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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distinctions_between_the_different_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctions_between_the_different_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Distinctions between the different concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctions_between_the_different_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_the_term_displaced_person" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_term_displaced_person"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>History of the term <i>displaced person</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_term_displaced_person-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_and_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_and_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Causes and examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes_and_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes and examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes_and_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Natural causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_natural_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_natural_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_natural_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human-made_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human-made_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Human-made causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human-made_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_criminal_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_criminal_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_criminal_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_political_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_political_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_political_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_human-made_environmental_disasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_human-made_environmental_disasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Examples of forced displacement caused by human-made environmental disasters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_human-made_environmental_disasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_human-made_displacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_human-made_displacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Other human-made displacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_human-made_displacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions_faced_by_displaced_persons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions_faced_by_displaced_persons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conditions faced by displaced persons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditions_faced_by_displaced_persons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses_to_forced_displacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses_to_forced_displacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Responses to forced displacement</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Responses_to_forced_displacement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Responses to forced displacement subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Responses_to_forced_displacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>International response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Local response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_prosecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_prosecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Criminal prosecution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_prosecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Forced displacement</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="تهجير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تهجير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99cburi_yerd%C9%99yi%C5%9Fm%C9%99" title="Məcburi yerdəyişmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Məcburi yerdəyişmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A4%DA%86%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86" title="مجبوری کؤچکون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مجبوری کؤچکون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Прымусовае перасяленне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прымусовае перасяленне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisilno_raseljavanje" title="Prisilno raseljavanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prisilno raseljavanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucen%C3%A9_vys%C3%ADdlen%C3%AD" title="Nucené vysídlení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nucené vysídlení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertreibung" title="Vertreibung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vertreibung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundr%C3%A4nne" title="Sundränne – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sundränne" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B8%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ανταλλαγή πληθυσμών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανταλλαγή πληθυσμών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraci%C3%B3n_forzosa" title="Migración forzosa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Migración forzosa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviga_migrado" title="Deviga migrado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Deviga migrado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مهاجرت اجباری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهاجرت اجباری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_forc%C3%A9e" title="Migration forcée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Migration forcée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%95%EC%A0%9C_%EC%9D%B4%EC%A3%BC" title="강제 이주 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="강제 이주" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrazione_forzata" title="Migrazione forzata – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Migrazione forzata" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="הגירה בכפייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הגירה בכפייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitelep%C3%ADt%C3%A9s" title="Kitelepítés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kitelepítés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E5%88%B6%E7%A7%BB%E4%BD%8F" title="強制移住 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="強制移住" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvungen_migrasjon" title="Tvungen migrasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tvungen migrasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvinga_migrasjon" title="Tvinga migrasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tvinga migrasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migra%C3%A7%C3%A3o_for%C3%A7ada" title="Migração forçada – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Migração forçada" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_migration" title="Forced migration – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Forced migration" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakkosiirto" title="Pakkosiirto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pakkosiirto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3" title="การโยกย้ายประชากร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การโยกย้ายประชากร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E5%88%B6%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99" title="強制遷徙 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="強制遷徙" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7%E8%BF%AB%E9%81%B7%E7%A7%BB" title="強迫遷移 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="強迫遷移" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Forcibly displaced people</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">108.4 million<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (2022)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugees</a></th><td class="infobox-data">34.6 million</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Internally displaced people">Internally displaced people</a></th><td class="infobox-data">57.3 million</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Asylum_seeker" title="Asylum seeker">Asylum seekers</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2.9 million</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Forced displacement</b> (also <b>forced migration</b> or <b>forced relocation</b>) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UNHCR</a> defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".<sup id="cite_ref-UNHCRtrends_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCRtrends-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A forcibly displaced person may also be referred to as a "<b>forced migrant</b>", a "<b>displaced person</b>" (<b>DP</b>), or, if displaced within the home country, an "<a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internally displaced person</a>" (IDP). While some displaced persons may be considered <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>, the latter term specifically refers to such displaced persons who are receiving legally-defined protection and are recognized as such by their country of residence and/or international organizations. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in Lesbos, Greece, in 2015 seeking refuge." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg/220px-20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg/330px-20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg/440px-20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3337" /></a><figcaption>Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in Lesbos, Greece, in 2015 seeking refuge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Forced displacement has gained attention in international discussions and policy making since the <a href="/wiki/European_migrant_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European migrant crisis">European migrant crisis</a>. This has since resulted in a greater consideration of the impacts of forced migration on affected regions outside Europe. Various international, regional, and local organizations are developing and implementing approaches to both prevent and mitigate the impact of forced migration in the home regions as well as the receiving or destination regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:82_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:72_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-usaid.gov_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usaid.gov-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, some collaboration efforts are made to gather evidence in order to seek prosecution of those involved in causing events of human-made forced migration.<sup id="cite_ref-UNHCR2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCR2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 100 million people around the world were forcibly displaced by the end of 2022, with the majority coming from the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_Entkulakisierung.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/220px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/330px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/440px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png 2x" data-file-width="1287" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>General deportation currents of the <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a> the Soviet Union, 1930–1931</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Governments, <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a>, other <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a> and social scientists have defined forced displacement in a variety of ways. They have generally agreed that it is the forced removal or relocation of a person from their environment and associated connections. It can involve different types of movements, such as flight (from fleeing), evacuation, and <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a>. </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration" title="International Organization for Migration">International Organization for Migration</a> defines a forced migrant as any person migrating to "escape persecution, conflict, repression, natural and human-made disasters, ecological degradation, or other situations that endanger their lives, freedom or livelihood".<sup id="cite_ref-forcedmigration.org_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forcedmigration.org-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>According to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, forced displacement is "the forced movement of people from their locality or environment and occupational activities," with its leading cause being <a href="/wiki/Armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed conflict">armed conflict</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:62_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:62-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>According to researcher Alden Speare, even movement under immediate threat to life contains a voluntary element as long as an option exists going into hiding, or attempting to avoid persecution. According to him "migration can be considered to be involuntary only when a person is physically transported from a country and has no opportunity to escape from those transporting him [or her]." This viewpoint has come under scrutiny when considering direct and indirect factors which may leave migrants with little to no choice in their decisions, such as imminent threats to life and livelihood.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinctions_between_the_different_concepts">Distinctions between the different concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distinctions between the different concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugee</a></div> <ul><li>A migrant who fled their home because of economic hardship is an <a href="/wiki/Economic_migrant" title="Economic migrant">economic migrant</a>, and strictly speaking, not a displaced person.</li> <li>If the displaced person was forced out of their home because of economically driven projects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> in China, the situation is referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Development-induced_displacement" title="Development-induced displacement">development-induced displacement</a></i>.</li> <li>A displaced person who left their home region because of political persecution or violence, but did not cross an international border, commonly falls into the looser category of <i><a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internally displaced person</a></i> (IDP), subject to more tenuous international protection. In 1998, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">UN Commission on Human Rights</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Guiding_Principles_on_Internal_Displacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement">Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement</a>, defining internally displaced people as: "persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or leave their homes or places of habitual residence in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural or human-made disasters and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border."</li> <li>If the displaced person has crossed an international border and falls under one of the <a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">relevant international legal instruments</a>, they may be able to apply for asylum and can become a <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a> if the application is successful.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although often incorrectly used as a synonym for <i>displaced person</i>, the term <i>refugee</i> refers specifically to a legally-recognized status that has access to specific legal protections. Loose application of the term <i>refugee</i> may cause confusion between the general descriptive class of displaced persons and those who can legally be defined as refugees.</li> <li>Some forced migrants may, due to the country of residence's legal system, be unable to apply for asylum in that country. Thus, even though they meet the <a href="/wiki/Refugee_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugee Law">international law definition of a refugee</a> they are unable to claim <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">asylum</a> and become recognised by their host country as refugees.</li> <li>A displaced person crossing an international border without permission from the country they are entering or without subsequently applying for asylum may be considered an <a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal immigrant">illegal immigrant</a>.</li> <li>Forced migrants are always either IDPs or displaced people, as both of these terms do not require a legal framework and the fact that they left their homes is sufficient. The distinction between the terms <i>displaced person</i> and <i>forced migrant</i> is minor; however, the term <i>displaced person</i> has an important historic context (e.g. <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_of_the_term_displaced_person">History of the term <i>displaced person</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of the term displaced person"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>displaced person</i> (DP) was first widely used during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, following the subsequent refugee outflows from <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, <i>DP</i> specifically referred to an individual removed from their native country as a <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prisoner</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">slave laborer</a>. Most war victims, political refugees, and DPs of the immediate post-Second World War period were Ukrainians, Poles, other <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, and citizens of the Baltic states (Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians) who refused to return to Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe. A. J. Jaffe claimed that the term was originally coined by <a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Kulischer" title="Eugene M. Kulischer">Eugene M. Kulischer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning has significantly broadened in the past half-century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_and_examples">Causes and examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Causes and examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bogumil Terminski distinguishes two general categories of displacement: </p> <ul><li>Displacement of risk: mostly conflict-induced displacement, deportations and disaster-induced displacement.</li> <li>Displacement of adaptation: associated with voluntary migration, development-induced displacement and environmentally-induced displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_causes">Natural causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Natural causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forced displacement may directly result from <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> and indirectly from the subsequent impact on <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, food and water access, and local/regional economies. Displacement may be temporary or permanent, depending on the scope of the disaster and the area's recovery capabilities. <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> is increasing the frequency of major natural disasters, possibly placing a greater number of populations in situations of forced displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also <a href="/wiki/Crop_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop failure">crop failures</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Blight" title="Blight">blight</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">pests</a> fall within this category by affecting people's access to food. Additionally, the term <a href="/wiki/Environmental_refugee" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental refugee">environmental refugee</a> represents people who are forced to leave their traditional habitat because of environmental factors which negatively impact their livelihood, or even environmental disruption i.e. biological, physical or chemical change in ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Migration can also occur as a result of slow-onset <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sea-level_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea-level rise">sea-level rise</a>, of deforestation or <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_natural_disasters">Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10691224953).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg/220px-Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg/330px-Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg/440px-Damage_in_Nias_from_the_December_2004_Indian_Ocean_Tsunami._Indonesia_2005._Photo-_AusAID_%2810691224953%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Damage to residence in Nias, Indonesia from the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_tsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Indian Ocean tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean tsunami</a>: Resulting from a 9.1 earthquake off the coast of North Sumatra, the Indian Ocean Tsunami claimed over 227,898 lives, heavily damaging coastlines throughout the Indian Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, over 1.7 million people were displaced, mostly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> (2005): Striking New Orleans, Louisiana, in late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina inflicted approximately US$125 billion in damages, standing as one of the costliest storms in United States history.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the damage inflicted by Katrina, over one million people were internally displaced. One month after the disaster, over 600,000 remained displaced. Immediately following the disaster, New Orleans lost approximately half of its population, with many residents displaced to cities such as Houston, Dallas, Baton Rouge, and Atlanta. According to numerous studies, displacement disproportionally impacted Louisiana's poorer populations, specifically African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_East_Africa_drought" title="2011 East Africa drought">2011 East Africa drought</a>: Failed rains in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia led to high livestock and crop losses, driving majority pastoralist populations to surrounding areas in search of accessible food and water.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to seeking food and water, local populations' migration was motivated by an inability to maintain traditional lifestyles.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to researchers,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2023)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> although partly influenced by local armed conflict, the East African drought stands as an example of climate change impacts.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human-made_causes">Human-made causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Human-made causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human-made displacement describes forced displacement caused by political entities, criminal organizations, conflicts, human-made environmental disasters, development, etc. Although impacts of natural disasters and blights/pests may be exacerbated by human mismanagement, human-made causes refer specifically to those initiated by humans. According to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, armed conflict stands as the most common cause behind forced displacement, reinforced by regional studies citing political and armed conflict as the largest attributing factors to migrant outflows from Latin America, Africa, and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-:62_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:62-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_criminal_activity">Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Displacement in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Drug_cartel" title="Drug cartel">cartel</a> violence: Throughout Mexico, drug cartel, paramilitary, and self-defense group violence drives internal and external displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a comprehensive, mixed methodology study by Salazar and Álvarez Lobato, families fled their homes as a means of survival, hoping to escape homicide, extortion, and potential kidnapping. Using a collection of available data and existing studies, the total number of displaced persons between 2006 and 2012 was approximately 740 thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Displacement in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> due to cartel/gang violence: A major factor behind US immigrant crises in the early 21st century (such as the <a href="/wiki/2014_American_immigration_crisis" title="2014 American immigration crisis">2014 immigrant crisis</a>), rampant gang violence in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Triangle_of_Central_America" title="Northern Triangle of Central America">Northern Triangle</a>, combined with corruption and low economic opportunities, has forced many to flee their country in pursuit of stability and greater opportunity. Homicide rates in countries such as <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> reached some of the highest in the world, with El Salvador peaking at <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate" title="List of countries by intentional homicide rate">103 homicides per 100,000 people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contributing factors include extortion, territorial disputes, and forced gang recruitment, resulting in some estimates of approximately 500,000 people displaced annually.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:72_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Displacement in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> due to conflict and drug-related violence: According to researchers Mojica and Eugenia, Medellín, Colombia around 2013 exemplified crime and violence-induced forced displacement, standing as one of the most popular destinations for <a href="/wiki/IDPs" class="mw-redirect" title="IDPs">IDPs</a> while also producing IDPs of its own. Rural citizens fled from organized criminal violence, with the majority pointing to direct threats as the main driving force, settling in Medellín in pursuit of safety and greater opportunity. Within Medellín, various armed groups battled for territorial control, forcing perceived opponents from their homes and pressuring residents to abandon their livelihoods, among other methods. All in all, criminal violence forced Colombians to abandon their possessions, way of life, and social ties in pursuit of safety.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_political_conflict">Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png/220px-Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png/330px-Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png/440px-Ethnic_Armenians_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_seeking_refuge_due_to_attacks_by_Azerbaijani_armed_forces.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="930" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_Nagorno-Karabakh_Armenians" title="Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians">Displaced ethnic Armenians</a> boarding buses in <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a> on 21 September 2023</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1949%E2%80%931956_Palestinian_exodus" class="mw-redirect" title="1949–1956 Palestinian exodus">1949–1956 Palestinian exodus</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">1950-1951 exodus of Turks from Bulgaria</a>: according to some, caused because the Turkish support of the USA during the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>. Communist ideologies, Islamophobia and Anti-Turkism also played a role.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>: Throughout the Vietnam War and in the years preceding it, many populations were forced out of Vietnam and the surrounding countries as a result of armed conflict and/or persecution by their governments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist Republic of Vietnam">Socialist Republic of Vietnam</a>. This event is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Indochina_refugee_crisis" title="Indochina refugee crisis">Indochina refugee crisis</a>, with millions displaced across Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a>: Throughout and after the 12-year conflict between the Salvadoran government and the <a href="/wiki/Farabundo_Mart%C3%AD_National_Liberation_Front" title="Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front">FMLN</a>, Salvadorans faced forced displacement as a result of combat, persecution, and deteriorating quality of life/access to socioeconomic opportunities. Overall, one in four Salvadorans were internally and externally displaced (over one million people).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="2021 Myanmar coup d'état">2021 Myanmar coup d'état</a>: Since the coup d’état of 1 February 2021, the Burmese military's ascendancy into power has resulted in widespread chaos and violence, aggravated by the refusal of large sections of the public to accept a military regime given the country's experiences during the second half of the 20th and early years of the 21st century. As a result, many in the public sector have initiated strikes,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the country has seen elevated levels of forced displacement, both internally displaced persons (IDPs) (208,000 since 1 February 2021) and refugees fleeing abroad (an estimated 22,000 since 1 February 2021).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The particular political conflict causing the displacement has been flagged as symptomatic of that of a state on the brink of collapse. Two key indicators of this that have been highlighted are firstly, that levels of security have been severely reduced to the point where citizens are no longer protected from violence by the state; and secondly, goods and services are not being reliably supplied to citizens either by the ousted government or by the new military leadership, primarily as a result of the instability created and the strikes triggered.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These internal problems are further reflected by the withdrawal of international recognition by both governmental and non-governmental bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_forced_displacement_caused_by_human-made_environmental_disasters">Examples of forced displacement caused by human-made environmental disasters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Examples of forced displacement caused by human-made environmental disasters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_Amazon_rainforest_wildfires" title="2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires">2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires</a>: Although human-made fires are a normal part of Amazonian agriculture, the 2019 dry season saw an internationally noted increase in their rate of occurrence. The rapidly spreading fires, combined with efforts from agricultural and logging companies, has forced Brazil's indigenous populations off their native lands.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>: A nuclear meltdown on April 26, 1986, near <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat, Ukraine</a> contaminated the city and surrounding areas with harmful levels of radiation, forcing the displacement of over 100,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine of Ireland</a>: Between 1845 and 1849, potato blight, exacerbated by policy decisions and mismanagement by the U.K. government, caused millions of Irish people, largely potato-dependent tenant farmers, to starve or eventually flee the country. Over one million perished from subsequent famine and disease, and another million fled the country, reducing the overall Irish population by at least a quarter.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_human-made_displacement">Other human-made displacement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other human-made displacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_smuggling" class="mw-redirect" title="Human smuggling">smuggling</a>: Migrants displaced through deception or coercion with purpose of their exploitation fall under this category. Due to its clandestine nature, the data on such type of forced migration are limited. A disparity also exists between the data for male trafficking (such as for labor in agriculture, construction etc.) and female trafficking (such as for sex work or domestic service), with more data available for males. The <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> considers trafficking an offense against labor protection, denying companies from leveraging migrants as a labor resource. ILO's Multilateral Framework includes principle no. 11, recommending that "Governments should formulate and implement, in consultation with the social partners, measures to prevent abusive practices, migrant smuggling and people trafficking; they should also work towards preventing irregular labor migration."<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg/220px-Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg/330px-Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg/440px-Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1724" data-file-height="1907" /></a><figcaption>Jews forcibly displaced by the Nazi regime during Germany's WWII occupation of Poland, loaded onto trains for transport to concentration camps.</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>: Historically, slavery has led to the displacement of individuals for forced labor, with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a> of the 15th through 19th century <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> standing as a notable example. Of the 20 million Africans captured for the trade, half died in their forced march to the African coast, and another ten to twenty percent died on slave ships carrying them from Africa to the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a>: The systematic removal of ethnic or religious groups from a territory with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. Examples include the Catholic removal of <a href="/wiki/Salzburg_Protestants" title="Salzburg Protestants">Salzburg Protestants</a>, the removal of Jewish people during the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, and the deportation of North American indigenous peoples (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>).</li> <li>Suppressing political opposition: For example, the <a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">forced settlements in the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">population transfer in the Soviet Union</a> including <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">deportation of the Crimean Tatars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush" title="Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush">deportation of the Chechens and Ingush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks" title="Deportation of the Soviet Greeks">deportation of the Soviet Greeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deportations_of_the_Ingrian_Finns" title="Deportations of the Ingrian Finns">deportations of the Ingrian Finns</a></li> <li>Aligning ethnic composition with artificial political border: For example <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%931946)" title="Polish population transfers (1944–1946)">Polish population transfers (1944–1946)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Vistula" title="Operation Vistula">Operation Vistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a>: For example, the British governments transportation of <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">Convicts in Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> and others' attempt to create a country for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> as <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, Japanese settlers in <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> following <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a>, and the Chinese military settlement of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Production_and_Construction_Corps" title="Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps">Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conditions_faced_by_displaced_persons">Conditions faced by displaced persons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Conditions faced by displaced persons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ursula_(detention_center)_180617-H-BP911-641_(41979746295).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg/220px-Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg/330px-Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg/440px-Ursula_%28detention_center%29_180617-H-BP911-641_%2841979746295%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8688" data-file-height="5792" /></a><figcaption>Children of undocumented immigrants from Latin America to the United States detained in the Ursula Detention Center, <a href="/wiki/McAllen,_Texas" title="McAllen, Texas">McAllen, Texas</a>, June 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>Displaced persons face adverse conditions when taking the decision to leave, traveling to a destination, and sometimes upon reaching their destination.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:102_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:112_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:112-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Displaced persons are often forced to place their lives at risk, travel in inhumane conditions, and may be exposed to exploitation and abuse. These risk factors may increase through the involvement of smugglers and human traffickers, who may exploit them for illegal activities such as drug/weapons trafficking, forced labor, or sex work. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security.<sup id="cite_ref-unhcr.org_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unhcr.org-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Displaced persons may also seek the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Human_smugglers" class="mw-redirect" title="Human smugglers">human smugglers</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Coyote_(person)" title="Coyote (person)">coyotes</a> in Latin America) throughout their journey.<sup id="cite_ref-:132_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:132-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (October 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-:142_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:142-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the illegal nature of smuggling, smugglers may take use dangerous methods to reach their destination without capture, exposing displaced persons to harm and sometimes resulting in deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-:132_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:132-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include abandonment, exposure to exploitation, dangerous transportation conditions, and death from exposure to harsh environments.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:142_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:142-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most instances of forced migration across borders, migrants do not possess the required documentation for legal travel. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security.<sup id="cite_ref-unhcr.org_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unhcr.org-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, displaced persons may face detainment and criminal punishment, as well as physical and psychological trauma. Various studies focusing on migrant health have specifically linked migration to increased likelihood of depression, anxiety, and other psychological troubles.<sup id="cite_ref-:102_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:102-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:112_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:112-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the United States has faced criticism for its recent policies regarding migrant detention, specifically the detention of children. Critics point to poor detention conditions, unstable contact with parents, and high potential for long-term trauma as reasons for seeking policy changes.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Displaced persons risk greater poverty than before displacement, financial vulnerability, and potential social disintegration, in addition to other risks related to human rights, culture, and quality of life.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced displacement has varying impacts, dependent on the means through which one was forcibly displaced, their geographic location, their protected status, and their ability to personally recover. Under the most common form of displacement, armed conflict, individuals often lose possession of their assets upon fleeing and possible upon arrival to a new country, where they can also face cultural, social, and economic discontinuity.<sup id="cite_ref-:62_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:62-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responses_to_forced_displacement">Responses to forced displacement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Responses to forced displacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_response">International response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: International response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Responses to situations of forced displacement vary across regional and international levels, with each type of forced displacement demonstrating unique characteristics and the need for a considerate approach. At the international level, international organizations (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/UNHCR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNHCR">UNHCR</a>), NGOs (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Doctors without Borders</a>), and country governments (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">USAID</a>) may work towards directly or indirectly ameliorating these situations.<sup id="cite_ref-:82_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Means may include establishing internationally recognized protections, providing clinics to migrant camps, and supplying resources to populations.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-usaid.gov_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usaid.gov-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to researchers such as Francis Deng, as well as international organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>, an increase in <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">IDPs</a> compounds the difficulty of international responses, posing issues of incomplete information and questions regarding state sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:82_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State sovereignty especially becomes of concern when discussing protections for IDPs, who are within the borders of a sovereign state, placing reluctance in the international community's ability to respond.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple landmark conventions aim at providing rights and protections to the different categories of forcibly displaced persons, including the <a href="/wiki/1951_Refugee_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1951 Refugee Convention">1951 Refugee Convention</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1967_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="1967 Protocol">1967 Protocol</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kampala_Convention" title="Kampala Convention">Kampala Convention</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Guiding_Principles" title="Guiding Principles">1998 Guiding Principles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite internationally cooperation, these frameworks rely on the international system, which states may disregard. In a 2012 study, Young Hoon Song found that nations "very selectively" responded to instances of forced migration and internally displaced persons.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>World organizations such as the United Nations and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, as well as individual countries, sometimes directly respond to the challenges faced by displaced people, providing humanitarian assistance or <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">forcibly intervening</a> in the country of conflict. Disputes related to these organizations' neutrality and limited resources has affected the capabilities of international humanitarian action to mitigate mass displacement mass displacement's causes.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These broad forms of assistance sometimes do not fully address the multidimensional needs of displaced persons. Regardless, calls for multilateral responses echo across organizations in the face of falling international cooperation. These organizations propose more comprehensive approaches, calling for improved conflict resolution and capacity-building in order to reduce instances of forced displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_response">Local response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Local response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Responses at multiple levels<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and across sectors is vital.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A research has for instance highlighted the importance of collaboration between businesses and non-governmental organizations to tackle resettlement and employment issues.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lived in experiences of displaced persons will vary according to the state and local policies of their country of relocation. Policies reflecting national exclusion of displaced persons may be undone by inclusive urban policies. Sanctuary cities are an example of spaces that regulate their cooperation or participation with immigration law enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of urban membership upon residence allows displaced persons to have access to city services and benefits, regardless of their legal status.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sanctuary cities have been able to provide migrants with greater mobility and participation in activities limiting the collection of personal information, issuing identification cards to all residents, and providing access to crucial services such as health care.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Access to these services can ease the hardships of displaced people by allowing them to healthily adjust to life after displacement . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_prosecution">Criminal prosecution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Criminal prosecution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forced displacement has been the subject of several trials in local and international courts. For an offense to classify as a <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crime</a>, the civilian victim must be a "<a href="/wiki/Protected_persons" title="Protected persons">protected person</a>" under <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">international humanitarian law</a>. Originally referring only categories of individuals explicitly protected under one of the four <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions_of_1949" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conventions of 1949">Geneva Conventions of 1949</a>, "protected person" now refers to any category of individuals entitled to protection under specific <a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">law of war</a> treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-UNHCR_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCR-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In Article 49, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth Geneva Convention</a>, adopted on 12 August 1949, specifically forbade forced displacement<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a> defines forced displacement as a crime within the jurisdiction of the court:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Deportation or forcible transfer of population" means forced displacement of the people concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully present, without grounds permitted under international law.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <ul><li>Following the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Krupp_trial" title="Krupp trial">Krupp trial</a> was held with a specific charge to the forced displacement of enemy civilian populations for the purpose of forced labor. The US Military Tribunal concluded that "[t]here is no international law that permits the deportation or the use of civilians against their will for other than on reasonable requisitions for the need of the army, either within the area of the army or after deportation to rear areas or to the homeland of the occupying power".<sup id="cite_ref-UNHCR_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCR-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>At the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>, chief jurist in <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Poland">occupied Poland</a>, was found guilty, among others for forced displacement of the civilian population.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Several people were tried and convicted by the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> (ICTY) for connection to forced displacement during the <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> in the 1990s. On 11 April 2018, the Appeals Chamber sentenced <a href="/wiki/Vojislav_%C5%A0e%C5%A1elj" title="Vojislav Šešelj">Vojislav Šešelj</a> 10 years in prison under Counts 1, 10, and 11 of the indictment for instigating <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> (forcible displacement), and other inhumane acts (forcible transfer) as <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> due to his speech in Hrtkovci on 6 May 1992, in which he called for the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Croats_from_Vojvodina" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina">expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other convictions for forced displacement included ex-Bosnian Serb politician <a href="/wiki/Mom%C4%8Dilo_Kraji%C5%A1nik" title="Momčilo Krajišnik">Momčilo Krajišnik</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ex-Croatian Serb leader <a href="/wiki/Milan_Marti%C4%87" title="Milan Martić">Milan Martić</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> former Bosnian Croat paramilitary commander <a href="/wiki/Mladen_Naletili%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Mladen Naletilić">Mladen Naletilić</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Bosnian Serb politician <a href="/wiki/Radoslav_Br%C4%91anin" title="Radoslav Brđanin">Radoslav Brđanin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On 17 March 2023, the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC) issued arrest warrants for <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights <a href="/wiki/Maria_Lvova-Belova" title="Maria Lvova-Belova">Maria Lvova-Belova</a> for war crimes of <a href="/wiki/Child_abductions_in_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">deportation and illegal transfer of children</a> from <a href="/wiki/Russian-occupied_territories_of_Ukraine" title="Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine">occupied Ukraine</a> to Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asylum_seeker" title="Asylum seeker">Asylum seekers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate migrant">Climate migrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development-induced_displacement" title="Development-induced displacement">Development-induced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">Deportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_employment" title="Refugee employment">Refugee employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_roulette" title="Refugee roulette">Refugee roulette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">List of areas depopulated due to climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diasporas" title="List of diasporas">List of diasporas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_the_Study_of_Forced_Migration" title="International Association for the Study of Forced Migration">International Association for the Study of Forced Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons_camps_in_post-World_War_II_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe">Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_G._Harrison" title="Earl G. Harrison">Earl G. Harrison</a>'s "Report on DPs in Western Europe in 1945" to U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampala_Convention" title="Kampala Convention">Kampala Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divided_family" title="Divided family">Divided family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement_in_popular_culture" title="Forced displacement in popular culture">Forced displacement in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cleansing" title="Population cleansing">Population cleansing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bosnian+Serb+politician+convicted+by+UN+tribunal+to+serve+jail+term+in+Denmark&rft.pub=UN+News&rft.date=2008-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2008%2F03%2F251232-bosnian-serb-politician-convicted-un-tribunal-serve-jail-term-denmark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForced+displacement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/03/1134732">"Russia: International Criminal Court issues arrest warrant for Putin"</a>. <i>UN News</i>. 17 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UN+News&rft.atitle=Russia%3A+International+Criminal+Court+issues+arrest+warrant+for+Putin&rft.date=2023-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2023%2F03%2F1134732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForced+displacement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Betts, Alexander: <i>Forced Migration and Global Politics</i>. Wiley-Blackwell.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7773440">"Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens"</a>. <i>Citizenship Studies</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 208–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13621025.2014.886440">10.1080/13621025.2014.886440</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144816686">144816686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Citizenship+Studies&rft.atitle=Faces+of+Globalization+and+the+Borders+of+States%3A+From+Asylum+Seekers+to+Citizens&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=208-23&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13621025.2014.886440&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144816686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7773440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForced+displacement" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Luciuk, Lubomyr Y.: "Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada, and the Migration of Memory," University of Toronto Press, 2000. Migration of people from Mirpur(AJK) for construction of Mangla Dam</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundhaussen2012" class="citation book cs1">Sundhaussen, Holm (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921728"><i>Forced Ethnic Migration</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forced+Ethnic+Migration&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Sundhaussen&rft.aufirst=Holm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnbn-resolving.de%2Furn%3Anbn%3Ade%3A0159-20100921728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForced+displacement" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forced_displacement&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Forced_migration" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Forced migration">Forced migration</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indr.org/">International Network on Displacement and Resettlement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jmclajot.net">Pictures of Refugees in Europe</a> – Features by Jean-Michel Clajot, Belgian photographer</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oukloof.riebeeklegacy.org">Oukloof forced removals in the Western Cape of South Africa</a> – A community web site documenting the known history of the forced removal of the residents of Oukloof in the 1960s</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080812234652/http://www.forcedmigration.org/">Forced Migration Online</a> provides access to a diverse range of relevant information resources on forced migration, including a searchable digital library consisting of full-text documents.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.forcedmigration.org/journals/">Back issues of migration journals</a> (Disasters, Forced Migration Review, <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Refugee_Law" title="International Journal of Refugee Law">International Journal of Refugee Law</a>, International Migration Review and Journal of Refugee Studies)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurasylum.org">Eurasylum</a> Many relevant documents on asylum and refugee policy, immigration and human trafficking/smuggling internationally</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idpvoices.org/">IDP Voices</a> Forced migrants tell their life stories</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internal-displacement.org/">Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Norwegian Refugee Council</a> The leading international body monitoring conflict-induced internal displacement worldwide.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iasfm.org/">The International Association for the Study of Forced Migration</a> brings together academics, practitioners and decision-makers working on forced migration issues.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iom.int/">The International Organization for Migration</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organization</a> with a major role mediating modern migration.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041127181733/http://www.jrs.oupjournals.org/">The Journal of Refugee Studies</a> from <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a> provides a forum for exploration of the complex problems of forced migration and national, regional and international responses.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101192422/http://graduateinstitute.ch/globalmigration">Program for the Study of Global Migration</a>, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/">The Refugee Studies Centre</a>, University of Oxford: a leading multidisciplinary centre for research and teaching on the causes and consequences of forced migration.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726061654/http://www.forcedmigration.org/whatisfm.htm">What is Forced Migration?</a>, an introductory guide for those who are new to the subject.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://migration.org.za">Wits Forced Migration Studies Programme</a>, Africa's leading centre for teaching and research on displacement, migration, and social transformation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070307160735/http://www.womenscommission.org/">Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Committee" title="Tal Committee">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Muslims_from_Serbia_(1862)" title="Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greece and Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Saudi_Arabia" title="Religious segregation">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Bahrain" title="Religious segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation#Myanmar" title="Religious segregation">Myanmar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Ethnic and racial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Bahrain" title="Racial segregation">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Bulgaria_and_Romania" title="Population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania">Bulgaria and Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak%E2%80%93Hungarian_population_exchange" title="Czechoslovak–Hungarian population exchange">Czechoslovakia and Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Fiji" title="Racial segregation">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_situation_in_the_French_suburbs" title="Social situation in the French suburbs">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_f%C3%BCr_Deutsche" title="Nur für Deutsche">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel and apartheid">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation#Rhodesia" title="Racial segregation">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudization" title="Saudization">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emiratisation" title="Emiratisation">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">Gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Afghanistan" title="Sex segregation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Iran" title="Sex segregation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Sex segregation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_in_public_restrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation in public restrooms">Sex segregation in public restrooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist feminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Auto-segregation">Auto-segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_federalism" title="Ethnic federalism">Ethnic federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Forced migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporative_federalism" title="Corporative federalism">Corporative federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_minority" title="Majority minority">Majority minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rankism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservation in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_school" title="Separate school">Separate school</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid" title="Social apartheid">Social apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Pillarisation" title="Pillarisation">Pillarisation</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caste" title="Category:Caste">caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sex_segregation" title="Category:Sex segregation">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Racial_segregation" title="Category:Racial segregation">racial</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Property_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate (landed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executor" title="Executor">executor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(transit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (transit)">Right of way (transit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way_(property_access)" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of way (property access)">Right of way (property access)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Forced migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li> <li>spousal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_(Bastiat_book)" title="The Law (Bastiat book)">The Law</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Globalization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Globalization" title="Template:Globalization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Globalization" title="Template talk:Globalization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Globalization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_globalization-related_journals" title="List of globalization-related journals">Journals</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_globalization" title="Outline of globalization">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alter-globalization" title="Alter-globalization">Alter-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Global</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable<br />scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Economics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Political <br />economy</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Politics / <br /> sociology</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_George_(political_scientist)" title="Susan George (political scientist)">Susan George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Held" title="David Held">David Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hirst" title="Paul Hirst">Paul Hirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._M._Ling" title="L. H. M. Ling">L. H. M. Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskia_Sassen" title="Saskia Sassen">Saskia Sassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Urry_(sociologist)" title="John Urry (sociologist)">John Urry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Non–academic</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Thomas Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Naomi Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul" title="John Ralston Saul">John R. Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandana_Shiva" title="Vandana Shiva">Vandana Shiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Globalization" title="Category:Globalization">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/42px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Substantive_human_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Substantive_human_rights" title="Template:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Substantive_human_rights" title="Template talk:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Substantive_human_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Substantive human rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Substantive_human_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Substantive <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>What is considered a human right is in some cases controversial; not all the topics listed are universally accepted as human rights</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a 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