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id="toc-Early_congressional_acts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_Washington" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_Washington"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>George Washington</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_Washington-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Jefferson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Thomas Jefferson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Jefferson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jeffersonian_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jeffersonian_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Jeffersonian policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jeffersonian_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_C._Calhoun's_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_C._Calhoun's_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>John C. Calhoun's plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_C._Calhoun's_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_removal_from_US_citizens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_removal_from_US_citizens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Opposition to removal from US citizens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_removal_from_US_citizens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_American_response_to_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_response_to_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Native American response to removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_response_to_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Removal_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Removal_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Indian Removal Act</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_Removal_Act-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indian Removal Act subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_Removal_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Choctaw" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Choctaw"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Choctaw</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Choctaw-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cherokee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cherokee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Cherokee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cherokee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seminole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seminole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Seminole</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seminole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muskogee_(Creek)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muskogee_(Creek)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Muskogee (Creek)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muskogee_(Creek)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chickasaw" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chickasaw"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Chickasaw</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chickasaw-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Removals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Removals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Removals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Removals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Removals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>North</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changed_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changed_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Changed perspective</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changed_perspective-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changed perspective subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changed_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Andrew_Jackson's_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andrew_Jackson's_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Andrew Jackson's reputation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andrew_Jackson's_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations_and_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations_and_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Citations and notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations_and_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading_(most_recent_first)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading_(most_recent_first)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading (most recent first)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading_(most_recent_first)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading (most recent first) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading_(most_recent_first)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D9%88%D8%AF" title="إبعاد الهنود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إبعاد الهنود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportaci%C3%B3_dels_indis_dels_Estats_Units" title="Deportació dels indis dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Deportació dels indis dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertreibung_der_Indianer" title="Vertreibung der Indianer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vertreibung der Indianer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportaci%C3%B3n_de_los_ind%C3%ADgenas_de_Estados_Unidos" title="Deportación de los indígenas de Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Deportación de los indígenas de Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B0%D9%81_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="حذف سرخپوستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حذف سرخپوستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9portation_des_Am%C3%A9rindiens" title="Déportation des Amérindiens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déportation des Amérindiens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportaci%C3%B3n_dos_indios_dos_Estados_Unidos_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Deportación dos indios dos Estados Unidos de América – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Deportación dos indios dos Estados Unidos de América" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%94%94%EC%96%B8_%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC" title="인디언 이주 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인디언 이주" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemindahan_penduduk_asli_Amerika" title="Pemindahan penduduk asli Amerika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemindahan penduduk asli Amerika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportazione_degli_indiani" title="Deportazione degli indiani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Deportazione degli indiani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E7%A7%BB%E4%BD%8F" title="インディアン移住 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インディアン移住" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%90_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84/%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%86%DB%90_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%84" title="د سور پوستو لرې کول/له صحنې ویستل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د سور پوستو لرې کول/له صحنې ویستل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remo%C3%A7%C3%A3o_ind%C3%ADgena" title="Remoção indígena – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Remoção indígena" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2" title="Переселение индейцев – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Переселение индейцев" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intiaanien_pakkomuutot" title="Intiaanien pakkomuutot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Intiaanien pakkomuutot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lderili_Tehciri" title="Kızılderili Tehciri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kızılderili Tehciri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Переселення індіанців – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Переселення індіанців" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_d%E1%BB%9Di_ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Anh-%C4%91i%C3%AAng" title="Di dời người Anh-điêng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Di dời người Anh-điêng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E7%AC%AC%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%BA%E8%BF%81%E7%A7%BB%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="印第安人迁移政策 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="印第安人迁移政策" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2519192#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon 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.infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Indian removal</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of <a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide in the United States</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trails_of_Tears_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/300px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/450px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Trails_of_Tears_en.png/600px-Trails_of_Tears_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1547" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Routes of southern removals</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">1830–1847</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the eastern United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death march</a>, <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">8,000+ (lowest estimate)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td 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div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;border-bottom:5px solid whitesmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:black">Genocide<br />of indigenous peoples</span></a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#BCBCBC;"> Issues</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a> / <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_genocides_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Indigenous_genocide" title="Historiography of Indigenous genocide">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism_and_genocide" title="Colonialism and genocide">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_response_to_colonialism" title="Indigenous response to colonialism">Indigenous response</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Sub-Saharan Africa</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities in the Congo Free State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur_genocide" title="Darfur genocide">Darfur genocide</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Nama_genocide" title="Herero and Nama genocide">Herero and Nama<wbr /> genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">Ikiza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion" title="Maji Maji Rebellion">Maji Maji Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane">Mfecane</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Americas (<a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><span style="color:black">history</span></a>)</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Conquest of the Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Enslavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Fall of Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_sterilization_in_Peru" title="Forced sterilization in Peru">Forced sterilization<wbr /> in Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plan_Verde" title="Plan Verde">Plan Verde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_humanitarian_crisis" title="Yanomami humanitarian crisis">Yanomami humanitarian crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk#Genocide" title="Beothuk">Beothuk extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Arctic_relocation" title="High Arctic relocation">High Arctic relocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1862_Pacific_Northwest_smallpox_epidemic" title="1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic">Pacific Northwest<wbr /> smallpox epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Guatemalan genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_genocide_of_1626" title="Kalinago genocide of 1626">Kalinago genocide</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Matanza#Subsequent_government_killings" title="La Matanza">La Matanza</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Salsipuedes" title="Massacre of Salsipuedes">Massacre of Salsipuedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalp%C3%AD_massacre" title="Napalpí massacre">Napalpí massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Araucan%C3%ADa" title="Occupation of Araucanía">Occupation of Araucanía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Putumayo genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_genocide" title="Selk'nam genocide">Selk'nam genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_case" title="Spiral case">Spiral case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">Boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1837_Great_Plains_smallpox_epidemic" title="1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic">Great Plains<wbr /> smallpox epidemic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Venezuela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemon_conflict" title="Pemon conflict">Pemon conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">East, South, Southeast Asia</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_conquest_of_the_Banda_Islands" title="Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands">Bandanese massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_conflict" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict">Chittagong Hill Tracts<wbr /> conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule#History" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Cultural genocide in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungar genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Japanese_annexation_of_Hokkaido" title="Ainu people">Japanese annexation<wbr /> of Hokkaido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamey_Island_Massacre" title="Lamey Island Massacre">Lamey Island Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Disposition" title="Ryukyu Disposition">Ryukyu Disposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinicization_of_Tibet" title="Sinicization of Tibet">Sinicization of Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dshi-kaimei" title="Sōshi-kaimei">Sōshi-kaimei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa%E2%80%93%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t_War_(1471)" title="Champa–Đại Việt War (1471)">Vietnamese conquest<wbr /> of Champa</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Europe and North Asia</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest<wbr /> of Ireland</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Massacres of Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegianization_of_the_S%C3%A1mi" title="Norwegianization of the Sámi">Norwegianization of the Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedification#Swedification_of_Sámi_and_Finns" title="Swedification">Swedification of Sámi and Finns</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergonha" title="Vergonha">Vergonha</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Oceania</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Genocide of Indigenous Australians">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Australian frontier wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_genocide" title="Moriori genocide">Moriori genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">West Asia / North Africa</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Conquest of the<wbr /> Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_genocide" title="Libyan genocide">Libyan genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_genocide_accusation" title="Palestinian genocide accusation">Palestinian genocide<wbr /> accusation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">Gaza genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Sayfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#BCBCBC;padding:0.25em;font-size:95%;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genocide_studies" title="Outline of genocide studies">Outline of genocide studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_genocide_studies" title="Bibliography of genocide studies">Bibliography of genocide studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">Genocides in history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Native America"><img alt="Native America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/55px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/83px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/110px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slaves">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights">Native American rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_temperance_activists" title="Native American temperance activists">Native American temperance activists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States" title="Native American cultures in the United States">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">(1858)|Antelope Hills expedition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars(1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War"> Mohave War(1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War(1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Political movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Women in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Feather_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle Feather law">Eagle Feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic subdivisions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Societal statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reservation">Reservations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by region</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">The Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Southeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_North_American_Southwest" title="Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest">Southwest</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Iowa" title="Native American tribes in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">war leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">congressional politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Indian removal</b> was the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">United States government</a>'s policy of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">forced displacement</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">self-governing tribes of American Indians</a> from their ancestral homelands in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">eastern United States</a> to lands west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>—specifically, to a designated <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (roughly, present-day <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>), which many scholars have labeled a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOTE2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTE2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2014_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmericanIndianSmithsonian_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmericanIndianSmithsonian-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act of 1830</a>, the key law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed into law by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">United States president</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> on May 28, 1830. Although Jackson took a hard line on Indian removal, the law was primarily enforced during the <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> administration. After the enactment of the Act, approximately 60,000 members of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee</a> (Creek), <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> nations (including thousands of <a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">their black slaves</a>) were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands, with thousands dying during the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–93_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–93-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prucha_241_note_58_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha_241_note_58-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ehle_390–392_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehle_390–392-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indian removal, a popular policy among incoming settlers, was a consequence of actions first by the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">European colonists and then later on by the American settlers in the nation</a> during <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">the thirteen colonies</a> and then after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">revolution</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a> also until the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Kanth2009_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanth2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FinkelmanKennon2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FinkelmanKennon2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origins of the policy date back to the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">administration of James Monroe</a>, but it addressed conflicts which had occurred between the <a href="/wiki/American_pioneer" title="American pioneer">American settlers</a> and Indigenous tribes since the 17th century and were escalating into the early 19th century (as settlers pushed westward in accordance with the cultural belief of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny#Native_Americans" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>). Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary acceptance of the policy, due in part to the popular embrace of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>, has given way to a more somber perspective. Historians have often described the removal of American Indians as <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wilentz_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilentz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-B&C_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B&C-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Zinn2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zinn2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background"><span class="anchor" id="The_Revolutionary_background"></span>Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American leaders in the Revolutionary and early US eras debated about whether Native Americans should be treated as individuals or as nations.<sup id="cite_ref-Obie_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obie-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declaration_of_Independence">Declaration of Independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Declaration of Independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></div> <p>In the indictment section of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, the Indigenous inhabitants of the United States are referred to as "merciless Indian Savages", reflecting a commonly held view at the time by the colonists in the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benjamin_Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Benjamin Franklin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a draft "Proposed Articles of Confederation" presented to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> on May 10, 1775, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> called for a "perpetual Alliance" with the Indians in the nation about to be born, particularly with the six nations of the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> Confederacy:<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pommersheim2009_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pommersheim2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Article XI. A perpetual alliance offensive and defensive is to be entered into as soon as may be with the Six Nations; their Limits to be ascertained and secured to them; their Land not to be encroached on, nor any private or Colony Purchases made of them hereafter to be held good, nor any Contract for Lands to be made but between the Great Council of the Indians at Onondaga and the General Congress. The Boundaries and Lands of all the other Indians shall also be ascertained and secured to them in the same manner; and Persons appointed to reside among them in proper Districts, who shall take care to prevent Injustice in the Trade with them, and be enabled at our general Expense by occasional small Supplies, to relieve their personal Wants and Distresses. And all Purchases from them shall be by the Congress for the General Advantage and Benefit of the United Colonies.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_congressional_acts"><span class="anchor" id="Early_Congressional_acts"></span>Early congressional acts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early congressional acts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Confederation Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> of 1787 (a precedent for US territorial expansion would occur for years to come), calling for the protection of Native American "property, rights, and liberty";<sup id="cite_ref-LawHist_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LawHist-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the US Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Section 8) made Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes. In 1790, the new US Congress passed the Indian <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-Clair&Lee_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clair&Lee-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_Washington">George Washington</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: George Washington"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, in his 1790 address to the <a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Seneca Nation">Seneca Nation</a> which called the pre-Constitutional Indian land-sale difficulties "evils", said that the case was now altered and pledged to uphold Native American "just rights".<sup id="cite_ref-NY-State_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NY-State-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Region_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Region-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March and April 1792, Washington met with 50 tribal chiefs in Philadelphia—including the Iroquois—to discuss strengthening the friendship between them and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-MalinowskiAbrams1995_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MalinowskiAbrams1995-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that year, in his fourth annual message to Congress, Washington stressed the need to build peace, trust, and commerce with Native Americans:<sup id="cite_ref-Manweller2012_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manweller2012-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I cannot dismiss the subject of Indian affairs without again recommending to your consideration the expediency of more adequate provision for giving energy to the laws throughout our interior frontier, and for restraining the commission of outrages upon the Indians; without which all pacific plans must prove nugatory. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, as agents, would also contribute to the preservation of peace and good neighbourhood. If, in addition to these expedients, an eligible plan could be devised for promoting civilization among the friendly tribes, and for carrying on trade with them, upon a scale equal to their wants, and under regulations calculated to protect them from imposition and extortion, its influence in cementing their interests with our's [sic] could not but be considerable.<sup id="cite_ref-MillerCenter2016_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerCenter2016-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In his seventh annual message to Congress in 1795, Washington intimated that if the US government wanted peace with the Indians it must behave peacefully; if the US wanted raids by Indians to stop, raids by American "frontier inhabitants" must also stop.<sup id="cite_ref-MillerCenter20167_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerCenter20167-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MoquinDoren1973_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoquinDoren1973-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thomas Jefferson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia" title="Notes on the State of Virginia">Notes on the State of Virginia</a></i> (1785), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> defended Native American culture and marveled at how the tribes of Virginia "never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of government" due to their "moral sense of right and wrong".<sup id="cite_ref-Beyond_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyond-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onuf2000_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onuf2000-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote to the Marquis de Chastellux later that year, "I believe the Indian then to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman".<sup id="cite_ref-Jordan1974_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordan1974-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson's desire, as interpreted by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Prucha" title="Francis Paul Prucha">Francis Paul Prucha</a>, was for Native Americans to intermix with European Americans and become one people.<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1985_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1985-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1997_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1997-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To achieve that end as president, Jefferson offered US citizenship to some Indian nations and proposed offering them credit to facilitate trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Fraser2016_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fraser2016-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Letter_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> On 27 February 1803, Jefferson wrote in a letter to <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>:</p><blockquote><p>In this way our settlements will gradually circumbscribe & approach the Indians, & they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the US. or remove beyond the Missisipi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves. But in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength & their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, & that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jeffersonian_policy">Jeffersonian policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jeffersonian policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_Native_Americans" title="Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans">Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans</a></div> <p>As president, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals. He wanted to assure that the Native nations (not foreign nations) were tightly bound to the new United States, as he considered the security of the nation to be paramount.<sup id="cite_ref-Pres_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pres-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wanted to "civilize" them into adopting an agricultural, rather than a <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a>, lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1985_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1985-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These goals would be achieved through treaties and the development of trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Calloway1998_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calloway1998-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Jefferson initially promoted an American policy which encouraged Native Americans to become <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilated</a>, or "<a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilized</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-TuckerHendrickson1992_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TuckerHendrickson1992-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made sustained efforts to win the friendship and cooperation of many Native American tribes as president, repeatedly articulating his desire for a united nation of whites and Indians<sup id="cite_ref-GrossbergTomlins2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrossbergTomlins2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as in his November 3, 1802, letter to Seneca spiritual leader <a href="/wiki/Handsome_Lake" title="Handsome Lake">Handsome Lake</a>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Go on then, brother, in the great reformation you have undertaken ... In all your enterprises for the good of your people, you may count with confidence on the aid and protection of the United States, and on the sincerity and zeal with which I am myself animated in the furthering of this humane work. You are our brethren of the same land; we wish your prosperity as brethren should do. Farewell.<sup id="cite_ref-Oberg2011_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oberg2011-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When a delegation from the Cherokee Nation's Upper Towns lobbied Jefferson for the full and equal citizenship promised to Indians living in American territory by George Washington, his response indicated that he was willing to grant citizenship to those Indian nations who sought it.<sup id="cite_ref-McLoughlin1992_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLoughlin1992-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his eighth annual message to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented a vision of white and Indian unity: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained ... And, generally, from a conviction that we consider them as part of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily... and will amply requite us for the justice and friendship practiced towards them ... [O]ne of the two great divisions of the Cherokee nation have now under consideration to solicit the citizenship of the United States, and to be identified with us in-laws and government, in such progressive manner as we shall think best.<sup id="cite_ref-MillerCenter20168_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerCenter20168-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As some of Jefferson's other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation and used the words "exterminate" and "extirpate" about tribes who resisted American expansion and were willing to fight for their lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller2006_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2006-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson intended to change Indian lifestyles from hunting and gathering to farming, largely through "the decrease of game rendering their subsistence by hunting insufficient".<sup id="cite_ref-Black2015_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black2015-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expected the change to agriculture to make them dependent on white Americans for goods, and more likely to surrender their land or allow themselves to be moved west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buckley2008_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buckley2008-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BartropJacobs2014_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartropJacobs2014-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an 1803 letter to <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>, Jefferson wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha2000_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha2000-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.<sup id="cite_ref-JeffersonHarrison1803_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JeffersonHarrison1803-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In that letter, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated by settlers: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indians, to cultivate an affectionate attachment from them, by everything just and liberal which we can do for them within ... reason, and by giving them effectual protection against wrongs from our own people.<sup id="cite_ref-ADL2005_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ADL2005-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the US government would offer citizenship and 640 acres (260 ha) of land per family to Cherokees who lived east of the Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-McLoughlin1992256_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLoughlin1992256-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kappler1903_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kappler1903-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McLoughlin1981_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLoughlin1981-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native American land was sometimes purchased, by treaty or under <a href="/wiki/Duress" class="mw-redirect" title="Duress">duress</a>. The idea of land exchange, that Native Americans would give up their land east of the Mississippi in exchange for a similar amount of territory west of the river, was first proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency). The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830 included this concept.<sup id="cite_ref-BartropJacobs2014_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartropJacobs2014-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="John_C._Calhoun's_plan"><span id="John_C._Calhoun.27s_plan"></span><span class="anchor" id="Calhoun's_plan"></span>John C. Calhoun's plan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: John C. Calhoun's plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under President <a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a>, Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> devised the first plans for Indian removal. Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on January 27, 1825, requested the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Territory" title="Arkansas Territory">Arkansaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territories</a>; the Indians east of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands west of the river. The Senate accepted Monroe's request, and asked Calhoun to draft a bill which was killed in the House of Representatives by the Georgia delegation. President <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> assumed the Calhoun–Monroe policy, and was determined to remove the Indians by non-forceful means;<sup id="cite_ref-Mahon1991_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahon1991-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Teed2006_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teed2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Georgia refused to consent to Adams' request, forcing the president to forge a treaty with the Cherokees granting Georgia the Cherokee lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Warnes2016_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warnes2016-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution (modeled on that of the United States) which declared that they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands. Georgia contended that it would not countenance a sovereign state within its own territory, and asserted its authority over Cherokee territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1995_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1995-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> became president as the candidate of the newly-organized <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>, he agreed that the Indians should be forced to exchange their eastern lands for western lands (including relocation) and vigorously enforced Indian removal.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahon199172_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahon199172-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warnes2016_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warnes2016-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition_to_removal_from_US_citizens"><span class="anchor" id="Opposition_to_removal_from_US_citizens"></span>Opposition to removal from US citizens</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Opposition to removal from US citizens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Although Indian removal was a popular policy, it was also opposed on legal and moral grounds; it also ran counter to the formal, customary diplomatic interaction between the federal government and the Native nations. <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a> wrote the widely-published letter "A Protest Against the Removal of the Cherokee Indians from the State of Georgia" in 1838, shortly before the Cherokee removal. Emerson criticizes the government and its removal policy, saying that the removal treaty was illegitimate; it was a "sham treaty", which the US government should not uphold.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He describes removal as </p><blockquote><p>such a dereliction of all faith and virtues, such a denial of justice...in the dealing of a nation with its own allies and wards since the earth was made...a general expression of despondency, of disbelief, that any goodwill accrues from a remonstrance on an act of fraud and robbery, appeared in those men to whom we naturally turn for aid and counsel.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Emerson concludes his letter by saying that it should not be a political issue, urging President Martin Van Buren to prevent the enforcement of Cherokee removal. Other individual settlers and settler social organizations throughout the United States also opposed removal.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_American_response_to_removal"><span class="anchor" id="Native_Americans'_response_to_removal"></span>Native American response to removal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Native American response to removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Native groups reshaped their governments, made constitutions and legal codes, and sent delegates to Washington to negotiate policies and treaties to uphold their autonomy and ensure federally-promised protection from the encroachment of states.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They thought that acclimating, as the US wanted them to, would stem removal policy and create a better relationship with the federal government and surrounding states. </p><p>Native American nations had differing views about removal. Although most wanted to remain on their native lands and do anything possible to ensure that, others believed that removal to a nonwhite area was their only option to maintain their autonomy and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US used this division to forge removal treaties with (often) minority groups who became convinced that removal was the best option for their people.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These treaties were often not acknowledged by most of a nation's people. When Congress ratified the removal treaty, the federal government could use military force to remove Native nations if they had not moved (or had begun moving) by the date stipulated in the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_Removal_Act">Indian Removal Act</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Indian Removal Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson#Indian_removal" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency of Andrew Jackson § Indian removal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png/300px-Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png/450px-Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Five-Civilized-Tribes-Portraits.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes: <i>(clockwise from upper left)</i> <a href="/wiki/Sequoyah" title="Sequoyah">Sequoyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pushmataha" title="Pushmataha">Pushmataha</a>, Selecta, <a href="/wiki/Osceola" title="Osceola">Osceola</a>, and a typical <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation" title="Chickasaw Nation">Chickasaw</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When Andrew Jackson became president of the United States in 1829, his government took a hard line on Indian removal;<sup id="cite_ref-SatzApfelbeck1996_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SatzApfelbeck1996-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson abandoned his predecessors' policy of treating Indian tribes as separate nations, aggressively pursuing all Indians east of the Mississippi who claimed constitutional sovereignty and independence from state laws. They were to be removed to reservations in Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi (present-day <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>), where they could exist without state interference. At Jackson's request, Congress began a debate on an Indian-removal bill. After fierce disagreement, the Senate passed the bill by a 28–19 vote; the House had narrowly passed it, 102–97. Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law on May 30, 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-KaneSharynKeeton1994_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KaneSharynKeeton1994-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That year, most of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Creek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherokee Nation (19th century)">Cherokee</a>—lived east of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act implemented federal-government policy towards its Indian populations, moving Native American tribes east of the Mississippi to lands west of the river. Although the act did not authorize the forced removal of indigenous tribes, it enabled the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-Magoc2015_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magoc2015-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Choctaw">Choctaw</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Choctaw"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On September 27, 1830, the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> and became the first Native American tribe to be removed. The agreement was one of the largest transfers of land between the US government and Native Americans which was not the result of war. The Choctaw signed away their remaining traditional homelands, opening them up for European–American settlement in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">Mississippi Territory</a>. When the tribe reached <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas" title="Little Rock, Arkansas">Little Rock</a>, a chief called its trek a "trail of tears and death".<sup id="cite_ref-crossroads_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crossroads-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1831, French historian and political scientist <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the forest during an exceptionally cold winter near <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2007_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2007-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat. He wrote, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Pierson1938_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierson1938-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cherokee">Cherokee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cherokee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a></div> <p>While the Indian Removal Act made the move of the tribes voluntary, it was often abused by government officials. The best-known example is the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a>, which was signed by a small faction of twenty <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> tribal members (not the tribal leadership) on December 29, 1835.<sup id="cite_ref-French2007_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French2007-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Cherokee later blamed the faction and the treaty for the tribe's forced relocation in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-Sturgis2007_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 4,000 Cherokee died in the march, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton1992_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton1992-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Missionary organizer <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Evarts" title="Jeremiah Evarts">Jeremiah Evarts</a> urged the Cherokee Nation to take its case to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-III2007_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-III2007-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall court</a> heard the case in <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831), but declined to rule on its merits; the court declaring that the Native American tribes were not sovereign nations, and could not "maintain an action" in US courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoxie1984_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoxie1984-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hobson2012_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobson2012-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall in <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832), individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Malone2010_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malone2010-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Remini2013_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remini2013-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> defied the Supreme Court ruling,<sup id="cite_ref-Malone2010_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malone2010-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the desire of settlers and land speculators for Indian lands continued unabated;<sup id="cite_ref-Civics2012_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Civics2012-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some whites claimed that Indians threatened peace and security. The Georgia legislature passed a law forbidding settlers from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded missionaries who opposed Indian removal.<sup id="cite_ref-Satz1974_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Satz1974-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BlackLybecker2008_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlackLybecker2008-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seminole">Seminole</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Seminole"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a> refused to leave their <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> lands in 1835, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a>. Osceola was a Seminole leader of the people's fight against removal. Based in the <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a>, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the US Army in a number of battles. In 1837, Osceola was duplicitously captured by order of US General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jesup" title="Thomas Jesup">Thomas Jesup</a> when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Peyton" title="Fort Peyton">Fort Peyton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wickman2006_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wickman2006-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osceola died in prison of illness; the war resulted in over 1,500 US deaths, and cost the government $20 million.<sup id="cite_ref-TuckerArnold2011_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TuckerArnold2011-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Seminole traveled deeper into the Everglades, and others moved west. The removal continued, and a number of wars broke out over land.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>In 1823, the Seminole signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Moultrie_Creek" title="Treaty of Moultrie Creek">Treaty of Moultrie Creek</a>, which reduced their 34 million to 4 millions acres. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muskogee_(Creek)"><span id="Muskogee_.28Creek.29"></span>Muskogee (Creek)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Muskogee (Creek)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the aftermath of the Treaties of <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Fort Jackson</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1826)" title="Treaty of Washington (1826)">Washington</a>, the Muscogee were confined to a small strip of land in present-day east central <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>. The Creek national council signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Treaty of Cusseta</a> in 1832, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the US and accepting relocation to the Indian Territory. Most Muscogee were removed to the territory during the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> in 1834, although some remained behind. Although the <a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a> ended government attempts to convince the Creek population to leave voluntarily, Creeks who had not participated in the war were not forced west (as others were). The Creek population was placed into camps and told that they would be relocated soon. Many Creek leaders were surprised by the quick departure but could do little to challenge it. The 16,000 Creeks were organized into five detachments who were to be sent to Fort Gibson. The Creek leaders did their best to negotiate better conditions, and succeeded in obtaining wagons and medicine. To prepare for the relocation, Creeks began to deconstruct their spiritual lives; they burned piles of <a href="/wiki/Fatwood" title="Fatwood">lightwood</a> over their ancestors' graves to honor their memories, and polished the sacred plates which would travel at the front of each group. They also prepared financially, selling what they could not bring. Many were swindled by local merchants out of valuable possessions (including land), and the military had to intervene. The detachments began moving west in September 1836, facing harsh conditions. Despite their preparations, the detachments faced bad roads, worse weather, and a lack of drinkable water. When all five detachments reached their destination, they recorded their death toll. The first detachment, with 2,318 Creeks, had 78 deaths; the second had 3,095 Creeks, with 37 deaths. The third had 2,818 Creeks, and 12 deaths; the fourth, 2,330 Creeks and 36 deaths. The fifth detachment, with 2,087 Creeks, had 25 deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1837 outside of <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge, Louisiana</a> over 300 Creeks being forcibly removed to Western prairies drowned in the Mississippi River.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Friends and Brothers – By permission of the Great Spirit above, and the voice of the people, I have been made President of the United States, and now speak to you as your Father and friend, and request you to listen. Your warriors have known me long. You know I love my white and red children, and always speak with a straight, and not with a forked tongue; that I have always told you the truth ... Where you now are, you and my white children are too near to each other to live in harmony and peace. Your game is destroyed, and many of your people will not work and till the earth. Beyond the great River Mississippi, where a part of your nation has gone, your Father has provided a country large enough for all of you, and he advises you to remove to it. There your white brothers will not trouble you; they will have no claim to the land, and you can live upon it you and all your children, as long as the grass grows or the water runs, in peace and plenty. It will be yours forever. For the improvements in the country where you now live, and for all the stock which you cannot take with you, your Father will pay you a fair price ...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>President Andrew Jackson addressing the Creek Nation, 1829<sup id="cite_ref-KaneSharynKeeton1994_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KaneSharynKeeton1994-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chickasaw"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike other tribes, who exchanged lands, the Chickasaw were to receive financial compensation of $3 million from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River.<sup id="cite_ref-BurtFerguson1973_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BurtFerguson1973-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clark1996_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark1996-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They reached an agreement to purchase of land from the previously-removed Choctaw in 1836 after a bitter five-year debate, paying the Chocktaw $530,000 for the westernmost Choctaw land.<sup id="cite_ref-Pate2009_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pate2009-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gibson2012_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson2012-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark2012_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark2012-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The $3 million owed to the Chickasaw by the US went unpaid for nearly 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Minahan2013_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minahan2013-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Five Civilized Tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson1984_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson1984-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cherokee occupied the northeast corner of the territory and a 70-mile-wide (110 km) strip of land in Kansas on its border with the territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2016_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2016-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some indigenous nations resisted the forced migration more strongly.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakley2005_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakley2005-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2014161_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2014161-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The few who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups,<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2016_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2016-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the Eastern Band of Cherokee (based in North Carolina),<sup id="cite_ref-Finger1984_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finger1984-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Christie2009_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christie2009-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SarmientoHitchner2017_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SarmientoHitchner2017-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WellsTubby2010_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WellsTubby2010-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LittlefieldParins2011_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LittlefieldParins2011-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Seminole Tribe of Florida,<sup id="cite_ref-Weisman1989_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weisman1989-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HeidlerHeidler2003_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeidlerHeidler2003-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sturtevant2008_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturtevant2008-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Creeks in Alabama<sup id="cite_ref-Barnett2012_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnett2012-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (including the <a href="/wiki/Poarch_Band_of_Creek_Indians" title="Poarch Band of Creek Indians">Poarch Band</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Sturtevant2008123_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sturtevant2008123-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parins20118_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parins20118-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hébert2017_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hébert2017-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Removals"><span class="anchor" id="Details_on_removals"></span>Removals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Removals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North"><span class="anchor" id="The_North"></span>North</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: North"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Northwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Northwest">Old Northwest</a> were smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, so the treaty and emigration process was more piecemeal.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker1996_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker1996-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a>, most of the modern state of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> was taken from native nations in the 1795 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Treaty of Greenville</a>. Tribes such as the already-displaced <a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenape</a> (Delaware tribe), <a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_people" title="Kickapoo people">Kickapoo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>, were <a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio</a> during the 1820s.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinney1975_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinney1975-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi#American_removal_period_(1830–1840)" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> were <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">forced out</a> of Wisconsin and Michigan in late 1838, and were resettled in <a href="/wiki/Kansas_Territory" title="Kansas Territory">Kansas Territory</a>. Communities remaining in present-day Ohio were forced to move to Louisiana, which was then controlled by Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-BeyondRem_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BeyondRem-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bands of <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Vol19_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vol19-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Odawa" title="Odawa">Ottawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi#American_removal_period_(1830–1840)" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Edmunds1978_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmunds1978-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sauk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwaki</a> (Fox) signed treaties and relocated to the Indian Territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Green2008_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green2008-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1832, the Sauk leader <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_(Sauk_leader)" title="Black Hawk (Sauk leader)">Black Hawk</a> led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; the US Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his warriors in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War" title="Black Hawk War">Black Hawk War</a>, and the Sauk and Fox were relocated to present-day <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lewis2d_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lewis2d-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Miami_people" title="Miami people">Miami</a> were split, with many of the tribe resettled west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> during the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-Tigerman2006_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigerman2006-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek</a> (1838), the <a href="/wiki/Senecas" class="mw-redirect" title="Senecas">Senecas</a> transferred all their land in New York (except for one small reservation) in exchange for 200,000 acres (810 km<sup>2</sup>) of land in Indian Territory. The federal government would be responsible for the removal of the Senecas who opted to go west, and the <a href="/wiki/Holland_Land_Company" title="Holland Land Company">Ogden Land Company</a> would acquire their New York lands. The lands were sold by government officials, however, and the proceeds were deposited in the US Treasury. <a href="/wiki/Maris_Bryant_Pierce" title="Maris Bryant Pierce">Maris Bryant Pierce</a>, a "young chief" served as a lawyer representing four territories of the Seneca tribe, starting in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senecas asserted that they had been defrauded, and sued for redress in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Claims" title="United States Court of Claims">Court of Claims</a>. The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United States awarded $1,998,714.46 (~$62.5 million in 2023) in compensation to "the New York Indians".<sup id="cite_ref-Hauptman2014_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauptman2014-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US signed treaties with the Senecas and the <a href="/wiki/Tonawanda_Band_of_Seneca" title="Tonawanda Band of Seneca">Tonawanda Senecas</a> in 1842 and 1857, respectively. Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for the right to buy back the <a href="/wiki/Tonawanda_Reservation" title="Tonawanda Reservation">Tonawanda Reservation</a> from the Ogden Land Company.<sup id="cite_ref-LittlefieldParins2011158_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LittlefieldParins2011158-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over a century later, the Senecas purchased a 9-acre (3.6 ha) plot (part of their original reservation) in downtown <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a> to build the <a href="/wiki/Seneca_Buffalo_Creek_Casino" title="Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino">Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooster2009_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooster2009-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South"><span class="anchor" id="The_South"></span>South</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Southern removals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nation </th> <th>Population before removal </th> <th>Treaty and year </th> <th>Major emigration </th> <th>Total removed </th> <th>Number remaining </th> <th>Deaths during removal </th> <th>Deaths from warfare </th></tr> <tr> <td>Choctaw </td> <td>19,554<sup id="cite_ref-Foreman1972_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foreman1972-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> + White citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)</a> </td> <td>1831–1836 </td> <td>15,000<sup id="cite_ref-peterson2_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson2-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5,000–6,000<sup id="cite_ref-NOTE1_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOTE1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-david_baird_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-david_baird-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-peterson_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2,000–4,000+ (<a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>) </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Creek (Muscogee) </td> <td>22,700 + 900 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-fn_(c)_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn_(c)-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta (1832)</a> </td> <td>1834–1837 </td> <td>19,600<sup id="cite_ref-Rem272_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rem272-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Several hundred </td> <td>3,500 (disease after removal)<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton199285_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton199285-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Unknown (<a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chickasaw </td> <td>4,914 + 1,156 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-:0_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek (1832)</a> </td> <td>1837–1847 </td> <td>over 4,000<sup id="cite_ref-:0_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Several hundred </td> <td>500–800 </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cherokee </td> <td>16,542 + 201 married White + 1,592 Black slaves<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota (1835)</a> </td> <td>1836–1838 </td> <td>16,000<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha_241_note_582_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha_241_note_582-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1,500 </td> <td>2,000–4,000<sup id="cite_ref-Ehle_390–3922_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehle_390–3922-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–932_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–932-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seminole </td> <td>3,700–5,000<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> + fugitive slaves </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing (1832)</a> </td> <td>1832–1842 </td> <td>2,833<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1995233_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1995233-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–4,000<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>250<sup id="cite_ref-Prucha1995233_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prucha1995233-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–500<sup id="cite_ref-WallaceFoner1993_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WallaceFoner1993-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>700 (<a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changed_perspective"><span class="anchor" id="Changing_perspective_on_the_policy"></span>Changed perspective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Changed perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary acceptance of the policy, due in part to the popular embrace of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>, has given way to a more somber perspective. Historians have often described the removal of Native Americans as <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wilentz_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilentz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-B&C_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B&C-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Zinn2012_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zinn2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-White_2002_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_2002-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">David Stannard</a> has called it genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Andrew_Jackson's_reputation"><span id="Andrew_Jackson.27s_reputation"></span>Andrew Jackson's reputation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Andrew Jackson's reputation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Andrew Jackson's Indian policy stirred a lot of public controversy before his enactment, but virtually none among historians and biographers of the 19th and early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilentz_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilentz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his recent reputation has been negatively affected by his treatment of the Indians. Historians who admire Jackson's strong presidential leadership, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.</a>, would gloss over the Indian Removal in a footnote. In 1969, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Prucha" title="Francis Paul Prucha">Francis Paul Prucha</a> defended Jackson's Indian policy and wrote that Jackson's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the hostile political environment of the <a href="/wiki/Old_South" title="Old South">Old South</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> probably saved them.<sup id="cite_ref-FPPrucha_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FPPrucha-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson was sharply attacked by political scientist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rogin" title="Michael Rogin">Michael Rogin</a> and historian <a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a> during the 1970s, primarily on this issue; Zinn called him an "exterminator of Indians".<sup id="cite_ref-Zinn2015_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zinn2015-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mann2009_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann2009-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historians <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Bartrop" title="Paul R. Bartrop">Paul R. Bartrop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steven_L._Jacobs" title="Steven L. Jacobs">Steven L. Jacobs</a>, however, Jackson's policies do not meet the criteria for physical or <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">cultural genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-B&C_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B&C-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Sean_Wilentz" title="Sean Wilentz">Sean Wilentz</a> describes the view of Jacksonian "infantilization" and "genocide" of the Indians, as a historical caricature, which "turns tragedy into melodrama, exaggerates parts at the expense of the whole, and sacrifices nuance for sharpness".<sup id="cite_ref-Wilentz_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilentz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Wheeler–Howard Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Act_of_1889" title="Nelson Act of 1889">Nelson Act of 1889</a>, Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competency_Commission" title="Competency Commission">Competency Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_run" title="Land run">Land run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_M%C4%81hele" title="Great Māhele">Great Māhele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Buy-Back_Program_for_Tribal_Nations" title="Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations">Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Checkerboarding (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quilmes_people" title="Quilmes people">Quilmes people</a>, an indigenous people in Argentina that suffered a similar fate</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations_and_notes">Citations and notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Citations and notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrepelle2021" class="citation journal cs1">Crepelle, Adam (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf">"LIES, DAMN LIES, AND FEDERAL INDIAN LAW: THE ETHICS OF CITING RACIST PRECEDENT IN CONTEMPORARY FEDERAL INDIAN LAW"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>N.y.u. Review of Law & Social Change</i>. <b>44</b>: 565. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414013841/https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 14, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=N.y.u.+Review+of+Law+%26+Social+Change&rft.atitle=LIES%2C+DAMN+LIES%2C+AND+FEDERAL+INDIAN+LAW%3A+THE+ETHICS+OF+CITING+RACIST+PRECEDENT+IN+CONTEMPORARY+FEDERAL+INDIAN+LAW&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=565&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Crepelle&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialchangenyu.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F03%2FAdam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOTE2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NOTE2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It has been called <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian" title="National Museum of the American Indian">National Museum of the American Indian</a> refers to the policy as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson2014-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson2014_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Clayton_Anderson2014" class="citation book cs1">Gary Clayton Anderson (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uh4KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7"><i>Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4508-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4508-2"><bdi>978-0-8061-4508-2</bdi></a>. <q>Even though the term "ethnic cleansing" has been applied mainly to the history of nations other than the United States, no term better fits the policy of United States "Indian Removal".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Cleansing+and+the+Indian%3A+The+Crime+That+Should+Haunt+America&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-4508-2&rft.au=Gary+Clayton+Anderson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUh4KAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmericanIndianSmithsonian-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmericanIndianSmithsonian_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if-BOZgWZPE"><i>The "Indian Problem"</i></a> (Video). 10:51–11:17: <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian" title="National Museum of the American Indian">National Museum of the American Indian</a>. March 3, 2015. Event occurs at 12:21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222173043/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if-BOZgWZPE&list=PLWHs6h7U8FyK6TMjEDgPViBmkXirno7sf&index=377">Archived</a> from the original on December 22, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 18,</span> 2018</span>. <q>When you move a people from one place to another, when you displace people, when you wrench people from their homelands... wasn't that genocide? We don't make the case that there was genocide. We know there was. Yet here we are.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+%22Indian+Problem%22&rft.place=10%3A51%E2%80%9311%3A17&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+the+American+Indian&rft.date=2015-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dif-BOZgWZPE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_AV_media" title="Template:Cite AV media">cite AV media</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–93-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–93_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton,_Russell_(1991)." class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses". In William L. Anderson (ed.). <i>Cherokee Removal: Before and After</i>. pp. 75–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+the+Trail+of+Tears+Period%3A+A+New+Estimate+of+Cherokee+Population+Losses&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Removal%3A+Before+and+After&rft.pages=75-93&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Russell+%281991%29.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha_241_note_58-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prucha_241_note_58_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrucha1995" class="citation book cs1">Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC"><i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803287348" title="Special:BookSources/0803287348"><bdi>0803287348</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173833/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC">Archived</a> from the original on March 16, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Father%3A+The+United+States+Government+and+the+American+Indians&rft.pages=241+note+58&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0803287348&rft.aulast=Prucha&rft.aufirst=Francis+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSeWGTYsFcsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehle_390–392-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehle_390–392_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhle2011" class="citation book cs1">Ehle, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2lR-lpmfwC"><i>Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 390–392. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307793836" title="Special:BookSources/9780307793836"><bdi>9780307793836</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pages=390-392&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780307793836&rft.aulast=Ehle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC2lR-lpmfwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears">"A Brief History of the Trail of Tears"</a>. www.cherokee.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018070255/http://www.cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 17,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Trail+of+Tears&rft.pub=www.cherokee.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherokee.org%2FAbout-The-Nation%2FHistory%2FTrail-of-Tears%2FA-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanth2009-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanth2009_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajiv_Molhotra2009" class="citation book cs1">Rajiv Molhotra (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6avFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180">"The Challenge of Eurocentrism"</a>. In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth (ed.). <i>The Challenge of Eurocentrism: Global Perspectives, Policy, and Prospects</i>. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 180, 184, 189, 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61227-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61227-3"><bdi>978-0-230-61227-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Challenge+of+Eurocentrism&rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+Eurocentrism%3A+Global+Perspectives%2C+Policy%2C+and+Prospects&rft.pages=180%2C+184%2C+189%2C+199&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+US&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61227-3&rft.au=Rajiv+Molhotra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6avFAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FinkelmanKennon2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FinkelmanKennon2008_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_FinkelmanWilliam_W._FreehlingTim_Alan_Garrison2008" class="citation book cs1">Paul Finkelman; William W. Freehling; Tim Alan Garrison (2008). Paul Finkelman; Donald R. Kennon (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-khufPrnlyIC&pg=PA15"><i>Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson</i></a>. Ohio University Press. pp. 15, 141, 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-1783-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-1783-6"><bdi>978-0-8214-1783-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+and+the+Emergence+of+Sectionalism%3A+From+the+Missouri+Compromise+to+the+Age+of+Jackson&rft.pages=15%2C+141%2C+254&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8214-1783-6&rft.au=Paul+Finkelman&rft.au=William+W.+Freehling&rft.au=Tim+Alan+Garrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-khufPrnlyIC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilentz-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilentz_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilentz_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilentz_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilentz_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilentz,_Sean2006" class="citation book cs1">Wilentz, Sean (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0-393-32921-6"><i>The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 324<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+American+Democracy%3A+Jefferson+to+Lincoln&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=324&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Wilentz%2C+Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D0-393-32921-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-B&C-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B&C_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B&C_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B&C_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartrop_Paul_R._&_Jacobs,_Steven_Leonard2014" class="citation book cs1">Bartrop Paul R. & Jacobs, Steven Leonard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2070"><i>Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 2070. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-364-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-364-6"><bdi>978-1-61069-364-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Genocide%3A+The+Definitive+Resource+and+Document+Collection&rft.pages=2070&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-364-6&rft.au=Bartrop+Paul+R.+%26+Jacobs%2C+Steven+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJB4UBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zinn2012-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zinn2012_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zinn2012_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward_Zinn2012" class="citation book cs1">Howard Zinn (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1jX8P9Uhzg0C&pg=PA178"><i>Howard Zinn Speaks: Collected Speeches 1963–2009</i></a>. Haymarket Books. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60846-228-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60846-228-5"><bdi>978-1-60846-228-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Howard+Zinn+Speaks%3A+Collected+Speeches+1963%E2%80%932009&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Haymarket+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-60846-228-5&rft.au=Howard+Zinn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1jX8P9Uhzg0C%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.uab.edu/humanrights/2017/04/17/indian-removal-act-genocide-native-americans/">"Indian Removal Act: The Genocide of Native Americans – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog"</a>. <i>sites.uab.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211016202914/https://sites.uab.edu/humanrights/2017/04/17/indian-removal-act-genocide-native-americans/">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sites.uab.edu&rft.atitle=Indian+Removal+Act%3A+The+Genocide+of+Native+Americans+%E2%80%93+UAB+Institute+for+Human+Rights+Blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.uab.edu%2Fhumanrights%2F2017%2F04%2F17%2Findian-removal-act-genocide-native-americans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStannard1992" class="citation book cs1">Stannard, David (1992). <i>American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195085570" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195085570"><bdi>978-0195085570</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Holocaust%3A+The+Conquest+of+the+New+World&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0195085570&rft.aulast=Stannard&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Obie-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Obie_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharon O'Brien, "Tribes and Indians: With whom does the United States maintain a relationship." Notre Dame L. Rev. 66 (1990): 1461+</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franklin-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin,_Benjamin2008" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Benjamin (2008) [1775]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_07-21-75.asp">"Journals of the Continental Congress – Franklin's Articles of Confederation; July 21, 1775"</a>. <i>The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University, Lillian Goldman Law Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309070326/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/contcong_07-21-75.asp">Archived</a> from the original on March 9, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Journals+of+the+Continental+Congress+%E2%80%93+Franklin%27s+Articles+of+Confederation%3B+July+21%2C+1775&rft.btitle=The+Avalon+Project%3A+Documents+in+Law%2C+History+and+Diplomacy&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University%2C+Lillian+Goldman+Law+Library&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fcontcong_07-21-75.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span> Cited is a digital version of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjclink.html"><i>Journals of the Continental Congress 1774–1779,</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170212180100/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjclink.html">Archived</a> February 12, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Vol. II, pp. 195–199, as edited from original records in the Library of Congress by <a href="/wiki/Worthington_Chauncey_Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Worthington Chauncey Ford">Worthington Chauncey Ford</a>. Primary source.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pommersheim2009-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pommersheim2009_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_Pommersheim2009" class="citation book cs1">Frank Pommersheim (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HxTo3ysKsggC&pg=PT39"><i>Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988828-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988828-3"><bdi>978-0-19-988828-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broken+Landscape%3A+Indians%2C+Indian+Tribes%2C+and+the+Constitution&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-988828-3&rft.au=Frank+Pommersheim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHxTo3ysKsggC%26pg%3DPT39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LawHist-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LawHist_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_GrossbergChristopher_Tomlins2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael Grossberg; Christopher Tomlins (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KeEi14czrnoC&pg=PA56"><i>The Cambridge History of Law in America</i></a>. Cambridge UP. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80305-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80305-2"><bdi>978-0-521-80305-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Law+in+America&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80305-2&rft.au=Michael+Grossberg&rft.au=Christopher+Tomlins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKeEi14czrnoC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clair&Lee-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clair&Lee_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James D. St. Clair and William F. Lee. "Defense of Nonintercourse Act Claims: The Requirement of Tribal Existence." Maine Law Review 31. no. 1 (1979): 91+</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NY-State-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NY-State_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw1-GhpLydoC&pg=PA191"><i>New York Supplement, New York State Reporter</i></a>. Vol. 146. St. Paul: West Publishing Company. 1909. p. 191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+York+Supplement%2C+New+York+State+Reporter&rft.place=St.+Paul&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=West+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1909&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCw1-GhpLydoC%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Region-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Region_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/mjdennis/courses/hist469_senecas.htm">"Washington's Address to the Senecas, 1790"</a>. <i>uoregon.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170106234045/http://pages.uoregon.edu/mjdennis/courses/hist469_senecas.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uoregon.edu&rft.atitle=Washington%27s+Address+to+the+Senecas%2C+1790&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.uoregon.edu%2Fmjdennis%2Fcourses%2Fhist469_senecas.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MalinowskiAbrams1995-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MalinowskiAbrams1995_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharon_MalinowskiGeorge_H._J._Abrams1995" class="citation book cs1">Sharon Malinowski; George H. J. Abrams (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hlgYAAAAIAAJ&q=%22tribal%20chiefs%22"><i>Notable Native Americans</i></a>. Gale Research. p. 356. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8103-9638-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8103-9638-8"><bdi>978-0-8103-9638-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notable+Native+Americans&rft.pages=356&rft.pub=Gale+Research&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8103-9638-8&rft.au=Sharon+Malinowski&rft.au=George+H.+J.+Abrams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhlgYAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522tribal%2520chiefs%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manweller2012-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manweller2012_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew_Manweller2012" class="citation book cs1">Mathew Manweller (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqB3ehA7M0oC&pg=PA14"><i>Chronology of the U.S. Presidency</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-645-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-645-4"><bdi>978-1-59884-645-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+the+U.S.+Presidency&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-645-4&rft.au=Mathew+Manweller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqB3ehA7M0oC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillerCenter2016-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillerCenter2016_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3938">"Fourth Annual Message to Congress (November 6, 1792)"</a>. <i>millercenter.org</i>. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160213105807/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3938">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=millercenter.org&rft.atitle=Fourth+Annual+Message+to+Congress+%28November+6%2C+1792%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech-3938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillerCenter20167-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillerCenter20167_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161228111523/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3939">"Seventh Annual Message to Congress (December 8, 1795)"</a>. <i>millercenter.org</i>. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3939">the original</a> on December 28, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=millercenter.org&rft.atitle=Seventh+Annual+Message+to+Congress+%28December+8%2C+1795%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech-3939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MoquinDoren1973-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MoquinDoren1973_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWayne_MoquinCharles_Lincoln_Van_Doren1973" class="citation book cs1">Wayne Moquin; Charles Lincoln Van Doren (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UpV0AAAAMAAJ&q=%22are%20insufficient%22"><i>Great Documents in American Indian History</i></a>. Praeger. p. 105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Documents+in+American+Indian+History&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1973&rft.au=Wayne+Moquin&rft.au=Charles+Lincoln+Van+Doren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUpV0AAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522are%2520insufficient%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beyond-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beyond_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1782" class="citation web cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (1782). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/notes-on-the-state-of-virginia-by-thomas-jefferson-1781-1782-2.html">"Notes on the State of Virginia"</a>. <i>Revolutionary War and Beyond</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140717012721/http://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/notes-on-the-state-of-virginia-by-thomas-jefferson-1781-1782-2.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 17, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revolutionary+War+and+Beyond&rft.atitle=Notes+on+the+State+of+Virginia&rft.date=1782&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com%2Fnotes-on-the-state-of-virginia-by-thomas-jefferson-1781-1782-2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span> Primary source.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onuf2000-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Onuf2000_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_S._Onuf2000" class="citation book cs1">Peter S. Onuf (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jeffersonsempire00onuf_0"><i>Jefferson's Empire: The Language of American Nationhood</i></a></span>. University of Virginia Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jeffersonsempire00onuf_0/page/24">24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2204-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8139-2204-1"><bdi>978-0-8139-2204-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jefferson%27s+Empire%3A+The+Language+of+American+Nationhood&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8139-2204-1&rft.au=Peter+S.+Onuf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjeffersonsempire00onuf_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jordan1974-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jordan1974_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinthrop_D._Jordan1974" class="citation book cs1">Winthrop D. Jordan (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whitemansburdenh00jord"><i>The White Man's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whitemansburdenh00jord/page/178">178</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-501743-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-501743-4"><bdi>978-0-19-501743-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Man%27s+Burden%3A+Historical+Origins+of+Racism+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-19-501743-4&rft.au=Winthrop+D.+Jordan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhitemansburdenh00jord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha1985-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1985_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1985_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Paul_Prucha1985" class="citation book cs1">Francis Paul Prucha (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansinamerica00fran"><i>The Indians in American Society: From the Revolutionary War to the Present</i></a></span>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansinamerica00fran/page/6">6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90884-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90884-0"><bdi>978-0-520-90884-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indians+in+American+Society%3A+From+the+Revolutionary+War+to+the+Present&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-520-90884-0&rft.au=Francis+Paul+Prucha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiansinamerica00fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha1997-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1997_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Paul_Prucha1997" class="citation book cs1">Francis Paul Prucha (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DH07ZMdSl0kC&pg=PA136"><i>American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91916-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91916-7"><bdi>978-0-520-91916-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Treaties%3A+The+History+of+a+Political+Anomaly&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-91916-7&rft.au=Francis+Paul+Prucha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDH07ZMdSl0kC%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fraser2016-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fraser2016_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_W._Fraser2016" class="citation book cs1">James W. Fraser (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=chfUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89"><i>Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America</i></a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2059-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2059-2"><bdi>978-1-4214-2059-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Church+and+State%3A+Religion+and+Public+Education+in+a+Multicultural+America&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-2059-2&rft.au=James+W.+Fraser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DchfUDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Letter-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1782" class="citation book cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (1782). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000003038727;view=1up;seq=898">"Letter to Governor William H. Harrison"</a>. <i>The Writings of Thomas Jefferson</i>. The Pennsylvania State University Libraries. p. 370. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190213092446/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000003038727;view=1up;seq=898">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Governor+William+H.+Harrison&rft.btitle=The+Writings+of+Thomas+Jefferson&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=The+Pennsylvania+State+University+Libraries&rft.date=1782&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dpst.000003038727%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span> Primary source.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-39-02-0500">"Founders Online: From Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, 27 February 1 ..."</a> <i>founders.archives.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210726062145/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-39-02-0500">Archived</a> from the original on July 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 27,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=founders.archives.gov&rft.atitle=Founders+Online%3A+From+Thomas+Jefferson+to+William+Henry+Harrison%2C+27+February+1+...&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FJefferson%2F01-39-02-0500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pres-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pres_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/origins-of-the-expedition/jefferson-and-american-indians/president-jefferson-and-the-indian-nations/">"President Jefferson and the Indian Nations"</a>. <i>Monticello</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200923051154/https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/origins-of-the-expedition/jefferson-and-american-indians/president-jefferson-and-the-indian-nations/">Archived</a> from the original on September 23, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Monticello&rft.atitle=President+Jefferson+and+the+Indian+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monticello.org%2Fthomas-jefferson%2Flouisiana-lewis-clark%2Forigins-of-the-expedition%2Fjefferson-and-american-indians%2Fpresident-jefferson-and-the-indian-nations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Calloway1998-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Calloway1998_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_G._Calloway1998" class="citation book cs1">Colin G. Calloway (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC&pg=PA179"><i>New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5959-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5959-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-5959-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Worlds+for+All%3A+Indians%2C+Europeans%2C+and+the+Remaking+of+Early+America&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5&rft.au=Colin+G.+Calloway&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DedYbAZ7ECEoC%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TuckerHendrickson1992-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TuckerHendrickson1992_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_W._TuckerDavid_C._Hendrickson1992" class="citation book cs1">Robert W. Tucker; David C. Hendrickson (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0EFEU0BEe8C&pg=PA305"><i>Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 305–306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802276-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802276-3"><bdi>978-0-19-802276-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Liberty%3A+The+Statecraft+of+Thomas+Jefferson&rft.pages=305-306&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-802276-3&rft.au=Robert+W.+Tucker&rft.au=David+C.+Hendrickson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY0EFEU0BEe8C%26pg%3DPA305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrossbergTomlins2008-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GrossbergTomlins2008_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatherine_A._Hermes2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Katherine A. Hermes (2008). Michael Grossberg; Christopher Tomlins (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KeEi14czrnoC&pg=PA56"><i>The Cambridge History of Law in America</i></a>. Vol. I, Early America (1580–1815). Cambridge University Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80305-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80305-2"><bdi>978-0-521-80305-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Law+in+America&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80305-2&rft.au=Katherine+A.+Hermes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKeEi14czrnoC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oberg2011-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oberg2011_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Jefferson2017" class="citation web cs1">Thomas Jefferson (June 29, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-38-02-0563">"From Thomas Jefferson to Handsome Lake, 3 November 1802"</a>. <i>Founders Online</i>. National Archives and Records Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181116054652/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-38-02-0563">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2017</span>. <q>[Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 38, 1 July–12 November 1802, ed. Barbara B. Oberg. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011, pp. 628–631.]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Founders+Online&rft.atitle=From+Thomas+Jefferson+to+Handsome+Lake%2C+3+November+1802&rft.date=2017-06-29&rft.au=Thomas+Jefferson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FJefferson%2F01-38-02-0563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLoughlin1992-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLoughlin1992_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Gerald_McLoughlin1992" class="citation book cs1">William Gerald McLoughlin (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ii4mn9T9-LQC&pg=PR15"><i>Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. xv, 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00627-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00627-7"><bdi>978-0-691-00627-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Renascence+in+the+New+Republic&rft.pages=xv%2C+132&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00627-7&rft.au=William+Gerald+McLoughlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dii4mn9T9-LQC%26pg%3DPR15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillerCenter20168-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillerCenter20168_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3501">"Eighth Annual Message (November 8, 1808) Thomas Jefferson"</a>. <i>millercenter.org</i>. University of Virginia. December 28, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160213102328/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3501">Archived</a> from the original on February 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=millercenter.org&rft.atitle=Eighth+Annual+Message+%28November+8%2C+1808%29+Thomas+Jefferson&rft.date=2016-12-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fspeeches%2Fspeech-3501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller2006-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller2006_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_J._Miller2006" class="citation book cs1">Robert J. Miller (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ccnP7tWU7hwC&pg=PA92"><i>Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 92–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99011-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99011-4"><bdi>978-0-275-99011-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+America%2C+Discovered+and+Conquered%3A+Thomas+Jefferson%2C+Lewis+%26+Clark%2C+and+Manifest+Destiny&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99011-4&rft.au=Robert+J.+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DccnP7tWU7hwC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black2015-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Black2015_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJason_Edward_Black2015" class="citation book cs1">Jason Edward Black (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fQobBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50"><i>American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Allotment</i></a>. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62674-485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62674-485-1"><bdi>978-1-62674-485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indians+and+the+Rhetoric+of+Removal+and+Allotment&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Univ.+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-62674-485-1&rft.au=Jason+Edward+Black&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfQobBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buckley2008-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buckley2008_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_H._Buckley2008" class="citation book cs1">Jay H. Buckley (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Wd7_5HpIxYC&pg=PA193"><i>William Clark: Indian Diplomat</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3911-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3911-1"><bdi>978-0-8061-3911-1</bdi></a>. <q>There is no doubt that Jefferson wanted to get Indians into debt so that he could lop off their holdings through land cessions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Clark%3A+Indian+Diplomat&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3911-1&rft.au=Jay+H.+Buckley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Wd7_5HpIxYC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BartropJacobs2014-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartropJacobs2014_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartropJacobs2014_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_R._BartropSteven_Leonard_Jacobs2014" class="citation book cs1">Paul R. Bartrop; Steven Leonard Jacobs (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2070"><i>Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 2070. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-364-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-364-6"><bdi>978-1-61069-364-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Genocide%3A+The+Definitive+Resource+and+Document+Collection+%5B4+volumes%5D%3A+The+Definitive+Resource+and+Document+Collection&rft.pages=2070&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-364-6&rft.au=Paul+R.+Bartrop&rft.au=Steven+Leonard+Jacobs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJB4UBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha2000-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prucha2000_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Paul_Prucha2000" class="citation book cs1">Francis Paul Prucha (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=COTvocv68koC&pg=PA22"><i>Documents of United States Indian Policy</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8762-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8762-4"><bdi>978-0-8032-8762-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+of+United+States+Indian+Policy&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-8762-4&rft.au=Francis+Paul+Prucha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCOTvocv68koC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JeffersonHarrison1803-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JeffersonHarrison1803_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1803" class="citation web cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (1803). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180120091110/http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm">"President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm">the original</a> on January 20, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 12,</span> 2009</span>. <q>When they withdraw themselves to the culture of a small piece of land, they will perceive how useless to them are their extensive forests, and will be willing to pare them off from time to time in exchange for necessaries for their farms and families. To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands. At our trading houses, too, we mean to sell so low as merely to repay us cost and charges, so as neither to lessen or enlarge our capital. This is what private traders cannot do, for they must gain; they will consequently retire from the competition, and we shall thus get clear of this pest without giving offence or umbrage to the Indians. In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President+Thomas+Jefferson+to+William+Henry+Harrison%2C+Governor+of+the+Indiana+Territory&rft.date=1803&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.missouristate.edu%2Fftmiller%2FDocuments%2Fjeffindianpolicy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span> Primary source.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ADL2005-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ADL2005_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTexts_by_or_to_Thomas_Jefferson2005" class="citation web cs1">Texts by or to Thomas Jefferson (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160601024017/http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/excerpt_jefferson1803.html">"Excerpt from President Jefferson's Private Letter to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory February 27, 1803"</a>. <i>adl.org</i>. Anti-Defamation League. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/excerpt_jefferson1803.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Modern English Collection, Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library)</span> on June 1, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=adl.org&rft.atitle=Excerpt+from+President+Jefferson%27s+Private+Letter+to+William+Henry+Harrison%2C+Governor+of+the+Indiana+Territory+February+27%2C+1803&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Texts+by+or+to+Thomas+Jefferson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.adl.org%2Feducation%2Fcurriculum_connections%2Fexcerpt_jefferson1803.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLoughlin1992256-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLoughlin1992256_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Gerald_McLoughlin1992" class="citation book cs1">William Gerald McLoughlin (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ii4mn9T9-LQC&pg=PA256"><i>Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00627-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00627-7"><bdi>978-0-691-00627-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Renascence+in+the+New+Republic&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00627-7&rft.au=William+Gerald+McLoughlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dii4mn9T9-LQC%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kappler1903-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kappler1903_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Joseph_Kappler1903" class="citation book cs1">Charles Joseph Kappler, ed. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GdEUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124"><i>Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</i></a>. Vol. 2. United States Government Printing Office. p. 124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Affairs%3A+Laws+and+Treaties&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1903&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGdEUAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLoughlin1981-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLoughlin1981_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_G._McLoughlin1981" class="citation journal cs1">William G. McLoughlin (Spring 1981). "Experiment in Cherokee Citizenship, 1817–1829". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 3–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2712531">10.2307/2712531</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712531">2712531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Experiment+in+Cherokee+Citizenship%2C+1817%E2%80%931829&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-25&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2712531&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2712531%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=William+G.+McLoughlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon1991-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mahon1991_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_K._Mahon1991" class="citation book cs1">John K. Mahon (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5n16GwAACAAJ"><i>History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842</i></a>. University Presses of Florida. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1097-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1097-7"><bdi>978-0-8130-1097-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Second+Seminole+War%2C+1835%E2%80%931842&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=University+Presses+of+Florida&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-1097-7&rft.au=John+K.+Mahon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5n16GwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teed2006-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Teed2006_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_E._Teed2006" class="citation book cs1">Paul E. Teed (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XY8tqSoQiIoC&pg=PA104"><i>John Quincy Adams: Yankee Nationalist</i></a>. Nova Publishers. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59454-797-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59454-797-3"><bdi>978-1-59454-797-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Quincy+Adams%3A+Yankee+Nationalist&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59454-797-3&rft.au=Paul+E.+Teed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXY8tqSoQiIoC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warnes2016-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warnes2016_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warnes2016_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKathy_Warnes2016" class="citation book cs1">Kathy Warnes (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=li1ZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155">"<i>Cherokee Nation vs, Georgia,</i> Forced Removal of Indian Tribes (1831)"</a>. In Steven Chermak; Frankie Y. Bailey (eds.). <i>Crimes of the Centuries: Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History [3 volumes] Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-594-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-594-7"><bdi>978-1-61069-594-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cherokee+Nation+vs%2C+Georgia%2C+Forced+Removal+of+Indian+Tribes+%281831%29&rft.btitle=Crimes+of+the+Centuries%3A+Notorious+Crimes%2C+Criminals%2C+and+Criminal+Trials+in+American+History+%5B3+volumes%5D+Notorious+Crimes%2C+Criminals%2C+and+Criminal+Trials+in+American+History&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-594-7&rft.au=Kathy+Warnes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dli1ZCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha1995-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1995_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Paul_Prucha1995" class="citation book cs1">Francis Paul Prucha (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC&pg=PA189"><i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8734-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8734-1"><bdi>978-0-8032-8734-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Father%3A+The+United+States+Government+and+the+American+Indians&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1&rft.au=Francis+Paul+Prucha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSeWGTYsFcsC%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon199172-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mahon199172_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_K._Mahon1991" class="citation book cs1">John K. Mahon (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5n16GwAACAAJ"><i>History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842</i></a>. University Presses of Florida. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1097-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-1097-7"><bdi>978-0-8130-1097-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Second+Seminole+War%2C+1835%E2%80%931842&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=University+Presses+of+Florida&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-1097-7&rft.au=John+K.+Mahon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5n16GwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturgis2007" class="citation book cs1">Sturgis, Amy (2007). <i>The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313336584" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313336584"><bdi>978-0313336584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears+and+Indian+Removal&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0313336584&rft.aulast=Sturgis&rft.aufirst=Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturgis2007" class="citation book cs1">Sturgis, Amy (2007). <i>The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 136–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313336584" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313336584"><bdi>978-0313336584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears+and+Indian+Removal&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=136-137&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0313336584&rft.aulast=Sturgis&rft.aufirst=Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatz1975" class="citation book cs1">Satz, Ronald N. (1975). <i>American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era</i>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-3432-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-3432-1"><bdi>0-8061-3432-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Policy+in+the+Jacksonian+Era&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-8061-3432-1&rft.aulast=Satz&rft.aufirst=Ronald+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2016" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (2016). <i>The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents</i> (3rd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-319-04902-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-319-04902-7"><bdi>978-1-319-04902-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Removal%3A+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=12&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.Martin%27s&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-319-04902-7&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaiman-Silva1997" class="citation book cs1">Faiman-Silva, Sandra (1997). <i>Choctaws at the Crossroads</i>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-2001-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-2001-4"><bdi>0-8032-2001-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choctaws+at+the+Crossroads&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8032-2001-4&rft.aulast=Faiman-Silva&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2016" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (2016). <i>The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents</i> (3rd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-319-04902-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-319-04902-7"><bdi>978-1-319-04902-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokee+Removal%3A+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=150&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.Martin%27s&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-319-04902-7&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/indian-treaties">"Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830"</a>. <i>Office of the Historian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219014902/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/indian-treaties">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Office+of+the+Historian&rft.atitle=Indian+Treaties+and+the+Removal+Act+of+1830&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1830-1860%2Findian-treaties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SatzApfelbeck1996-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SatzApfelbeck1996_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_N._SatzLaura_Apfelbeck1996" class="citation book cs1">Ronald N. Satz; Laura Apfelbeck (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X5abHh1mPsMC&pg=PA10"><i>Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin's Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective</i></a>. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-93022-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-93022-6"><bdi>978-0-299-93022-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chippewa+Treaty+Rights%3A+The+Reserved+Rights+of+Wisconsin%27s+Chippewa+Indians+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-299-93022-6&rft.au=Ronald+N.+Satz&rft.au=Laura+Apfelbeck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX5abHh1mPsMC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KaneSharynKeeton1994-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KaneSharynKeeton1994_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KaneSharynKeeton1994_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKane,_SharynKeeton,_Richard1994" class="citation book cs1">Kane, Sharyn; Keeton, Richard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070817050817/http://www.nps.gov/history/seac/benning-book/benning-index.htm">"As Long as Grass Grows [Ch. 11]"</a>. <i>Fort Benning: The Land and the People</i>. Fort Benning, GA and Tallahassee, FL: United States Army Infantry Center, Directorate of Public Works, Environmental Management Division, and National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center. pp. 95–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1172-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-1172-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39804148">39804148</a>. Archived from the original on August 17, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=As+Long+as+Grass+Grows+%5BCh.+11%5D&rft.btitle=Fort+Benning%3A+The+Land+and+the+People&rft.place=Fort+Benning%2C+GA+and+Tallahassee%2C+FL&rft.pages=95-104&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Infantry+Center%2C+Directorate+of+Public+Works%2C+Environmental+Management+Division%2C+and+National+Park+Service%2C+Southeast+Archaeological+Center&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39804148&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-1172-8&rft.au=Kane%2C+Sharyn&rft.au=Keeton%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fseac%2Fbenning-book%2Fbenning-index.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span> The work is also available from the US Army, as a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benning.army.mil/Library/content/Virtual/Fort">Benning History/Fort Benning the Land and the People.pdf PDF</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magoc2015-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Magoc2015_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_J._Magoc2015" class="citation book cs1">Chris J. Magoc (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMEnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA400"><i>Imperialism and Expansionism in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes]: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-430-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-430-8"><bdi>978-1-61069-430-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperialism+and+Expansionism+in+American+History%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Cultural+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection+%26%2391%3B4+volumes%26%2393%3B%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Cultural+Encyclopedia+and+Document+Collection&rft.pages=400&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-430-8&rft.au=Chris+J.+Magoc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCMEnCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crossroads-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-crossroads_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaiman-Silva,_Sandra1997" class="citation book cs1">Faiman-Silva, Sandra (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/choctawsatcrossr0000faim"><i>Choctaws at the Crossroads</i></a></span>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/choctawsatcrossr0000faim/page/19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6902-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-6902-6"><bdi>978-0-8032-6902-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Choctaws+at+the+Crossroads&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-6902-6&rft.au=Faiman-Silva%2C+Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchoctawsatcrossr0000faim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith2007-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith2007_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Ruys_Smith2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Ruys Smith (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riverofdreamsima0000smit"><i>River of Dreams: Imagining the Mississippi Before Mark Twain</i></a></span>. Louisiana State University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riverofdreamsima0000smit/page/77">77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-4307-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-4307-0"><bdi>978-0-8071-4307-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=River+of+Dreams%3A+Imagining+the+Mississippi+Before+Mark+Twain&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-4307-0&rft.au=Thomas+Ruys+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friverofdreamsima0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pierson1938-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pierson1938_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Wilson_Pierson1938" class="citation book cs1">George Wilson Pierson (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LJbwV4WznGkC&pg=PA598"><i>Tocqueville in America</i></a>. Johns Hopkins Press. p. 598. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5506-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5506-1"><bdi>978-0-8018-5506-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tocqueville+in+America&rft.pages=598&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5506-1&rft.au=George+Wilson+Pierson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLJbwV4WznGkC%26pg%3DPA598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-French2007-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-French2007_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence_French2007" class="citation book cs1">Laurence French (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legislatingindia0000fren"><i>Legislating Indian Country: Significant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism</i></a></span>. Peter Lang. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legislatingindia0000fren/page/50">50</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8844-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8844-8"><bdi>978-0-8204-8844-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legislating+Indian+Country%3A+Significant+Milestones+in+Transforming+Tribalism&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-8844-8&rft.au=Laurence+French&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flegislatingindia0000fren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturgis2007-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sturgis2007_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmy_H._Sturgis2007" class="citation book cs1">Amy H. Sturgis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xyS9GtYci7IC&pg=PA119"><i>The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 119–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33658-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33658-4"><bdi>978-0-313-33658-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trail+of+Tears+and+Indian+Removal&rft.pages=119-&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33658-4&rft.au=Amy+H.+Sturgis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxyS9GtYci7IC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton1992-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton1992_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell_Thornton1992" class="citation book cs1">Russell Thornton (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3Cgr4fPfAZQC&pg=PA74"><i>The Cherokees: A Population History</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9410-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9410-3"><bdi>978-0-8032-9410-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cherokees%3A+A+Population+History&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-9410-3&rft.au=Russell+Thornton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3Cgr4fPfAZQC%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-III2007-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-III2007_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._Andrew,_III2007" class="citation book cs1">John A. Andrew, III (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRR5wbNvaHkC&pg=PA234"><i>From Revivals to Removal: Jeremiah Evarts, the Cherokee Nation, and the Search for the Soul of America</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3121-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3121-8"><bdi>978-0-8203-3121-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Revivals+to+Removal%3A+Jeremiah+Evarts%2C+the+Cherokee+Nation%2C+and+the+Search+for+the+Soul+of+America&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3121-8&rft.au=John+A.+Andrew%2C+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZRR5wbNvaHkC%26pg%3DPA234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoxie1984-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoxie1984_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_E._Hoxie1984" class="citation book cs1">Frederick E. Hoxie (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5m-6V4dPvgQC&pg=PA214"><i>A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7327-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7327-6"><bdi>978-0-8032-7327-6</bdi></a>. <q>The court has bestowed its best attention on this question, and, after mature deliberation, the majority is of the opinion that an Indian tribe or nation within the United States is not a foreign state in the sense of the constitution, and cannot maintain an action in the courts of the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Final+Promise%3A+The+Campaign+to+Assimilate+the+Indians%2C+1880%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7327-6&rft.au=Frederick+E.+Hoxie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5m-6V4dPvgQC%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hobson2012-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hobson2012_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_F._Hobson2012" class="citation book cs1">Charles F. Hobson (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rYsMCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60"><i>The Papers of John Marshall: Vol XII: Correspondence, Papers, and Selected Judicial Opinions, January 1831 – July 1835, with Addendum, June 1783 – January 1829</i></a>. UNC Press Books. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3885-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3885-3"><bdi>978-0-8078-3885-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papers+of+John+Marshall%3A+Vol+XII%3A+Correspondence%2C+Papers%2C+and+Selected+Judicial+Opinions%2C+January+1831+%E2%80%93+July+1835%2C+with+Addendum%2C+June+1783+%E2%80%93+January+1829&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3885-3&rft.au=Charles+F.+Hobson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrYsMCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malone2010-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Malone2010_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Malone2010_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Thompson_Malone2010" class="citation book cs1">Henry Thompson Malone (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6PpsOPyM0aMC&pg=PA178"><i>Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3542-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3542-1"><bdi>978-0-8203-3542-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherokees+of+the+Old+South%3A+A+People+in+Transition&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3542-1&rft.au=Henry+Thompson+Malone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6PpsOPyM0aMC%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Remini2013-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Remini2013_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_V._Remini2013" class="citation book cs1">Robert V. Remini (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kbM-AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA276"><i>Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832</i></a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 276–277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1329-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1329-7"><bdi>978-1-4214-1329-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson%3A+The+Course+of+American+Freedom%2C+1822%E2%80%931832&rft.pages=276-277&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1329-7&rft.au=Robert+V.+Remini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkbM-AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Civics2012-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Civics2012_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/IndianRemovalPPT.pdf">"America's Indian Removal Policies: Tales & Trails of Betrayal Indian Policy During Andrew Jackson's Presidency (1829–1837)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>civics.sites.unc.edu</i>. University of North Carolina. May 2012. p. 15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130919044145/http://civics.sites.unc.edu/files/2012/05/IndianRemovalPPT.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 19, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=civics.sites.unc.edu&rft.atitle=America%27s+Indian+Removal+Policies%3A+Tales+%26+Trails+of+Betrayal+Indian+Policy+During+Andrew+Jackson%27s+Presidency+%281829%E2%80%931837%29&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcivics.sites.unc.edu%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F05%2FIndianRemovalPPT.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Satz1974-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Satz1974_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_N._Satz1974" class="citation book cs1">Ronald N. Satz (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x85rIvny-48C&pg=PA47"><i>American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3432-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3432-1"><bdi>978-0-8061-3432-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Policy+in+the+Jacksonian+Era&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3432-1&rft.au=Ronald+N.+Satz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx85rIvny-48C%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BlackLybecker2008-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BlackLybecker2008_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_BlackDonna_L._Lybecker2008" class="citation book cs1">Brian Black; Donna L. Lybecker (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=72ISAQAAIAAJ&q=%22March%2031,%201831%22"><i>Great Debates in American Environmental History</i></a>. Greenwood Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33931-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33931-8"><bdi>978-0-313-33931-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Debates+in+American+Environmental+History&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33931-8&rft.au=Brian+Black&rft.au=Donna+L.+Lybecker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D72ISAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522March%252031%2C%25201831%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickman2006-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wickman2006_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatricia_Riles_Wickman2006" class="citation book cs1">Patricia Riles Wickman (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b5N_-gr9us8C&pg=PA85"><i>Osceola's Legacy</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5332-2"><bdi>978-0-8173-5332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osceola%27s+Legacy&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-5332-2&rft.au=Patricia+Riles+Wickman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db5N_-gr9us8C%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TuckerArnold2011-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TuckerArnold2011_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer_TuckerJames_R._ArnoldRoberta_Wiener2011" class="citation book cs1">Spencer Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA719"><i>The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 719. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-697-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-697-8"><bdi>978-1-85109-697-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+North+American+Indian+Wars%2C+1607%E2%80%931890%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.pages=719&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-697-8&rft.au=Spencer+Tucker&rft.au=James+R.+Arnold&rft.au=Roberta+Wiener&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJsM4A0GSO34C%26pg%3DPA719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaveman2016" class="citation book cs1">Haveman, Christopher D. (2016). <i>Rivers of Sand : Creek Indian emigration, relocation, and ethnic cleansing in the American South</i>. Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast: University of Nebraska. pp. 200–233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7392-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7392-4"><bdi>978-0-8032-7392-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rivers+of+Sand+%3A+Creek+Indian+emigration%2C+relocation%2C+and+ethnic+cleansing+in+the+American+South&rft.place=Removal+of+the+Creek+Indians+from+the+Southeast&rft.pages=200-233&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7392-4&rft.aulast=Haveman&rft.aufirst=Christopher+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meares, Cecil. "Western Lore: When the steamboat Monmouth sank in the Mississippi, Creek Indian passengers paid the price." <i>Wild West</i>, 11, no. 3, Oct. 1998, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bethencourt, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/article_6b281ca6-4308-5292-a5e8-c7ee560c197f.html">BR researcher explores Monmouth steamboat disaster</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220825183548/https://www.theadvocate.com/baton_rouge/news/article_6b281ca6-4308-5292-a5e8-c7ee560c197f.html">Archived</a> August 25, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><i>The Advocate</i>. November 17, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BurtFerguson1973-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BurtFerguson1973_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesse_Clifton_BurtRobert_B._Ferguson1973" class="citation book cs1">Jesse Clifton Burt; Robert B. Ferguson (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt"><i>Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now</i></a></span>. Abingdon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiansofsouthea00burt/page/170">170</a>–173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-687-18793-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-687-18793-5"><bdi>978-0-687-18793-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indians+of+the+Southeast%3A+Then+and+Now&rft.pages=170-173&rft.pub=Abingdon+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-687-18793-5&rft.au=Jesse+Clifton+Burt&rft.au=Robert+B.+Ferguson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiansofsouthea00burt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark1996-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark1996_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Dionysius_Clark1996" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Dionysius Clark (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H9YHBMNfKrEC&pg=PA250"><i>The Old Southwest, 1795-1830: Frontiers in Conflict</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2836-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2836-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-2836-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Southwest%2C+1795-1830%3A+Frontiers+in+Conflict&rft.pages=250&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2836-8&rft.au=Thomas+Dionysius+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH9YHBMNfKrEC%26pg%3DPA250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pate2009-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pate2009_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_P._Pate2009" class="citation web cs1">James P. Pate (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160722003746/http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=CHICKASAW">"Chickasaw The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture"</a>. <i>okhistory.org</i>. Oklahoma Historical Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=CHICKASAW">the original</a> on July 22, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=okhistory.org&rft.atitle=Chickasaw+The+Encyclopedia+of+Oklahoma+History+and+Culture&rft.date=2009&rft.au=James+P.+Pate&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fpublications%2Fenc%2Fentry.php%3Fentryname%3DCHICKASAW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson2012-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibson2012_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArrell_M._Gibson2012" class="citation book cs1">Arrell M. Gibson (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Duaw5nldssQC&pg=PA217"><i>The Chickasaws</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8864-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8864-5"><bdi>978-0-8061-8864-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chickasaws&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-8864-5&rft.au=Arrell+M.+Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDuaw5nldssQC%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark2012-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark2012_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlue_Clark2012" class="citation book cs1">Blue Clark (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-REv0Se_aR8C&pg=PA99"><i>Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8461-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8461-6"><bdi>978-0-8061-8461-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Tribes+of+Oklahoma%3A+A+Guide&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-8461-6&rft.au=Blue+Clark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-REv0Se_aR8C%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minahan2013-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minahan2013_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Minahan2013" class="citation book cs1">James Minahan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8jVig0ysnu8C&pg=PA95"><i>Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-163-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-163-5"><bdi>978-1-61069-163-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Groups+of+the+Americas%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-163-5&rft.au=James+Minahan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8jVig0ysnu8C%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson1984-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibson1984_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArrell_Morgan_Gibson1984" class="citation book cs1">Arrell Morgan Gibson (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WVt9vQ7QSqMC&pg=PA31"><i>The History of Oklahoma</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1883-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1883-3"><bdi>978-0-8061-1883-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-1883-3&rft.au=Arrell+Morgan+Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWVt9vQ7QSqMC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams2016-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams2016_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusty_Williams2016" class="citation book cs1">Rusty Williams (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HxQXDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT13"><i>The Red River Bridge War: A Texas-Oklahoma Border Battle</i></a>. Texas A&M University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62349-406-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62349-406-3"><bdi>978-1-62349-406-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+River+Bridge+War%3A+A+Texas-Oklahoma+Border+Battle&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-62349-406-3&rft.au=Rusty+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHxQXDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oakley2005-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oakley2005_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Arris_Oakley2005" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Arris Oakley (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h7RjN4okpBEC&pg=PA9"><i>Keeping the Circle: American Indian Identity in Eastern North Carolina, 1885-2004</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5069-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5069-7"><bdi>978-0-8032-5069-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keeping+the+Circle%3A+American+Indian+Identity+in+Eastern+North+Carolina%2C+1885-2004&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-5069-7&rft.au=Christopher+Arris+Oakley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh7RjN4okpBEC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson2014161-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson2014161_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary_Clayton_Anderson2014" class="citation book cs1">Gary Clayton Anderson (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uh4KAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161"><i>Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4508-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-4508-2"><bdi>978-0-8061-4508-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Cleansing+and+the+Indian%3A+The+Crime+That+Should+Haunt+America&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-4508-2&rft.au=Gary+Clayton+Anderson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUh4KAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams2016-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Adams2016_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikaela_M._Adams2016" class="citation book cs1">Mikaela M. Adams (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yw01DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4"><i>Who Belongs?: Race, Resources, and Tribal Citizenship in the Native South</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-061947-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-061947-3"><bdi>978-0-19-061947-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Belongs%3F%3A+Race%2C+Resources%2C+and+Tribal+Citizenship+in+the+Native+South&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-061947-3&rft.au=Mikaela+M.+Adams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYw01DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finger1984-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Finger1984_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_R._Finger1984" class="citation book cs1">John R. Finger (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/easternbandofche0000fing"><i>The Eastern Band of Cherokees, 1819–1900</i></a></span>. Univ. of Tennessee Press. p. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-410-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-410-9"><bdi>978-0-87049-410-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Band+of+Cherokees%2C+1819%E2%80%931900&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-87049-410-9&rft.au=John+R.+Finger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feasternbandofche0000fing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christie2009-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christie2009_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessica_Joyce_Christie2009" class="citation book cs1">Jessica Joyce Christie (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SS_aCCujQ3gC&pg=PA14"><i>Landscapes of Origin in the Americas: Creation Narratives Linking Ancient Places and Present Communities</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5560-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5560-9"><bdi>978-0-8173-5560-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscapes+of+Origin+in+the+Americas%3A+Creation+Narratives+Linking+Ancient+Places+and+Present+Communities&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-5560-9&rft.au=Jessica+Joyce+Christie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSS_aCCujQ3gC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SarmientoHitchner2017-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SarmientoHitchner2017_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin_A._Steere2017" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin A. Steere (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ge6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165">"Collaborative Archaeology as a Tool For Preserving Sacred Sites in the Cherokee Heartland"</a>. In Fausto Sarmiento; Sarah Hitchner (eds.). <i>Indigeneity and the Sacred: Indigenous Revival and the Conservation of Sacred Natural Sites in the Americas</i>. Berghahn Books. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-397-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-397-2"><bdi>978-1-78533-397-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Collaborative+Archaeology+as+a+Tool+For+Preserving+Sacred+Sites+in+the+Cherokee+Heartland&rft.btitle=Indigeneity+and+the+Sacred%3A+Indigenous+Revival+and+the+Conservation+of+Sacred+Natural+Sites+in+the+Americas&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78533-397-2&rft.au=Benjamin+A.+Steere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Ge6DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WellsTubby2010-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WellsTubby2010_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_J._Wells2010" class="citation book cs1">Samuel J. Wells (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B5H_xoAOUhsC&pg=PR9">"Introduction"</a>. In Samuel J. Wells; Roseanna Tubby (eds.). <i>After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi</i>. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61703-084-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61703-084-0"><bdi>978-1-61703-084-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=After+Removal%3A+The+Choctaw+in+Mississippi&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Univ.+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61703-084-0&rft.au=Samuel+J.+Wells&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB5H_xoAOUhsC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LittlefieldParins2011-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LittlefieldParins2011_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_F._Littlefield,_Jr.James_W._Parins2011" class="citation book cs1">Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.; James W. Parins, eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA6">"Alabama and Indian Removal"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal</i>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1"><bdi>978-0-313-36041-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alabama+and+Indian+Removal&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Indian+Removal&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36041-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYx46lWJKphEC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weisman1989-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weisman1989_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrent_Richards_Weisman1989" class="citation book cs1">Brent Richards Weisman (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/likebeadsonstrin0000weis"><i>Like Beads on a String: A Culture History of the Seminole Indians in North Peninsular Florida</i></a></span>. University of Alabama Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/likebeadsonstrin0000weis/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-0411-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-0411-9"><bdi>978-0-8173-0411-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Like+Beads+on+a+String%3A+A+Culture+History+of+the+Seminole+Indians+in+North+Peninsular+Florida&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-0411-9&rft.au=Brent+Richards+Weisman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flikebeadsonstrin0000weis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HeidlerHeidler2003-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HeidlerHeidler2003_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_HeidlerJeanne_Heidler2003" class="citation book cs1">David Heidler; Jeanne Heidler (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5Xhnu1AAU8C&pg=PA33"><i>Old Hickory's War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire</i></a>. LSU Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2867-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2867-1"><bdi>978-0-8071-2867-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Hickory%27s+War%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Quest+for+Empire&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-2867-1&rft.au=David+Heidler&rft.au=Jeanne+Heidler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5Xhnu1AAU8C%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturtevant2008-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sturtevant2008_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_C._Sturtevant2008" class="citation book cs1">William C. Sturtevant (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA128"><i>Handbook of North American Indians</i></a>. Government Printing Office. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-080388-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-080388-8"><bdi>978-0-16-080388-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+North+American+Indians&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-16-080388-8&rft.au=William+C.+Sturtevant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ1IwUbZqjTUC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnett2012-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barnett2012_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_F._Barnett2012" class="citation book cs1">James F. Barnett (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zAG-0afCSpIC&pg=PA264"><i>Mississippi's American Indians</i></a>. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61703-246-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61703-246-2"><bdi>978-1-61703-246-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mississippi%27s+American+Indians&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Univ.+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61703-246-2&rft.au=James+F.+Barnett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzAG-0afCSpIC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturtevant2008123-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sturtevant2008123_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_C._Sturtevant2008" class="citation book cs1">William C. Sturtevant (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA123"><i>Handbook of North American Indians</i></a>. Government Printing Office. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-080388-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-080388-8"><bdi>978-0-16-080388-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+North+American+Indians&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-16-080388-8&rft.au=William+C.+Sturtevant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ1IwUbZqjTUC%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parins20118-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parins20118_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_F._Littlefield,_Jr.James_W._Parins2011" class="citation book cs1">Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.; James W. Parins (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA8"><i>Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 8–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1"><bdi>978-0-313-36041-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Indian+Removal&rft.pages=8-9&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36041-1&rft.au=Daniel+F.+Littlefield%2C+Jr.&rft.au=James+W.+Parins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYx46lWJKphEC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hébert2017-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hébert2017_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_S._Hébert2017" class="citation web cs1">Keith S. Hébert (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170615182709/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3853">"Poarch Band of Creek Indians"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Alabama</i>. Auburn University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3853">the original</a> on June 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Alabama&rft.atitle=Poarch+Band+of+Creek+Indians&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Keith+S.+H%C3%A9bert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofalabama.org%2Farticle%2Fh-3853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker1996-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parker1996_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinda_S._Parker1996" class="citation book cs1">Linda S. Parker (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NH-QMdK9-F4C&pg=PA36"><i>Native American Estate: The Struggle Over Indian and Hawaiian Lands</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 36–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1807-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1807-4"><bdi>978-0-8248-1807-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+American+Estate%3A+The+Struggle+Over+Indian+and+Hawaiian+Lands&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1807-4&rft.au=Linda+S.+Parker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNH-QMdK9-F4C%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kinney1975-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kinney1975_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_P._Kinney1975" class="citation book cs1">Jay P. Kinney (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5krAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Kickapoo%22%20%22Shawnee%22"><i>A Continent Lost, a Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America</i></a>. Octagon Books. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-94576-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-94576-3"><bdi>978-0-374-94576-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Continent+Lost%2C+a+Civilization+Won%3A+Indian+Land+Tenure+in+America&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Octagon+Books&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-374-94576-3&rft.au=Jay+P.+Kinney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5krAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522Kickapoo%2522%2520%2522Shawnee%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BeyondRem-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BeyondRem_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_P._Bowes2014" class="citation journal cs1">John P. Bowes (2014). "American Indian Removal beyond the Removal Act". <i>Wíčazo Ša Review</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.1.1.0065">10.5749/natiindistudj.1.1.0065</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0749-6427">0749-6427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=W%C3%AD%C4%8Dazo+%C5%A0a+Review&rft.atitle=American+Indian+Removal+beyond+the+Removal+Act&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5749%2Fnatiindistudj.1.1.0065&rft.issn=0749-6427&rft.au=John+P.+Bowes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vol19-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vol19_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_S._Curtis1930" class="citation book cs1">Edward S. Curtis (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bi2JjHOUFNkC&pg=PA21"><i>The North American Indian. Volume 19 – The Indians of Oklahoma. The Wichita. The southern Cheyenne. The Oto. The Comanche. The Peyote cult</i></a>. Edward S. Curtis. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7426-9819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7426-9819-2"><bdi>978-0-7426-9819-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+North+American+Indian.+Volume+19+%E2%80%93+The+Indians+of+Oklahoma.+The+Wichita.+The+southern+Cheyenne.+The+Oto.+The+Comanche.+The+Peyote+cult.&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Edward+S.+Curtis&rft.date=1930&rft.isbn=978-0-7426-9819-2&rft.au=Edward+S.+Curtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbi2JjHOUFNkC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edmunds1978-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edmunds1978_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._David_Edmunds1978" class="citation book cs1">R. David Edmunds (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/potawatomiskeepe00edmu"><i>The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire</i></a></span>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/potawatomiskeepe00edmu/page/270">270</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2069-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2069-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-2069-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Potawatomis%3A+Keepers+of+the+Fire&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2069-0&rft.au=R.+David+Edmunds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpotawatomiskeepe00edmu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green2008-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green2008_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_D._Green2008" class="citation book cs1">Michael D. Green (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qdVfmZvBO84C&pg=PA28">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"We Dance in Opposite Directions": Mesquakie (Fox) Separatism from the Sac and Fox Tribe*"</a>. In Marvin Bergman (ed.). <i>Iowa History Reader</i>. University of Iowa Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60938-011-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60938-011-3"><bdi>978-1-60938-011-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22We+Dance+in+Opposite+Directions%22%3A+Mesquakie+%28Fox%29+Separatism+from+the+Sac+and+Fox+Tribe%2A&rft.btitle=Iowa+History+Reader&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=University+of+Iowa+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60938-011-3&rft.au=Michael+D.+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqdVfmZvBO84C%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis2d-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lewis2d_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis,_James2000" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, James (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619071514/http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html">"The Black Hawk War of 1832"</a>. DeKalb, IL: Abraham Lincoln Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University. p. 2D. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/blackhawk/page2d.html">the original</a> on June 19, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Black+Hawk+War+of+1832&rft.place=DeKalb%2C+IL&rft.pages=2D&rft.pub=Abraham+Lincoln+Digitization+Project%2C+Northern+Illinois+University&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Lewis%2C+James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flincoln.lib.niu.edu%2Fblackhawk%2Fpage2d.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tigerman2006-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tigerman2006_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKathleen_Tigerman2006" class="citation book cs1">Kathleen Tigerman (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BTnBMOERCOUC&pg=PA160"><i>Wisconsin Indian Literature: Anthology of Native Voices</i></a>. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-22064-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-22064-8"><bdi>978-0-299-22064-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wisconsin+Indian+Literature%3A+Anthology+of+Native+Voices&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-299-22064-8&rft.au=Kathleen+Tigerman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBTnBMOERCOUC%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohansenMann2000" class="citation book cs1">Johansen, Bruce Elliott; Mann, Barbara Alice (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zibNDBchPkMC"><i>Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy)</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30880-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30880-2"><bdi>978-0-313-30880-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Haudenosaunee+%28Iroquois+Confederacy%29&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30880-2&rft.aulast=Johansen&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Elliott&rft.au=Mann%2C+Barbara+Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzibNDBchPkMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlefieldParins2011" class="citation book cs1">Littlefield, Daniel F. Jr.; Parins, James W. (January 19, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7OlZPtIMy4C"><i>Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36042-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36042-8"><bdi>978-0-313-36042-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Indian+Removal+%5B2+volumes%5D&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011-01-19&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36042-8&rft.aulast=Littlefield&rft.aufirst=Daniel+F.+Jr.&rft.au=Parins%2C+James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA7OlZPtIMy4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hauptman2014-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hauptman2014_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence_M._Hauptman2014" class="citation book cs1">Laurence M. Hauptman (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YYKiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA192"><i>In the Shadow of Kinzua: The Seneca Nation of Indians since World War II</i></a>. Syracuse University Press. p. 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5238-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5238-0"><bdi>978-0-8156-5238-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+Kinzua%3A+The+Seneca+Nation+of+Indians+since+World+War+II&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-5238-0&rft.au=Laurence+M.+Hauptman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYYKiAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LittlefieldParins2011158-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LittlefieldParins2011158_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_P._Bowes2011" class="citation book cs1">John P. Bowes (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx46lWJKphEC&pg=PA158">"Ogden Land Company"</a>. In Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal</i>. James W. Parins. ABC-CLIO. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-36041-1"><bdi>978-0-313-36041-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ogden+Land+Company&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Indian+Removal&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-36041-1&rft.au=John+P.+Bowes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYx46lWJKphEC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wooster2009-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wooster2009_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_Wooster2009" class="citation book cs1">Margaret Wooster (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-HhoOBbyi9gC&pg=PA58"><i>Living Waters: Reading the Rivers of the Lower Great Lakes</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7712-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7712-0"><bdi>978-0-7914-7712-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Waters%3A+Reading+the+Rivers+of+the+Lower+Great+Lakes&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7712-0&rft.au=Margaret+Wooster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-HhoOBbyi9gC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foreman1972-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Foreman1972_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant_Foreman1972" class="citation book cs1">Grant Foreman (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L8ZOg03I0s0C&pg=PA47"><i>Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 47, note 10 (1830 census). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1172-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-1172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Removal%3A+The+Emigration+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes+of+Indians&rft.pages=47%2C+note+10+%281830+census%29&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-1172-8&rft.au=Grant+Foreman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL8ZOg03I0s0C%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-peterson2-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-peterson2_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatz1986" class="citation book cs1">Satz, Ronald (1986). "The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty to the Federal Agency". In Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tubby (ed.). <i>After Removal, The Choctaw in Mississippi</i>. Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mississippi+Choctaw%3A+From+the+Removal+Treaty+to+the+Federal+Agency&rft.btitle=After+Removal%2C+The+Choctaw+in+Mississippi&rft.place=Jackson+and+London&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Satz&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOTE1-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NOTE1_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844 to 1849; Foreman, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-david_baird-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-david_baird_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1973" class="citation book cs1">Baird, David (1973). "The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843". <i>The Choctaw People</i>. United States: Indian Tribal Series. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/73-80708">73-80708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Choctaws+Meet+the+Americans%2C+1783+to+1843&rft.btitle=The+Choctaw+People&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Indian+Tribal+Series&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F73-80708&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-peterson-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-peterson_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1979" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi". <i>Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era</i>. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Three+Efforts+at+Development+among+the+Choctaws+of+Mississippi&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Indians%3A+Since+the+Removal+Era&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fn_(c)-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn_(c)_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rem272-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rem272_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remini 2001, p. 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton199285-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton199285_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell_Thornton1992" class="citation book cs1">Russell Thornton (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC&pg=PA85">"The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses"</a>. In William L. Anderson (ed.). <i>Cherokee Removal: Before and After</i>. University of Georgia Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1482-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1482-2"><bdi>978-0-8203-1482-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+the+Trail+of+Tears+Period%3A+A+New+Estimate+of+Cherokee+Population+Losses&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Removal%3A+Before+and+After&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-1482-2&rft.au=Russell+Thornton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dow_Vjtta0YsC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033">"Chickasaw"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210504192936/https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CH033">Archived</a> from the original on May 4, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Oklahoma+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Chickasaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.okhistory.org%2Fpublications%2Fenc%2Fentry.php%3Fentry%3DCH033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/research/microfilm/m1773.pdf">"Eastern Cherokee Census Rolls, 1835–1884"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Archives and Records Administration. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509095305/https://www.archives.gov/files/research/microfilm/m1773.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on May 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eastern+Cherokee+Census+Rolls%2C+1835%E2%80%931884&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fresearch%2Fmicrofilm%2Fm1773.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha_241_note_582-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prucha_241_note_582_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrucha1995" class="citation book cs1">Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC"><i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803287348" title="Special:BookSources/0803287348"><bdi>0803287348</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173833/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC">Archived</a> from the original on March 16, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Father%3A+The+United+States+Government+and+the+American+Indians&rft.pages=241+note+58&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0803287348&rft.aulast=Prucha&rft.aufirst=Francis+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSeWGTYsFcsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehle_390–3922-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehle_390–3922_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhle2011" class="citation book cs1">Ehle, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2lR-lpmfwC"><i>Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 390–392. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307793836" title="Special:BookSources/9780307793836"><bdi>9780307793836</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pages=390-392&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780307793836&rft.aulast=Ehle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC2lR-lpmfwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–932-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton,_Russell_1991._75–932_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton,_Russell_(1991)." class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses". In William L. Anderson (ed.). <i>Cherokee Removal: Before and After</i>. pp. 75–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+the+Trail+of+Tears+Period%3A+A+New+Estimate+of+Cherokee+Population+Losses&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Removal%3A+Before+and+After&rft.pages=75-93&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Russell+%281991%29.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanton1922" class="citation book cs1">Swanton, John Reed (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEYSAAAAYAAJ&q=seminoles+florida+1844+3,136&pg=PA443"><i>Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors, Issue 73</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office. p. 443.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+History+of+the+Creek+Indians+and+Their+Neighbors%2C+Issue+73&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=443&rft.pub=US+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Swanton&rft.aufirst=John+Reed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEYSAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dseminoles%2Bflorida%2B1844%2B3%2C136%26pg%3DPA443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prucha1995233-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1995233_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prucha1995233_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Paul_Prucha1995" class="citation book cs1">Francis Paul Prucha (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC&pg=PA233"><i>The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8734-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-8734-1"><bdi>978-0-8032-8734-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Father%3A+The+United+States+Government+and+the+American+Indians&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1&rft.au=Francis+Paul+Prucha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiSeWGTYsFcsC%26pg%3DPA233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallaceFoner1993" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Anthony; Foner, Eric (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8"><bdi>978-0-8090-1552-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidFiNsZghKkC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WallaceFoner1993-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WallaceFoner1993_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_WallaceEric_Foner1993" class="citation book cs1">Anthony Wallace; Eric Foner (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idFiNsZghKkC&pg=PA100"><i>The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians</i></a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 100–101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-1552-8"><bdi>978-0-8090-1552-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Long%2C+Bitter+Trail%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indians&rft.pages=100-101&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-1552-8&rft.au=Anthony+Wallace&rft.au=Eric+Foner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidFiNsZghKkC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_2002-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White_2002_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2002" class="citation journal cs1">White, Richard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf">"How Andrew Jackson Saved the Cherokees"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Green Bag</i>: 443–444. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231008161415/http://www.greenbag.org/v5n4/v5n4_reviews_white.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 8, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Green+Bag&rft.atitle=How+Andrew+Jackson+Saved+the+Cherokees&rft.pages=443-444&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenbag.org%2Fv5n4%2Fv5n4_reviews_white.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrepelle2021" class="citation journal cs1">Crepelle, Adam (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf">"LIES, DAMN LIES, AND FEDERAL INDIAN LAW: THE ETHICS OF CITING RACIST PRECEDENT IN CONTEMPORARY FEDERAL INDIAN LAW"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>N.Y.U. Review of Law & Social Change</i>. <b>44</b>: 565. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230414013841/https://socialchangenyu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Adam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 14, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=N.Y.U.+Review+of+Law+%26+Social+Change&rft.atitle=LIES%2C+DAMN+LIES%2C+AND+FEDERAL+INDIAN+LAW%3A+THE+ETHICS+OF+CITING+RACIST+PRECEDENT+IN+CONTEMPORARY+FEDERAL+INDIAN+LAW&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=565&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Crepelle&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialchangenyu.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F03%2FAdam-Crepelle_RLSC_44.4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FPPrucha-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FPPrucha_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrucha,_Francis_Paul1969" class="citation journal cs1">Prucha, Francis Paul (1969). "Andrew Jackson's Indian Policy: A Reassessment". <i>Journal of American History</i>. <b>56</b> (3): 527–539. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1904204">10.2307/1904204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1904204">1904204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Andrew+Jackson%27s+Indian+Policy%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=527-539&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1904204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1904204%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Prucha%2C+Francis+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zinn2015-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zinn2015_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward_Zinn2015" class="citation book cs1">Howard Zinn (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8JcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130"><i>A People's History of the United States: 1492–Present</i></a>. Routledge. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-32530-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-32530-7"><bdi>978-1-317-32530-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+the+United+States%3A+1492%E2%80%93Present&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-32530-7&rft.au=Howard+Zinn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8JcCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mann2009-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mann2009_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Alice_Mann2009" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Alice Mann (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vJcJmx8R8XIC&pg=PA20"><i>The Tainted Gift: The Disease Method of Frontier Expansion</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35338-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35338-3"><bdi>978-0-313-35338-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tainted+Gift%3A+The+Disease+Method+of+Frontier+Expansion&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35338-3&rft.au=Barbara+Alice+Mann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvJcJmx8R8XIC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading_(most_recent_first)"><span id="Further_reading_.28most_recent_first.29"></span>Further reading (most recent first)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading (most recent first)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaunt2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Saunt" title="Claudio Saunt">Saunt, Claudio</a> (2020). <i>Unworthy republic: the dispossession of Native Americans and the road to Indian territory</i> (First ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-60985-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-60985-1"><bdi>978-0-393-60985-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unworthy+republic%3A+the+dispossession+of+Native+Americans+and+the+road+to+Indian+territory&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-393-60985-1&rft.aulast=Saunt&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoy2018" class="citation journal cs1">Joy, Natalie (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2647805">"The Indian's Cause"</a>. <i>Journal of the Civil War Era</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 215–242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2018.0026">10.1353/cwe.2018.0026</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26478057">26478057</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165404949">165404949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=The+Indian%27s+Cause&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-242&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165404949%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26478057%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2018.0026&rft.aulast=Joy&rft.aufirst=Natalie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2647805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Black, Jason Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1903/3784"><i>US Governmental and Native Voices in the Nineteenth Century: Rhetoric in the Removal and Allotment of American Indians</i>.</a> (PhD dissertation), College Park, MD: University of Maryland. See, for instance, the bibliography on pp. 571–615.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ehle" title="John Ehle">Ehle, John</a> (1988). <i>Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/038523953X" title="Special:BookSources/038523953X">038523953X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrickland1982" class="citation journal cs1">Strickland, William M. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372535">"The Rhetoric of Removal and the Trail of Tears: Cherokee Speaking Against Jackson's Indian Removal Policy, 1828–1832"</a>. <i>Southern Speech Communication Journal</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 292–309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10417948209372535">10.1080/10417948209372535</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230727201001/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372535">Archived</a> from the original on July 27, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Speech+Communication+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Rhetoric+of+Removal+and+the+Trail+of+Tears%3A+Cherokee+Speaking+Against+Jackson%27s+Indian+Removal+Policy%2C+1828%E2%80%931832&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=292-309&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10417948209372535&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F10417948209372535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Jahoda" title="Gloria Jahoda">Jahoda, Gloria</a> (1975). <i>The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals 1813–1855</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Holt,_Rinehart_and_Winston" class="mw-redirect" title="Holt, Rinehart and Winston">Holt, Rinehart and Winston</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-014871-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-014871-5">0-03-014871-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1958" class="citation journal cs1">Young, Maryland E. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844855">"Indian Removal and Land Allotment: The Civilized Tribes and Jacksonian Justice"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>64</b> (1): 31–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1844855">10.2307/1844855</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844855">1844855</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210703040507/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844855">Archived</a> from the original on July 3, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Indian+Removal+and+Land+Allotment%3A+The+Civilized+Tribes+and+Jacksonian+Justice&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-45&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1844855&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1844855%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Maryland+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1844855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+removal" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Martinez, Donna, ed. <i>Documents of American Indian Removal</i> (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Documents-American-Removal-Eyewitness-History/dp/144085419X/">excerpt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_removal&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">PBS article on Indian Removal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100418182301/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html">Archived</a> April 18, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm">Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101210083504/http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm">Archived</a> December 10, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120413104654/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=638">Indian Removal from <i>Digital History</i> by S. Mintz</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_Removal" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_removal" title="Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_removal" title="Template talk:Indian removal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_removal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian removal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_Removal" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Removal</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles and military incidents<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims massacre</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Negro_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Negro Fort">Battle of Negro Fort</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fowltown" title="Battle of Fowltown">Battle of Fowltown</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Scott Massacre">Scott Massacre</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hughes_(Georgia)" title="Fort Hughes (Georgia)">Attack at Fort Hughes</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocheesee" title="Battle of Ocheesee">Battle of Ocheesee</a> (1817–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies and laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Land_Lotteries" title="Georgia Land Lotteries">Georgia Land Lotteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Removals (chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removals in Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1831–1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a> (1836–1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Lake_Tragedy" title="Sandy Lake Tragedy">Sandy Lake Tragedy</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Cult_Trail" title="Nome Cult Trail">Nome Cult Trail</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burt_Lake_burn-out" title="Burt Lake burn-out">Burt Lake burn-out</a> (1900)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">American politicians<br />and military officials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gadsden" title="James Gadsden">James Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Rockingham_Gilmer" class="mw-redirect" title="George Rockingham Gilmer">George Rockingham Gilmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_Indian_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Jefferson and Indian removal">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tipton" title="John Tipton">John Tipton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wallace_(Indiana_politician)" title="David Wallace (Indiana politician)">David Wallace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People who helped Indians<br />or documented removals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">Robert C. Ambrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbuthnot_and_Ambrister_incident" title="Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident">George Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicolls" title="Edward Nicolls">Edward Nicolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Petit" title="Benjamin Petit">Benjamin Marie Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Winter_(artist)" title="George Winter (artist)">George Winter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Land cession treaties<br />(chronologically)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix">Fort Stanwix (1st)</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix_(1784)" title="Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784)">Fort Stanwix (2nd)</a> (1784)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_McIntosh" title="Treaty of Fort McIntosh">Fort McIntosh</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="First Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (1st)</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">New York (1st)</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Greenville</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1796)" title="Treaty of New York (1796)">New York (2nd)</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Forbes_and_Company#The_Forbes_land_grants" title="John Forbes and Company">Forbes Purchase</a> (1804–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Fort Jackson</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Creek_Agency_(1818)" title="Treaty of the Creek Agency (1818)">Creek Agency</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Doak%27s_Stand" title="Treaty of Doak's Stand">Doak's Stand</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Indian_Springs_(1821)" title="Treaty of Indian Springs (1821)">Indian Springs</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (1st)</a> (1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (2nd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Third Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (3rd)</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Dancing Rabbit Creek</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien">Prairie du Chien (4th)</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cusseta" title="Treaty of Cusseta">Cusseta</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Payne%27s_Landing" title="Treaty of Payne's Landing">Payne's Landing</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Pontotoc_Creek" title="Treaty of Pontotoc Creek">Pontotoc Creek</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">New Echota</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (2nd)</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (1st)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Third Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (3rd)</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_La_Pointe" title="Treaty of La Pointe">La Pointe (2nd)</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Treaty_of_Buffalo_Creek" title="Fourth Treaty of Buffalo Creek">Buffalo Creek (4th)</a> (1857)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landbases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of historical Indian reservations in the United States">Former reservations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">in Oklahoma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_barrier_state" title="Indian barrier state">Indian barrier state (proposed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reserve_(1763)" title="Indian Reserve (1763)">Indian Reserve (1763)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unassigned_Lands" title="Unassigned Lands">Unassigned Lands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">in the Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Land claims settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native American genocide in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Reservation checkerboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Reservation diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservation_politics" title="Native American reservation politics">Reservation politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nicolls%27_Outpost" title="Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost">Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genocide" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genocide_navbox" title="Template talk:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genocide navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genocide" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">Genocides</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides" title="List of genocides">list by death toll</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Before_1490" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Before_1490" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Before 1490</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)#146_BC" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Destruction of Carthage</a> (146 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Vespers" title="Asiatic Vespers">Asiatic Vespers</a> (88 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gauls</a> (50s BCE) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eburones#Genocide_(53–51_BC)" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a> (132–136)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egica#Legislation" title="Egica">Visigothic Jews under Egica</a> (693)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ancestral Puebloans</a> (800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrying of the North</a> (1069–1070)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Mongol conquests</a> (1200s–1360s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Cathars</a> (1209–1229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1311_massacre_of_Mongols_in_the_Delhi_Sultanate" title="1311 massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate">Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate</a> (1311)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Tamerlane" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Assyria</a> (1393–1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Guanches</a> (1402–1496)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1490_to_1912" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#1490_to_1914" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">1490 to 1912</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno</a> (1493–1550)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Japanese_colonization_of_Hokkaido" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ainu</a> (1500s–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Indigenous peoples in Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_the_11th_Parallel" title="Massacre at the 11th Parallel">11th Parallel massacre</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_the_Hole" title="Man of the Hole">Tanaru</a> (1970s–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_massacre" title="Helmet massacre">Helmet massacre</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuntsu" title="Akuntsu">Akuntsu</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haximu_massacre" title="Haximu massacre">Haximu</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_humanitarian_crisis" title="Yanomami humanitarian crisis">Yanomami</a> (2019–2023)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaragua_massacre" title="Jaragua massacre">Jaragua massacre</a> (1503)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Aztecs</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Wars" title="Yaqui Wars">Yaqui</a> (1533–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Kashmiri_Shias" title="Persecution of Kashmiri Shias">Kashmiri Shias</a> (1548–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">Huguenots</a> (1572)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_genocide_of_1626" title="Kalinago genocide of 1626">Kalinago</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamey_Island_Massacre" title="Lamey Island Massacre">Lameyans</a> (1636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Indigenous peoples in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequots</a> (1636–1638)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a> (1779)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodhead%27s_Coshocton_expedition" title="Brodhead's Coshocton expedition">Coshocton Expedition</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnadenhutten_massacre" title="Gnadenhutten massacre">Gnadenhutten massacre</a> (1782)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a> (1830–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1830–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California</a> (1846–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1918–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Cultural genocide in the United States">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk#Genocide" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> (1700s–1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential school system</a> (1874–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixties_Scoop" title="Sixties Scoop">Sixties Scoop</a> (1951–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate</a> (1648–1657)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Gypsy_Round-up" title="Great Gypsy Round-up">Great Gypsy Round-up</a> (1749)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungars</a> (1750s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II</a> (1780–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_genocide" title="Chechen genocide">Chechens</a> (1785–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_Haitian_massacre" title="1804 Haitian massacre">French Hatians</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Genocide of Indigenous Australians">Indigenous peoples in Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a> (1825–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> (1869–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jawazi_massacre" title="Al-Jawazi massacre">al-Jawazi</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarino_massacre" title="Navarino massacre">Navarino massacre</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripolitsa" title="Siege of Tripolitsa">Siege of Tripolitsa</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a> (1830–1875) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_El_Ouffia" title="Massacre of El Ouffia">El Ouffia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Salsipuedes" title="Massacre of Salsipuedes">Charrúa</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_genocide" title="Moriori genocide">Moriori</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Manchus</a> (1850–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassians</a> (1860s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Mapuche</a> (1870s–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Indigenous peoples in Putumayo</a> (1879–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Congolese</a> (1885–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888%E2%80%931893_Hazara_uprisings" class="mw-redirect" title="1888–1893 Hazara uprisings">Hazaras</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_genocide" title="Selk'nam genocide">Selk'nam</a> (1890s–1900s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kuruyuki" title="Battle of Kuruyuki">Ava Guaraní</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> (1894–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Nama_genocide" title="Herero and Nama genocide">Herero and Nama</a> (1904–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion" title="Maji Maji Rebellion">Ukame</a> (1905–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1913_to_1945" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(World_War_I_through_World_War_II)" title="Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)">1913 to 1945</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greeks</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Thracian_Bulgarians_in_1913" title="Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913">Thracian Bulgarians</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrians</a> (1915–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenians</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_genocide_in_Diyarbekir" title="1915 genocide in Diyarbekir">Christians in Diyarbekir</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_of_Kurds_(1916%E2%80%931934)" title="Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)">Kurds</a> (1916–1934)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Indigenous peoples in Venezuela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemon_conflict" title="Pemon conflict">Pemon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Duala</a> (1914–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Kyrgyz</a> (1916–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Jews during the Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1920) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">Russian White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">Cossacks</a> (1919–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Hungary)" title="White Terror (Hungary)">Hungarian White Terror</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_the_Ingrian_Finns" title="Genocide of the Ingrian Finns">Ingrian Finns</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalp%C3%AD_massacre" title="Napalpí massacre">Napalpí massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinder_der_Landstrasse" title="Kinder der Landstrasse">Kinder der Landstrasse</a> (1926–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_genocide" title="Libyan genocide">Libyan Arabs</a> (1929–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhs</a> (1930–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Matanza" title="La Matanza">La Matanza</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> (1932–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Romani Holocaust</a> (1935–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">Spanish White Terror</a> (1936–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Operation_of_the_NKVD" title="Polish Operation of the NKVD">Polish Operation</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley massacre</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> (1939–1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Baltic lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_Solution_of_the_Czech_Question" title="Final Solution of the Czech Question">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_policy" title="Three Alls policy">Three Alls policy</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs in Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetnik_war_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="Chetnik war crimes in World War II">Muslims and Croats in Serbia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush" title="Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush">Chechens and Ingush</a> (1944–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> (1944–1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1946_to_1999" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">1946 to 1999</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_massacres" title="Hyderabad massacres">Hyderabadi Muslims</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Indigenous peoples in Paraguay</a> (1956–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Maya</a> (1962–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Arabs_during_the_Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Massacre of Arabs during the Zanzibar Revolution">Arab and Indian Zanzibaris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_anti-Igbo_pogrom" title="1966 anti-Igbo pogrom">1966 anti-Igbo pogrom</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Biafra_(1966–1970)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Biafra</a> (1966–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Feyli_Kurds_under_Saddam_Hussein" title="Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein">Feyli Kurds</a> (1970–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Idi_Amin's_regime" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Acholi and Lango</a> (1972–1979)</li> <li>Burundi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">1993</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor</a> (1974–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_conflict" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict">Jummas</a> (1977–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Bush_War_(1981–1985)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Baganda</a> (1981–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_genocide" title="Tamil genocide">Sri Lankan Tamils</a> (1983–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a> (1983–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedoon#Kuwait" title="Bedoon">Kuwaiti Bedoon</a> (1985–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal</a> (1986–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Population_Program" title="National Population Program">National Population Program</a> (1987–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Amhara genocide">Amhara</a> (1990–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes">Ahwaris</a> (1991–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian</a> (1992–1995) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_massacre" title="Srebrenica massacre">Srebrenica massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Hutus during the First Congo War</a> (1996–1997)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(21st_century)" title="Genocides in history (21st century)">21st century</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a> (2002–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur_genocide" title="Darfur genocide">Darfur</a> (2003–) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masalit_massacres_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Masalit massacres (2023–present)">Masalit massacres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_in_Tigray" title="Genocide in Tigray">Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kaduna_genocide" title="Southern Kaduna genocide">Southern Kaduna</a> (2011–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidis</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Shias_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State">Shias under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Christians under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya</a> (2017–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Anod_conflict_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Las Anod conflict (2023–present)">Dhulbahante</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">Gaza Strip</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogenocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Autogenocide">Autogenocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide#Genocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoricide" title="Memoricide">Memoricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policide" title="Policide">Policide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_cleansing_of_population#Politicide" title="Political cleansing of population">Politicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliticide" title="Eliticide">Eliticide</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarian_genocide" title="Utilitarian genocide">Utilitarian genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_adoption" title="Forced adoption">Forced adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_massacre" title="Genocidal massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Fields" title="Killing Fields">Killing Fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Denial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_atrocities_against_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">Definitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust" title="Names of the Holocaust">Names of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Terminology of the Armenian genocide">Terminology of the Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_terminology" title="Category:Holocaust terminology">Holocaust terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Genocide_Convention#Municipal_laws" title="List of parties to the Genocide Convention">Genocide law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_genocide_on_youth" title="Effects of genocide on youth">Effects on young survivors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">Politics of recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_mass_killings" title="Anti-communist mass killings">Anti-communist mass killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal proceedings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Holocaust_trials_(1943–2022)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_trials" title="Category:Holocaust trials">Holocaust trials</a> (1943–2022)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krasnodar_Trial" title="Krasnodar Trial">Krasnodar trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharkov_Trial" title="Kharkov Trial">Kharkov trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a> (1944–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_trials" title="Majdanek trials">Majdanek trials</a> (1944–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_trials" title="Chełmno trials">Chełmno trials</a> (1945–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_trials" title="Dachau trials">Dachau trials</a> (1945–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belsen_trials" title="Belsen trials">Belsen trials</a> (1945–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_trials" title="Euthanasia trials">Euthanasia trials</a> (1945–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Trial" title="Minsk Trial">Minsk trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Trial" title="Riga Trial">Riga trial</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_trials" title="Stutthof trials">Stutthof trials</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Romanian_war_crime_trials" title="Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials">Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Tribunal" title="Supreme National Tribunal">Supreme National Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Ravensbr%C3%BCck_trials" title="Hamburg Ravensbrück trials">Hamburg Ravensbrück trials</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a> (1946–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Erich_von_Manstein" title="Trial of Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulm_Einsatzkommando_trial" title="Ulm Einsatzkommando trial">Ulm Einsatzkommando trial</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trials_in_Soviet_Estonia" title="War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia">War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia</a> (1961–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_trial" title="Belzec trial">Belzec trial</a> (1963–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Auschwitz_trials" title="Frankfurt Auschwitz trials">Frankfurt Auschwitz trials</a> (1963–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_trials" title="Treblinka trials">Treblinka trials</a> (1964–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_trial" title="Sobibor trial">Sobibor trial</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_Fedorenko#Soviet_trial_and_execution" title="Feodor Fedorenko">Fedorenko trial</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Finta#War_crimes_prosecution" title="Imre Finta">Finta trial</a> (1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="20th_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">20th century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mile_Budak" title="Trial of Mile Budak">Budak trial</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mihailovi%C4%87_et_al." title="Trial of Mihailović et al.">Belgrade Process</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_case" title="Bosnian genocide case">Bosnian genocide case</a> (1993–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> (1993–2017) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Trial of Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Trial of Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> (2008–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Ratko_Mladi%C4%87" title="Trial of Ratko Mladić">Ratko Mladić</a> (2011–2017)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trials_of_the_Derg_members" title="Trials of the Derg members">Trials of the Derg members</a> (1994–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (1994–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Khmer Rouge Tribunal</a> (1997–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Serbia_genocide_case" title="Croatia–Serbia genocide case">Croatia–Serbia genocide case</a> (1999–2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">21st century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Darfur" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur">International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur</a> (2005–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Peoples%27_Tribunal_on_Sri_Lanka" title="Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka">Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka</a> (2010–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Crimes_Tribunal_(Bangladesh)" title="International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)">International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh</a> (2012–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide_case" title="Rohingya genocide case">Rohingya genocide case</a> (2019–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Tribunal" title="Uyghur Tribunal">Uyghur Tribunal</a> (2020–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Ukraine" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine">International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_v._Russian_Federation_(2022)" title="Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)">Ukraine v. Russian Federation</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa%27s_genocide_case_against_Israel" title="South Africa's genocide case against Israel">South Africa v. Israel</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_for_Children_International_%E2%80%93_Palestine_et_al_v._Biden_et_al" title="Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al">Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al</a> (2023–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._Germany" title="Nicaragua v. Germany">Nicaragua v. Germany</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Indigenous_and_minority_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Template:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Template talk:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Indigenous_and_minority_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">International <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">minority rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_domain" title="Ancestral domain">Ancestral domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free,_prior_and_informed_consent" title="Free, prior and informed consent">Free, prior and informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_self-determination" title="Indigenous Australian self-determination">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">medical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_treaties_in_Australia" title="Indigenous treaties in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi">in New Zealand</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-governmental and<br /> political organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Watch" title="Amazon Watch">Amazon Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_Indigenous_Nationalities_of_Ecuador" title="Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador">Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Congress of Aboriginal Peoples">Congress of Aboriginal Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinator_of_Indigenous_Organizations_of_the_Amazon_River_Basin" title="Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin">Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Survival" title="Cultural Survival">Cultural Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Environmental_Network" title="Indigenous Environmental Network">Indigenous Environmental Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism" title="Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism">Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Work_Group_for_Indigenous_Affairs" title="International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs">International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Organization_of_Colombia" title="National Indigenous Organization of Colombia">National Indigenous Organization of Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_International" title="Survival International">Survival International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization" title="Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization">Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">Zapatista Army of National Liberation</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_rights_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous rights organizations"><i>more ...</i></a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">Civilizing mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">Internal colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Sports mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redface" title="Redface">Redface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline_protests" title="Dakota Access Pipeline protests">Dakota Access Pipeline protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">Discovery doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_grabbing" title="Green grabbing">Green grabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lands_inhabited_by_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples">Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">American Indian reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_colony" title="Indian colony">Indian colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancher%C3%ADa" title="Ranchería">Ranchería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancherie" title="Rancherie">Rancherie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_Russia" title="Republics of Russia">Russian republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_Indian_reserve" title="Urban Indian reserve">Urban Indian reserve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">Plastic shaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend_of_the_Rainbow_Warriors" title="Legend of the Rainbow Warriors">Rainbow Warriors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal representation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental<br />bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aotearoa-New Zealand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Te_Puni_K%C5%8Dkiri" title="Te Puni Kōkiri">Te Puni Kōkiri</a></li></ul></li> <li>Brazil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_do_%C3%8Dndio" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundação Nacional do Índio">Fundação Nacional do Índio</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada">Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mexico <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="National Institute of Indigenous Peoples">National Institute of Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>Philippines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_on_Indigenous_Peoples_(Philippines)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines)">National Commission on Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_for_the_Development_of_the_Russian_Far_East_and_Arctic" title="Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic">Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Bashkortostan" title="Government of Bashkortostan">Government of Bashkortostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Sakha_Republic" title="Government of the Sakha Republic">Government of the Sakha Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Tatarstan" title="Government of Tatarstan">Government of Tatarstan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Taiwan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Council of Indigenous Peoples">Council of Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>US <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intergovernmental<br />bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African Union <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Commission_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights">African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li>WIPO <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Committee_on_Intellectual_Property_and_Genetic_Resources,_Traditional_Knowledge_and_Folklore" title="Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore">Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Treaty" title="High Seas Treaty">BBNJ ABS Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous-led<br />international<br />bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Caucus" title="Indigenous Caucus">Indigenous Caucus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and<br />Declarations of Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Tribal_Peoples_Convention,_1989" title="Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989">Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (ILO C169)</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Nagoya_Protocol" title="Nagoya Protocol">Nagoya Protocol</a> on <a href="/wiki/Access_and_Benefit_Sharing_Agreement" title="Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement">Fair Access and Benefit-Sharing</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants (UNDROP)</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Treaty" title="High Seas Treaty">High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement)</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/WIPO_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property,_Genetic_Resources_and_Associated_Traditional_Knowledge" title="WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge">Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge (GRATK)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen–Russian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Civil War">Sri Lankan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Peruvian_political_crisis" title="2009 Peruvian political crisis">2009 Peruvian political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alta_controversy" title="Alta controversy">Alta controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Chagossians" title="Expulsion of the Chagossians">Expulsion of the Chagossians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Arctic_relocation" title="High Arctic relocation">High Arctic relocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">Human rights in Tibet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Danes_experiment" title="Little Danes experiment">Little Danes experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_conflict" title="Mapuche conflict">Mapuche conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oka_Crisis" title="Oka Crisis">Oka Crisis</a></li> <li>Residential schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_schools" title="Native schools">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Bantu_Education" title="Department of Bantu Education">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rubber_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon rubber boom">Rubber boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Beers#Forceful_relocation_of_indigenous_Bushman_people_in_Botswana" title="De Beers">San controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_rights" title="Category:Indigenous rights"><b>Indigenous rights</b></a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Minority_rights" title="Category:Minority rights"><b>Minority rights</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Andrew_Jackson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template talk:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andrew_Jackson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">7th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1829–1837)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States senators from Tennessee">Senator from Tennessee</a> (1797–1798, 1823–1825)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Florida" title="List of governors of Florida">Federal Military Commissioner of Florida</a> (1821)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tennessee%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's at-large congressional district">Tennessee at-large</a> (1796–1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hanging_Rock" title="Battle of Hanging Rock">Battle of Hanging Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter%27s_Hill_(Tennessee)" title="Hunter's Hill (Tennessee)">Hunter's Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Battle of Talladega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">Battle of Pensacola (1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Armed_Services" title="United States Senate Committee on Armed Services">United States Senate Committee on Armed Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">Corrupt bargain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_1828_presidential_campaign" title="Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign">Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_Handbills" title="Coffin Handbills">Coffin Handbills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="First inauguration of Andrew Jackson">First inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1820)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1820)">Tenure of Office Act (1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petticoat_affair" title="Petticoat affair">Petticoat affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Cabinet" title="Kitchen Cabinet">Kitchen Cabinet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censure_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Censure of Andrew Jackson">Senate censure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_Jacksonian_Era" title="Banking in the Jacksonian Era">Banking in the Jacksonian Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">Hard money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1829_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1829 State of the Union Address">1829 State of the Union Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1830_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1830 State of the Union Address">1830 State of the Union Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maysville_Road_veto" title="Maysville Road veto">Maysville Road veto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson">Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">Tariff of 1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Nullification" title="Ordinance of Nullification">Ordinance of Nullification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_Bill" title="Force Bill">Force Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1833" title="Tariff of 1833">Tariff of 1833</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_banks" title="Pet banks">Pet banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of memorials to Andrew Jackson">List of memorials to Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Andrew Jackson (U.S. Capitol)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (U.S. Capitol statue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Andrew_the_First" title="King Andrew the First">King Andrew the First</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C.)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (Washington D.C. and New Orleans statues)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jack_(stamp)" title="Black Jack (stamp)">Black Jack stamp</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_President%27s_Lady" title="The President's Lady">The President's Lady</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1938_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1938 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1958_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1958 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gorgeous_Hussy" title="The Gorgeous Hussy">The Gorgeous Hussy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remarkable_Andrew" title="The Remarkable Andrew">The Remarkable Andrew</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson" title="Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson">Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man_of_Conquest" title="Man of Conquest">Man of Conquest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USRC_Jackson_(1832)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC Jackson (1832)">USRC <i>Jackson</i> (1832)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Andrew_Jackson_(SSBN-619)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Andrew Jackson (SSBN-619)">USS <i>Andrew Jackson</i> (SSBN-619)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Jackson" title="USS President Jackson">USS <i>President Jackson</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Jackson" title="Rachel Jackson">Rachel Jackson</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Donelson" title="Andrew Jackson Donelson">Andrew Jackson Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Smith_Donelson" title="Daniel Smith Donelson">Daniel Smith Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyncoya_Jackson" title="Lyncoya Jackson">Lyncoya Jackson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Donelson" title="Emily Donelson">Emily Donelson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Yorke_Jackson" title="Sarah Yorke Jackson">Sarah Yorke Jackson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hutchings_(slave_trader)" title="John Hutchings (slave trader)">John Hutchings</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_(parrot)" title="Poll (parrot)">Poll</a> (pet)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slaves</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Jackson and slavery">Jackson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States">Jackson as slave trader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(Tennessee)" title="Gilbert (Tennessee)">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jackson_(Tennessee)" title="Alfred Jackson (Tennessee)">Alfred Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Jackson" title="Hannah Jackson">Hannah Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">← John Quincy Adams</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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