ] </th> <td>Always hard as g in good, never <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G" title="Hard and soft G">soft</a> as g in gem. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨gn⟩ </th> <th>[ɡn ~ ŋn] </th> <td>As ngn in wingnut. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨i⟩ </th> <th>[j] </th> <td>Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y in yard, never as j in just. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[jː] </th> <td>Doubled between vowels, as y y in toy yacht. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨l⟩ </th> <th>[l] </th> <td>When doubled ⟨ll⟩ or before ⟨i⟩, as clear l in link (known as L exilis).<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>[ɫ] </th> <td>In all other positions,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Latin_phonology_and_orthography#Dubious" title="Talk:Latin phonology and orthography">discuss</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] as dark l in bowl (known as L pinguis). </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨p⟩ </th> <th>[p] </th> <td>As p in spy, unaspirated. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ph⟩ </th> <th>[pʰ] </th> <td>As p in party, always aspirated; never as in photo when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek ⟨φ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨qu⟩ </th> <th>[kʷ] </th> <td>Similar to qu in quick, never as qu in antique. Before ⟨i⟩, like cu in French cuir. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨quu⟩ </th> <th>[kʷɔ ~ kʷu ~ ku] </th> <td>There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced [kʷɔ], evoking the <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> pronunciation (equos, sequontur); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced [ku] (ecus, secuntur).<a href="#cite_note-Traina_&_Perini_1998-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traina_2002-55">[51]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨r⟩ </th> <th>[r] </th> <td>As r in Italian and several Romance languages. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨rh⟩ </th> <th>[r̥] </th> <td>As r in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. diarrhoea ⟨διάῤῥοια⟩. (see <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">Voiceless alveolar trill</a>). Transcription of Greek ῥ, mostly used in Greek loanwords. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨s⟩ </th> <th>[s] </th> <td>As s in say, never as s in rise or measure. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨t⟩ </th> <th>[t] </th> <td>As t in stay </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨th⟩ </th> <th>[tʰ] </th> <td>As th in thyme, and aspirated; never as in thing, or that. Transliteration of Greek ⟨θ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨v⟩ </th> <th>[w] </th> <td>Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as w in wine, never as v in vine. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨vu⟩ </th> <th>[wɔ ~ wu] </th> <td>As one is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: parvus [ˈpɐr.wɔs], vivunt [ˈwiː.wɔnt]. The spelling vu is post-classical (in order to become regular in spelling).<a href="#cite_note-Traina_&_Perini_1998-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traina_2002-55">[51]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨x⟩ </th> <th>[k͡s] </th> <td>A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩, as well as ⟨g⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨z⟩ </th> <th>[d͡z ~ zː] </th> <td>As in zoom, never as in pizza (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek ⟨ζ⟩. </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Pronunciation of Latin vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin grapheme </th> <th>Latin phone </th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨a⟩ </th> <th>[ä] </th> <td>Similar to u in cut when short. Transliteration of Greek short ⟨α⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[äː] </th> <td>Similar to a in father when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨α⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨e⟩ </th> <th>[ɛ] </th> <td>As e in pet when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ε⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[eː] </th> <td>Similar to ey in they when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨η⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨i⟩ </th> <th>[ɪ] </th> <td>As i in sit when short. Transliteration of short Greek ⟨ι⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[iː] </th> <td>Similar to i in machine when long. Transliteration of Greek long ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨o⟩ </th> <th>[ɔ] </th> <td>As o in sort when short. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ο⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[oː] </th> <td>Similar to o in holy when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ω⟩, and ⟨ου⟩ in some cases. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨u⟩ </th> <th>[ʊ] </th> <td>Similar to u in put when short. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[uː] </th> <td>Similar to u in true when long. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ου⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨y⟩ </th> <th>[ʏ] </th> <td>As in German Stück when short (or as short u or i) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short ⟨υ⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>[yː] </th> <td>As in German früh when long (or as long u or i) (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long ⟨υ⟩. </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin grapheme </th> <th>Latin phone </th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ae⟩ </th> <th>[ae̯] </th> <td>As in aisle. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αι⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨au⟩ </th> <th>[au̯] </th> <td>As in out. Transliteration of Greek ⟨αυ⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ei⟩ </th> <th>[ei̯] </th> <td>As to ey in they. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ει⟩ in some cases. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨eu⟩ </th> <th>[eu̯] </th> <td>As in Portuguese eu. Transliteration of Greek ⟨ευ⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨oe⟩ </th> <th>[oe̯] </th> <td>As in boy. Transliteration of Greek ⟨οι⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ui⟩ </th> <th>[ui̯] </th> <td>As in Spanish muy, approximately to hooey. </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨yi⟩ </th> <th>[ʏɪ̯] </th> <td>Transliteration of the Greek diphthong ⟨υι⟩. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syllables_and_stress">Syllables and stress</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Syllables and stress">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_of_the_accent">Nature of the accent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nature of the accent">edit</a>]</div> Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek φῶς (falling accent) "light" vs. φώς (rising accent) "man" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as discip(u)līna and sinist(e)ra; and the shortening of post or pre-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by <a href="/wiki/Brevis_brevians" title="Brevis brevians">brevis brevians</a>, for example, scansions such as senex and voluptātem with the second syllable short.<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Latin_stress">Old Latin stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Old Latin stress">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italic">Proto-Italic</a>, stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example: <ul><li>faciō 'I do/make', factus 'made'; pronounced /ˈfa.ki.oː/ and /ˈfak.tus/ in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.</li> <li>afficiō 'I affect', affectus 'affected'; pronounced /ˈaf.fi.ki.oː/ and /ˈaf.fek.tus/ in Old Latin following vowel reduction, /af.ˈfi.ki.oː/ and /af.ˈfek.tus/ in Classical Latin.</li></ul> In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, in the 3rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Latin_syllables_and_stress">Classical Latin syllables and stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Classical Latin syllables and stress">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dreimorengesetz" title="Dreimorengesetz">Dreimorengesetz</a></div> In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for antepaenultima 'before almost last', paenultima 'almost last', and ultima syllaba 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">syllable weight</a> of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syllable">Syllable</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Syllable">edit</a>]</div> To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nucleus">Nucleus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nucleus">edit</a>]</div> Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus magistrārum has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), aereus has three (ae e u: VV V V), tuō has two (u ō: V VV), and cui has one (ui: VV).<a href="#cite_note-Greenough_syllable-63">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Onset_and_coda">Onset and coda</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Onset and coda">edit</a>]</div> A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.<a href="#cite_note-Greenough_syllable-63">[59]</a> <ul><li>fēminae /feː.mi.nae̯/ (CVV.CV.CVV)</li> <li>uidēre /wi.deː.re/ (CV.CVV.CV)</li> <li>puerō /pu.e.roː/ (CV.V.CVV)</li> <li>beātae /be.aː.tae̯/ (CV.VV.CVV)</li> <li>grauiter /ɡra.wi.ter/ (CCV.CV.CVC)</li> <li>strātum /straː.tum/ (CCCVV.CVC)</li></ul> After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_syllable-64">[60]</a> <ul><li>puella /pu.el.la/ (CV.VC.CV)</li> <li>supersum /su.per.sum/ (CV.CVC.CVC)</li> <li>coāctus /ko.aːk.tus/ (CV.VVC.CVC)</li> <li>intellēxit /in.tel.leːk.sit/ (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)</li></ul> There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop p t c b d g followed by a liquid l r between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_syllable-64">[60]</a> <ul><li>volucris /wo.lu.kris/ or /wo.luk.ris/ (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heavy_and_light_syllables">Heavy and light syllables</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Heavy and light syllables">edit</a>]</div> As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy. <table> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>V</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>C</td> <td>V</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>C</td> <td>C</td> <td>V</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td>C</td> <td>C</td> <td>V</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>C</td> <td>V </td> <th>V</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>C</td> <td>V </td> <th>C</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>C</td> <td>V </td> <th>V</th> <th>C </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>V </td> <th>V</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>V </td> <th>C</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>V </td> <th>V</th> <th>C </th></tr></tbody></table> Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin. The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants. In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called syllaba nātūrā longa ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called positiōne longa ('long by position'). These terms are translations of Greek συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει (syllabḕ makrá phýsei = 'syllable long by nature') and μακρὰ θέσει (makrà thései = 'long by proposition'), respectively; therefore positiōne should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention". This article uses the words heavy and light for syllables, and long and short for vowels since the two are not the same.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_syllable-64">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stress_rule">Stress rule</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stress rule">edit</a>]</div> In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_syllable-64">[60]</a> Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark ⟨ˈ⟩ before the stressed syllable. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Words with stress on antepenult </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>volucris</td> <td>fēminae</td> <td>puerō </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ˈwo.lu.kris/</td> <td>/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/</td> <td>/ˈpu.e.roː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>CV.CV.CCVC</td> <td>CVV.CV.CVV</td> <td>CV.V.CVV </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Words with stress on penult </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>volucris</td> <td>vidēre</td> <td>intellēxit</td> <td>beātae</td> <td>puella</td> <td>coāctus </td></tr> <tr> <td>CV.CVC.CVC</td> <td>CV.CVV.CV</td> <td>VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC</td> <td>CV.VV.CVV</td> <td>CV.VC.CV</td> <td>CV.VVC.CVC </td></tr> <tr> <td>/woˈluk.ris/</td> <td>/wiˈdeː.re/</td> <td>/in.telˈleːk.sit/</td> <td>/beˈaː.tae̯/</td> <td>/puˈel.la/</td> <td>/koˈaːk.tus/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iambic_shortening">Iambic shortening</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Iambic shortening">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brevis_brevians" title="Brevis brevians">Brevis brevians</a></div> Iambic shortening or brevis brevians is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type light–heavy, where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like egō, modō, benē, amā with long final vowel change to ego, modo, bene, ama with short final vowel.<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a> The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a>, but not in poetry of the classical period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elision">Elision</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Elision">edit</a>]</div> Where one word ended with a vowel (including the nasalized vowels written am em im um~(om) and the diphthong ae) and the next word began with a vowel, the former vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided; that is, it was omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of /i/ and /u/) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel. When the second word was est or es, and possibly when the second word was et, a different form of elision sometimes occurred (<a href="/wiki/Prodelision" title="Prodelision">prodelision</a>): the vowel of the preceding word was retained, and the e was elided instead. Elision also occurred in Ancient Greek, but in that language, it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form. Only occasionally is it found in inscriptions, as in scriptust for scriptum est.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_conventions">Modern conventions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Modern conventions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spelling">Spelling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Spelling">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Letters">Letters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Letters">edit</a>]</div> Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of I and V. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use I (upper case) and i (lower case) for both vocalic /i/ and consonantal /j/, to use V in the upper case and in the lower case to use v at the start of words and u subsequently within the word regardless of whether /u/ and /w/ was represented.<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using I (upper case) and i (lower case) for both /i/ and /j/, and V (upper case) and u (lower case) for both /u/ and /w/. An alternative approach, less common today, is to use i and u only for the vowels and j and v for the approximants. Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between u and v but not between i and j. Usually, the non-vocalic v after q or g is still printed as u rather than v, probably because in this position it did not change from /w/ to /v/ in post-classical times.<a href="#cite_note-68">[e]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diacritics">Diacritics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Diacritics">edit</a>]</div> Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a> or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a> used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, Româ /ˈroːmaː/ ('from Rome' <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>) compared to Roma /ˈroːma/ ('Rome' <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>).<a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a> Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronunciation">Pronunciation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-Medieval_Latin">Post-Medieval Latin</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Post-Medieval Latin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin#Pronunciation" title="Neo-Latin">Pronunciation of Neo-Latin</a></div> Since around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article <a href="/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation" title="Latin regional pronunciation">Latin regional pronunciation</a> for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on Ecclesiastical pronunciation below). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loan_words_and_formal_study">Loan words and formal study</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Loan words and formal study">edit</a>]</div> When Latin words are used as <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed. Latin words in common use in English are generally <a href="/wiki/Loanword#Classification" title="Loanword">fully assimilated</a> into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, cranium, saliva. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs ae and oe (occasionally written as ligatures: æ and œ, respectively), which both denote /iː/ in English. The <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> ae or <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a> æ in some words tend to be given an /aɪ/ pronunciation, for example, curriculum vitae. However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section <a href="#Pronunciation_shared_by_Vulgar_Latin_and_Romance_languages">§ Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages</a> below). However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ecclesiastical_pronunciation">Ecclesiastical pronunciation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Ecclesiastical pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></div> Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrittain1955-70">[65]</a> Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church. A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter-combinations b, d, f, m, n, ph, and v are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Grapheme</th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>Context </th> <th>Example</th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨c⟩ </th> <th>[t͡ʃ] </th> <td>Before ae, e, i, oe, y </td> <td>procella </td> <td>change </td></tr> <tr> <th>[k] </th> <td>Before a, o, u </td> <td>carnem </td> <td rowspan="2">sky (never aspirated as in kill) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ch⟩ </th> <th>[k] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>Antiochia </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨g⟩ </th> <th>[d͡ʒ] </th> <td>Before ae, e, i, oe, y </td> <td>agere </td> <td>gem </td></tr> <tr> <th>[ɡ] </th> <td>Before a, o, u </td> <td>plaga </td> <td>gate </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨gn⟩ </th> <th>[ɲ(ː)] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>signum </td> <td>canyon (roughly); precisely Italian gnocchi </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨h⟩ </th> <th>∅ </th> <td>In nearly all cases </td> <td>hora </td> <td>(silent) </td></tr> <tr> <th>[k] </th> <td>Between vowels in a few words </td> <td>mihi </td> <td>sky (never aspirated as in kill) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨i⟩ </th> <th>[j] </th> <td>Beginning of a word and before a vowel </td> <td>ianua </td> <td>yard </td></tr> <tr> <th>[jː] </th> <td>Between vowels </td> <td>Gaius </td> <td>Doubled, as in toy yacht </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨k⟩ </th> <th>[k] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>kalendae </td> <td>sky (never aspirated as in kill) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨l⟩ </th> <th>[l] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>paulum </td> <td>slip (never 'dark' as in pools) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨p⟩ </th> <th>[p] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>praeda </td> <td>spy (never aspirated as in pill) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨qu⟩ </th> <th>[kʷ] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>atque </td> <td>quick (never as in antique) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨r⟩ </th> <th rowspan="2">[r] </th> <td rowspan="2">Always </td> <td rowspan="2">regina </td> <td rowspan="2">(rolled like Italian or Spanish rana) </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨rh⟩ </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨s⟩ </th> <th>[s] </th> <td>Always (formally) </td> <td>sanctum </td> <td>sing </td></tr> <tr> <th>[z] </th> <td>Between vowels (informally) </td> <td>miser </td> <td>tease </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨sc⟩ </th> <th>[ʃ] </th> <td>Before ae, e, i, oe, y </td> <td>ascendit </td> <td>shade </td></tr> <tr> <th>[sk] </th> <td>Before a, o, u </td> <td>pascunt </td> <td>scare </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨t⟩ </th> <th>[t] </th> <td>Generally </td> <td>tironibus </td> <td>stay (never aspirated as in table nor soft as in nation) </td></tr> <tr> <th>[t͡s] </th> <td>Before unstressed i and not after s/t/x </td> <td>nationem </td> <td>pizza </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨v⟩ </th> <th>[v] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>conservare </td> <td>preserve </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨x⟩ </th> <th>[ks] </th> <td>Generally </td> <td>dextro </td> <td>fox </td></tr> <tr> <th>[ɡz] </th> <td>Word internally before a stressed vowel </td> <td>exaudi </td> <td>examine </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">⟨xc⟩ </th> <th>[ksk] </th> <td>Generally </td> <td>exclamavit </td> <td>exclaim </td></tr> <tr> <th>[kʃ] </th> <td>Before ae, e, i, oe, y </td> <td>excelsis </td> <td>thick shell </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨z⟩ </th> <th>[d͡z] </th> <td>Always </td> <td>zona </td> <td>lads </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Grapheme </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨a⟩ </th> <th>[ä] </th> <td>father (roughly) precisely Spanish ramo </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ae⟩ </th> <th rowspan="3">[ɛ]/[e] </th> <td rowspan="3">pet </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨oe⟩ </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨e⟩ </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨i⟩ </th> <th>[i] </th> <td>seek </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨o⟩ </th> <th>[ɔ]/[o] </th> <td>sort </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨u⟩ </th> <th>[u] </th> <td>cool </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨y⟩ </th> <th>[i] </th> <td>seek </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Grapheme </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>English approximation </th></tr> <tr> <th>⟨au⟩ </th> <th>[au̯] </th> <td>out </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ei⟩ </th> <th>[ɛi̯] </th> <td>they </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨eu⟩ </th> <th>[ɛu̯] </th> <td>no obvious example; roughly EH-oo </td></tr> <tr> <th>⟨ui⟩ </th> <th>[ui̯] </th> <td>screwy </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic <a href="/wiki/Stress_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress accent">stress accent</a> of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> in words of three or more syllables.)</li> <li>Word-final m and n are pronounced fully, with no <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasalization of the preceding vowel</a>.</li></ul> In his Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin, <a href="/wiki/William_Sidney_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="William Sidney Allen">William Sidney Allen</a> remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a> recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a> The introduction to the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Usualis" title="Liber Usualis">Liber Usualis</a> indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.<a href="#cite_note-Liber_Usualis2-72">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_for_Latin" title="Pontifical Academy for Latin">Pontifical Academy for Latin</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_academy" title="Pontifical academy">pontifical academy</a> in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language. Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in <a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choral</a> singing which, with a few exceptions like <a href="/wiki/Stravinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Stravinsky">Stravinsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_rex_(opera)" title="Oedipus rex (opera)">Oedipus rex</a>, is concerned with liturgical texts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Historically_informed_performance" title="Historically informed performance">historically informed performance</a> and the availability of guides such as Copeman's Singing in Latin has led to the recent revival of <a href="/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation" title="Latin regional pronunciation">regional pronunciations</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronunciation_shared_by_Vulgar_Latin_and_Romance_languages">Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_changes_from_Classical_Latin_to_Proto-Romance" title="Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance">Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_in_the_Romance_languages" title="Palatalization in the Romance languages">Palatalization in the Romance languages</a></div> As Classical Latin developed to Late Latin, and eventually into the modern Romance languages, it experienced several phonological changes. Notable changes include the following (the precise order of which is uncertain): <ul><li>Loss of /h/, in all contexts, and loss of final /m/, in polysyllabic words.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</a> of /ae̯ oe̯/ to /ɛː eː/ respectively.</li> <li>Fortition of /w/ to /β/, then lenition of intervocalic /b/ to /β/. (Later developing to /v/ in many areas.)</li> <li>Phonemic (no longer allophonic) loss of /n/ before /s/ and of final in polysyllabic words.</li> <li>Phonemic (no longer allophonic) development of /i e/ to /j/ when unstressed and in hiatus.</li> <li>Palatalization of the consonants /t d/ by a following /j/.</li> <li>Loss of phonemic vowel length, with vowel quality becoming the distinctive factor instead. A number of vowel mergers followed as a result.</li> <li>Palatalization of various other consonants by a following /j/.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">Palatalization</a> of /k ɡ/ before front vowels (not everywhere).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Classical_Latin">From Classical Latin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: From Classical Latin">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, Book 1, verses 1–4. Quantitative metre (<a href="/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter" title="Dactylic hexameter">dactylic hexameter</a>). Translation: "I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he [was] much afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath." <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="21" data-mwtitle="La-cls-arma_virumque_cano.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:La-cls-arma_virumque_cano.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/La-cls-arma_virumque_cano.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/11/La-cls-arma_virumque_cano.ogg/La-cls-arma_virumque_cano.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Recording of first four lines of Aeneid in reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>Traditional (19th century) English orthography <div title="Latin-language text"><div lang="la"> <dl><dd>Arma virúmque cano, Trojæ qui primus ab oris</dd> <dd>Italiam, fato profugus, Lavíniaque venit</dd> <dd>Litora; multùm ille et terris jactatus et alto</dd> <dd>Vi superum, sævæ memorem Junonis ob iram.</dd></dl></div></div></li> <li>Modern orthography with macrons <div title="Latin-language text"><div lang="la"> <dl><dd>Arma virumque canō, Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs</dd> <dd>Ītaliam, fātō profugus, Lāvīniaque vēnit</dd> <dd>Lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō</dd> <dd>Vī superum, saevae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram.</dd></dl></div></div></li> <li>Modern orthography with macrons and without u and v distinction <div title="Latin-language text"><div lang="la"> <dl><dd>Arma uirumque canō, Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs</dd> <dd>Ītaliam, fātō profugus, Lāuīniaque uēnit</dd> <dd>Lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō</dd> <dd>Uī superum, saeuae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram.</dd></dl></div></div></li> <li>Modern orthography without macrons <div title="Latin-language text"><div lang="la"> <dl><dd>Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris</dd> <dd>Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit</dd> <dd>Litora; multum ille et terris iactatus et alto</dd> <dd>Vi superum, saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram.</dd></dl></div></div></li> <li>[Reconstructed] Classical Roman pronunciation[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <dl><dd>[ˈär.mä wɪ|ˈɾʊŋ.kʷɛ ˈkä|n̪oː ˈt̪ɾɔj|jäe̯ kʷiː |ˈpɾiː.mʊs̠‿ä‖ˈb‿oː.ɾiːs̠</dd> <dd>iː.ˈt̪ä.l̪i|ä̃ː ˈfäː|t̪oː ˈprɔ.fʊ|ɡʊs̠ ɫ̪äː|ˈwiː.n̪jä.kʷɛ ‖ˈweː.n̪ɪt̪</dd> <dd>ˈl̪iː.t̪ɔ.ɾä | ˈmʊɫ̪.t̪(ʷ)‿ɪl̪|l̪‿ɛt̪ ˈt̪ɛr|riːs̠ jäk|ˈt̪äː.t̪ʊ.s̠‿ɛ‖ˈt̪.äɫ̪.t̪oː</dd> <dd>wiː ˈs̠ʊ.pɛ|ɾʊ̃ː ˈs̠äe̯|wäe̯ ˈmɛ.mɔ|ɾɛ̃ː juː|ˈn̪oː.n̪ɪ.s̠‿ɔ‖ˈb‿iː.ɾä̃ː]</dd></dl></li></ol> Note the elisions in mult(um) and ill(e) in the third line. For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see <a href="/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter" title="Dactylic hexameter">Dactylic hexameter</a>. Some manuscripts have "Lāvīna" rather than "Lāvīnia" in the second line. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Medieval_Latin">From Medieval Latin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: From Medieval Latin">edit</a>]</div> Beginning of <a href="/wiki/Pange_Lingua_Gloriosi_Corporis_Mysterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Pange Lingua Gloriosi Corporis Mysterium">Pange Lingua Gloriosi Corporis Mysterium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (13th century). Rhymed accentual metre. Translation: "Extol, [my] tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world." <ol><li>Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more). <div title="Latin-language text"><div lang="la"> <dl><dd>Pange lingua gloriósi</dd> <dd>Córporis mystérium,</dd> <dd>Sanguinísque pretiósi,</dd> <dd>quem in mundi prétium</dd> <dd>fructus ventris generósi</dd> <dd>Rex effúdit géntium.</dd></dl></div></div></li> <li>Italianate ecclesiastical pronunciation: <dl><dd>[ˈpän̠ʲd͡ʒe ˈl̺iŋɡwä ɡl̺oɾiˈɔːsi</dd> <dd>ˈkɔrpoɾis misˈt̪eːɾium</dd> <dd>säŋɡwiˈn̺iskwe pɾet̪t̪͡s̪i'ɔːsi</dd> <dd>kwɛm in̺ ˈmun̪d̪i ˈpɾɛt̪ː͡s̪ium</dd> <dd>ˈfɾukt̪us ˈvɛn̪t̪ɾis d͡ʒen̺eˈɾɔːsi</dd> <dd>ˈɾɛks efˈfuːd̪it̪ ˈd͡ʒen̪t̪͡s̪ium]</dd></dl></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation" title="Latin regional pronunciation">Latin regional pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_English_pronunciation_of_Latin" title="Traditional English pronunciation of Latin">Traditional English pronunciation of Latin</a></li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Aussprache_des_Lateinischen" class="extiw" title="de:Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen">Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen</a> (in German) – traditional German pronunciation</li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schulaussprache_des_Lateinischen" class="extiw" title="de:Schulaussprache des Lateinischen">Schulaussprache des Lateinischen</a> (in German) – revised "school" pronunciation</li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_eccl%C3%A9siastique#Prononciation_à_la_française_(musique_française_du_xviie_siècle_au_début_du_xxe_siècle)" class="extiw" title="fr:Latin ecclésiastique">Traditional French pronunciation</a> (in French)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a> (p. 17) judges the evidence to favour /kʷ ɡʷ/, while <a href="#CITEREFCser2020">Cser 2020</a> (§2.2.2) comes to the opposite conclusion. The relevant facts, per the latter, are as follows: ⟨qu⟩ enjoyed a wide lexical distribution, while ⟨gu(V)⟩ was limited to a dozen or so words, where it was always preceded by /n/. The grammarian <a href="/wiki/Velius_Longus" title="Velius Longus">Velius Longus</a> indicated that the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩ was in some way different from /w/ in general. No geminate *⟨ququ⟩ is attested, whereas all (other) Latin stops are also found as geminates. Sequences of obstruent + glide are rare in Classical Latin. In poetry, whenever sequences of stop + glide occur in medial position, the scansion reveals that can be split across syllables, but this is never the case for ⟨qu⟩. Neither ⟨qu⟩ nor ⟨gu⟩ are ever followed by a consonant, unlike any (other) Latin stop, nor can they occur word-finally. The voicing contrast between ⟨nqu⟩ and ⟨ngu⟩ is not found in any (other) sequence of three consonants. Assimilation of the prefix ad- to a following ⟨qu⟩ is relatively rare, which is also the case when ad- is followed by a consonant cluster. The Proto-Indo-European predecessor of Latin ⟨qu⟩ is, in many cases, reconstructed as a single consonant */kʷ/, notably distinct from sequences of */kw/. Occasionally Latin /w/ scans as a vowel in poetry, when preceded by /s/ or /l/, but this is never the case for the ⟨u⟩ of ⟨qu⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> epistula ad tiburtes, a letter by <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words potuisse, esse, and peccatum (<a href="#CITEREFClacksonHorrocks2007">Clackson & Horrocks 2007</a>, pp. 147, 149). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> There is, however, a fringe view that the short high vowels /i u/ were tense [i u] and that the long mid vowels /eː oː/ were lax [ɛː ɔː], implying that none of the Latin short-long vowel pairs differed in quality (<a href="#CITEREFCalabrese2005">Calabrese 2005</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. De lingua Latina, 5:97 (referred to in <a href="#CITEREFSmith2004">Smith 2004</a>, p. 47). </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> This approach is also recommended in the <a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicipaedia:Commendationes_paginarum_recte_scribendarum" class="extiw" title="la:Vicipaedia:Commendationes paginarum recte scribendarum">help page</a> for the <a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="la:">Latin Wikipedia</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Covington, Michael. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268441214_Latin_Pronunciation_Demystified">Latin Pronunciation Demystified</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antigonejournal.com/2022/05/latin-accent/">Latin Accents</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sihler_alphabet-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sihler_alphabet_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sihler_alphabet_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sihler_alphabet_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSihler1995">Sihler 1995</a>, pp. 20–22, §25: the Italic alphabets </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_gm_and_gw-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_gm_and_gw_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_gm_and_gw_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 19, 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-tenues-8"><a href="#cite_ref-tenues_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 12–13 </li> <li id="cite_note-aspirate1-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aspirate1_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aspirate1_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 26, 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-aspirate2-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aspirate2_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aspirate2_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClacksonHorrocks2007">Clackson & Horrocks 2007</a>, p. 190 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevy1989">Levy 1989</a>, p. 150 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_Z-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_Z_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_Z_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 46 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_s-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_s_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_s_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 35–37 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 34, 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1987">Lloyd 1987</a>, p. 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd_81-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd_81_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd_81_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLloyd1987">Lloyd 1987</a>, p. 81 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_-Vm-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_-Vm_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_-Vm_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_-Vm_17-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 30, 31 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_n-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_n_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_n_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 27–30 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 23–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, §10d </li> <li id="cite_note-Vgn-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vgn_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vgn_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 71–73 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCser2020">Cser 2020</a>, §4.9. In footnote 206, he adds: "The evidence has been thoroughly assessed in the diachronic literature; see Sen (2012: 472–3; 2015: 15 sqq.), Meiser (1998: 68–9), Leumann (1977: 85–7)." </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_j-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_j_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_j_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 37–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_v-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_v_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_v_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 40–42 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_h-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Allen_h_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 43–45 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-ui-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ui_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ui_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_C-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_C_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_C_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 15, 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, §1a </li> <li id="cite_note-OL_letters-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OL_letters_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OL_letters_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClacksonHorrocks2007">Clackson & Horrocks 2007</a>, p. 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSturtevant1920">Sturtevant 1920</a>, pp. 115–116 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, §6d, 11c </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 47–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 51 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 51, 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClackson2008">Clackson 2008</a>, p. 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 55, 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWard1962">Ward 1962</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClacksonHorrocks2007">Clackson & Horrocks 2007</a>, pp. 273, 274 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 65 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.italianlanguageguide.com/pronunciation/consonants/double-consonants.asp">"Pronouncing Italian double consonants"</a>. www.italianlanguageguide.com. Retrieved 2019-03-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.italianlanguageguide.com&rft.atitle=Pronouncing+Italian+double+consonants&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.italianlanguageguide.com%2Fpronunciation%2Fconsonants%2Fdouble-consonants.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSihler1995">Sihler 1995</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 33–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-Traina_&_Perini_1998-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Traina_&_Perini_1998_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traina_&_Perini_1998_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="TrainaPropedeutica" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Traina, Alfonso; Perini, Giorgio Bernardi (1998), Propedeutica al latino universitario (in Italian), pp. 62–63</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Propedeutica+al+latino+universitario&rft.pages=62-63&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Traina&rft.aufirst=Alfonso&rft.au=Perini%2C+Giorgio+Bernardi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Traina_2002-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Traina_2002_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traina_2002_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraina2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfonso_Traina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfonso Traina (page does not exist)">Traina, Alfonso</a> (2002). L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino (5 ed.). Bologna: Pàtron. pp. 44 and 59–60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27alfabeto+e+la+pronunzia+del+latino&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pages=44+and+59-60&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=P%C3%A0tron&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Traina&rft.aufirst=Alfonso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988">. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced [ku]; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> W. C. de Melo (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.12.21">Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio</a>. Bryn Mawr Classical Review. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> W. Sidney Allen (1978), Vox Latina, 2nd edition, pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFortson2004">Fortson 2004</a>, p. 254 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSturtevant1920">Sturtevant 1920</a>, pp. 207–218 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 83 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 87 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, §11 </li> <li id="cite_note-Greenough_syllable-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greenough_syllable_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenough_syllable_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, §7 </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_syllable-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_syllable_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_syllable_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_syllable_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen_syllable_64-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, pp. 89–92 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllenGreenough2001">Allen & Greenough 2001</a>, p. 400, section 612 e, f </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> For example, Henri Estienne's Dictionarium, seu Latinae linguae thesaurus (1531) </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilbert1939">Gilbert 1939</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrittain1955-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrittain1955_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrittain1955">Brittain 1955</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1978">Allen 1978</a>, p. 108 </li> <li id="cite_note-Liber_Usualis2-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Liber_Usualis2_72-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf">Liber Usualis</a>, p. xxxvj </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlkireRosen2010" class="citation book cs1">Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Carol (2010). Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521889155" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521889155"><bdi>978-0521889155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romance+Languages%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0521889155&rft.aulast=Alkire&rft.aufirst=Ti&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Sidney_Allen" title="W. Sidney Allen">Allen, William Sidney</a> (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina—a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37936-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-37936-9"><bdi>0-521-37936-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vox+Latina%E2%80%94a+Guide+to+the+Pronunciation+of+Classical+Latin&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-521-37936-9&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=William+Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Sidney_Allen" title="W. Sidney Allen">Allen, William Sidney</a> (1987). Vox Graeca: The Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521335553" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521335553"><bdi>978-0521335553</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vox+Graeca%3A+The+Pronunciation+of+Classical+Greek&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0521335553&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=William+Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenGreenough2001" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Joseph A.; <a href="/wiki/James_B._Greenough" title="James B. Greenough">Greenough, James B.</a> (2001) [1903]. Mahoney, Anne (ed.). New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges. Newburyport, Massachusetts: R. Pullins Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58510-042-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58510-042-0"><bdi>1-58510-042-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Latin+Grammar+for+Schools+and+Colleges&rft.place=Newburyport%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=R.+Pullins+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-58510-042-0&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft.au=Greenough%2C+James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrittain1955" class="citation book cs1">Brittain, Frederick (1955). Latin in Church. The History of its Pronunciation (2nd ed.). Mowbray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+in+Church.+The+History+of+its+Pronunciation&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Mowbray&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Brittain&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalabrese2005" class="citation journal cs1">Calabrese, Andrea (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113002933/http://homepages.uconn.edu/~anc02008/Papers/On%20the%20evolution%20of%20short%20high%20vowels%20of%20Latin%20into%20Romance.pdf">"On the Feature [ATR] and the Evolution of the Short High Vowels of Latin into Romance"</a> (PDF). University of Connecticut Working Papers in Linguistics. 13: 33–78. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.uconn.edu/~anc02008/Papers/On%20the%20evolution%20of%20short%20high%20vowels%20of%20Latin%20into%20Romance.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Connecticut+Working+Papers+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+the+Feature+%5BATR%5D+and+the+Evolution+of+the+Short+High+Vowels+of+Latin+into+Romance&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=33-78&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Calabrese&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.uconn.edu%2F~anc02008%2FPapers%2FOn%2520the%2520evolution%2520of%2520short%2520high%2520vowels%2520of%2520Latin%2520into%2520Romance.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClacksonHorrocks2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Clackson" title="James Clackson">Clackson, James</a>; Horrocks, Geoffrey (2007). The Blackwell History of the Latin Language. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6209-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-6209-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+History+of+the+Latin+Language&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6209-8&rft.aulast=Clackson&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Horrocks%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClackson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Clackson" title="James Clackson">Clackson, James</a> (2008). "Latin". In Roger D. Woodard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge">The Ancient Languages of Europe</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68495-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68495-8"><bdi>978-0-521-68495-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latin&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68495-8&rft.aulast=Clackson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientlanguages00roge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCser2020" class="citation journal cs1">Cser, András (2020). "The phonology of Classical Latin". Transactions of the Philological Society. 118. Publications of the Philological Society: 1–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12184">10.1111/1467-968X.12184</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219404384">219404384</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=The+phonology+of+Classical+Latin&rft.volume=118&rft.pages=1-218&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-968X.12184&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219404384%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cser&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortson2004" class="citation book cs1">Fortson, Benjamin W. 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Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 54 (2): 608–610. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F458579">10.2307/458579</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/458579">458579</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164184102">164184102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+of+the+Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.atitle=Mock+Accents+in+Renaissance+and+Modern+Latin&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=608-610&rft.date=1939-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164184102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F458579%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F458579&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Allan+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes1995" class="citation book cs1">Hayes, Bruce (1995). 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Transactions of the Philological Society. 116 (3): 460–483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968X.12130">10.1111/1467-968X.12130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=On+The+Mergers+Of+Latin+Close-Mid+Vowels&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=460-483&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-968X.12130&rft.aulast=Lepp%C3%A4nen&rft.aufirst=Ville&rft.au=Alho%2C+Tommi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy1989" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Harry L. (1989). A Latin Reader for Colleges. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Reader+for+Colleges&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Harry+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1987" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). From Latin to Spanish. Diane Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-173-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-173-6"><bdi>978-0-87169-173-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Spanish&rft.pub=Diane+Publishing&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-173-6&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeidermann1945" class="citation book cs1">Neidermann, Max (1945) [1906]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prcisdephont00nied">Précis de phonétique historique du latin</a> (2 ed.). 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Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405186056" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405186056"><bdi>978-1405186056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sounds+of+Latin%3A+Phonology&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Latin+Language&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1405186056&rft.aulast=McCullagh&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPekkanen1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pekkanen, Tuomo (1999). Ars grammatica—Latinan kielioppi (in Finnish and Latin) (3rd-6th ed.). Helsinki: Helsinki University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/951-570-022-1" title="Special:BookSources/951-570-022-1"><bdi>951-570-022-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ars+grammatica%E2%80%94Latinan+kielioppi&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.edition=3rd-6th&rft.pub=Helsinki+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=951-570-022-1&rft.aulast=Pekkanen&rft.aufirst=Tuomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope_Pius_X1903" class="citation web cs1">Pope Pius X (November 22, 1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adoremus.org/MotuProprio.html">"Tra le Sollecitudini"</a>. Rome, Italy: Adoremus. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8"><bdi>0-19-508345-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Comparative+Grammar+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-508345-8&rft.aulast=Sihler&rft.aufirst=Andrew+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jane Stuart (2004). Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925773-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925773-6"><bdi>0-19-925773-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics+and+Philology%3A+Sound+Change+in+Italic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-925773-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jane+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturtevant1920" class="citation book cs1">Sturtevant, Edgar Howard (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pronunciationgr00unkngoog">The pronunciation of Greek and Latin</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+pronunciation+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Sturtevant&rft.aufirst=Edgar+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpronunciationgr00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1962" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, Ralf L. (June 1962). "Evidence For The Pronunciation Of Latin". The Classical World. 55 (9): 273–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4344896">10.2307/4344896</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4344896">4344896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+World&rft.atitle=Evidence+For+The+Pronunciation+Of+Latin&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=273-275&rft.date=1962-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4344896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4344896%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Ralf+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingo1972" class="citation book cs1">Wingo, E. Otha (1972). Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027923233" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027923233"><bdi>978-9027923233</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+Punctuation+in+the+Classical+Age&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-9027923233&rft.aulast=Wingo&rft.aufirst=E.+Otha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Hall, William Dawson, and Michael De Angelis. 1971. Latin Pronunciation According to Roman Usage. Anaheim, CA: National Music Publishers.</li> <li>Trame, Richard H. 1983. "A Note On Latin Pronunciation." The Choral Journal 23, no. 5: 29. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23546146">https://www.jstor.org/stable/23546146</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_phonology_and_orthography&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Latin_pronunciation" class="extiw" title="commons:Latin pronunciation">Latin pronunciation</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://la.raycui.com/">phonetica latinæ</a>: Classical and ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation with audio examples</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09019a.htm?title=">"Ecclesiastical Latin"</a>. Catholic Encyclopedia. 1910.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ecclesiastical+Latin&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1910&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F09019a.htm%3Ftitle%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2007" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Frances Ellen (2007) [1894]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7528">The Roman Pronunciation of Latin: Why we use it and how to use it</a>. Gutenberg Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Pronunciation+of+Latin%3A+Why+we+use+it+and+how+to+use+it&rft.pub=Gutenberg+Project&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Frances+Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F7528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALatin+phonology+and+orthography" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-lat.html">glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammars online</a>, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages, including lectures about the phonology and writing systems of Early Latin</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_phonologies" title="Template talk:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language phonologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Phonologies_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonologies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Phonologies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars">Grammars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">A–E</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_phonology" title="Abkhaz phonology">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_phonology" title="Acehnese phonology">Acehnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_phonology" title="Adyghe phonology">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_phonology" title="Afrikaans phonology">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_phonology" title="American Sign Language phonology">American Sign Language</a></li> <li>Arabic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Modern Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic_phonology" title="Egyptian Arabic phonology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic_phonology" title="Hejazi Arabic phonology">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic#Phonology" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_phonology" title="Tunisian Arabic phonology">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_phonology" title="Avestan phonology">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_phonology" title="Belarusian phonology">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_phonology" title="Bengali phonology">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_phonology" title="Bulgarian phonology">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_phonology" title="Catalan phonology">Catalan</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_phonology" title="Chukchi phonology">Chukchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_phonology" title="Cornish phonology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_phonology" title="Czech phonology">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_phonology" title="Danish phonology">Danish</a></li> <li>Dutch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect_phonology" title="Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect phonology">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology" title="New Zealand English phonology">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_English_regional_phonology" title="North American English regional phonology">Regional North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">White South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_phonology" title="Esperanto phonology">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_phonology" title="Estonian phonology">Estonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">F–L</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_phonology" title="Faroese phonology">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_phonology" title="Finnish phonology">Finnish</a></li> <li>French <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_phonology" title="French phonology">Parisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French_phonology" title="Quebec French phonology">Quebec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_phonology" title="Galician phonology">Galician</a></li> <li>German <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_German_phonology" title="Standard German phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernese_German_phonology" title="Bernese German phonology">Bernese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Greek <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Standard Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_phonology" title="Greenlandic phonology">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_phonology" title="Gujarati phonology">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_phonology" title="Hawaiian phonology">Hawaiian</a></li> <li>Hebrew <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_phonology" title="Hindustani phonology">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_phonology" title="Hungarian phonology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_phonology" title="Icelandic phonology">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_phonology" title="Ingrian phonology">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_phonology" title="Inuit phonology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_phonology" title="Kiowa phonology">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_phonology" title="Konkani phonology">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_phonology" title="Kurdish phonology">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_phonology" title="Kyrgyz phonology">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latgalian_phonology" title="Latgalian phonology">Latgalian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_phonology" title="Latvian phonology">Latvian</a></li> <li>Limburgish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian_dialect_phonology" title="Maastrichtian dialect phonology">Maastrichtian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_phonology" title="Lithuanian phonology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_phonology" title="Luxembourgish phonology">Luxembourgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M–S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phonology" title="Macedonian phonology">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_phonology" title="Malay phonology">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_phonology" title="Maldivian phonology">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_phonology" title="Māori phonology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_phonology" title="Marathi phonology">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_phonology" title="Massachusett phonology">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medumba_phonology" title="Medumba phonology">Medumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_phonology" title="Navajo phonology">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_phonology" title="Nepali phonology">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_phonology" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_phonology" title="Occitan phonology">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_phonology" title="Ojibwe phonology">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_phonology" title="Old Saxon phonology">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_phonology" title="Oromo phonology">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_phonology" title="Ottawa phonology">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_phonology" title="Pashto phonology">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_phonology" title="Portuguese phonology">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li>Ripuarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_phonology" title="Colognian phonology">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerkrade_dialect_phonology" title="Kerkrade dialect phonology">Kerkrade dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_phonology" title="Romanian phonology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_phonology" title="Sardinian phonology">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic phonology and orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_phonology" title="Serbo-Croatian phonology">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_phonology" title="Slovak phonology">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_phonology" title="Slovene phonology">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_phonology" title="Somali phonology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_phonology" title="Sotho phonology">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_phonology" title="Spanish phonology">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Dialects and varieties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_phonology" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">T–Z</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_phonology" title="Tagalog phonology">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_phonology" title="Taos phonology">Taos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_phonology" title="Turkish phonology">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_phonology" title="Ubykh phonology">Ubykh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_phonology" title="Ukrainian phonology">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_phonology" title="Uyghur phonology">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_phonology" title="West Frisian phonology">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_phonology" title="Zuni phonology">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>  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