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href="#1918:_Wilsonian_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 1918: Wilsonian intervention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1918:_Wilsonian_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1920s–1930s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1920s–1930s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 1920s–1930s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1920s–1930s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1941–1945:_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1941–1945:_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 1941–1945: World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1941–1945:_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Grand_Area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Grand_Area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 The Grand Area </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Grand_Area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1947–1952:_Cold_War_in_Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1947–1952:_Cold_War_in_Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 1947–1952: Cold War in Western Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1947–1952:_Cold_War_in_Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950–1959:_Cold_War_outside_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950–1959:_Cold_War_outside_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 1950–1959: Cold War outside Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950–1959:_Cold_War_outside_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1945–1970:_Asia-Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1945–1970:_Asia-Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 1945–1970: Asia-Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1945–1970:_Asia-Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970s–1980s:_Latin_American_regime_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s–1980s:_Latin_American_regime_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 1970s–1980s: Latin American regime change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s–1980s:_Latin_American_regime_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990_onward" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990_onward"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 1990 onward </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990_onward-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gulf_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulf_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11.1 Gulf War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulf_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11.2 Iraq War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2011_Intervention_in_Libya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2011_Intervention_in_Libya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11.3 2011 Intervention in Libya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2011_Intervention_in_Libya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Strategy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strategy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Strategy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-U.S._military_alliances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._military_alliances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 U.S. military alliances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._military_alliances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._military_bases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._military_bases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 U.S. military bases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._military_bases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unified_combatant_command" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unified_combatant_command"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Unified combatant command </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unified_combatant_command-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_exceptionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_exceptionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 American exceptionalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_exceptionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_interests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_interests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Economic interests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_interests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_of_American_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_of_American_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Views of American imperialism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views_of_American_imperialism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Views of American imperialism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Views_of_American_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-U.S._foreign_policy_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._foreign_policy_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 U.S. foreign policy debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._foreign_policy_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_after_September_11,_2001" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_after_September_11,_2001"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Debate after September 11, 2001 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_after_September_11,_2001-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Empire"_and_alternative_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Empire"_and_alternative_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 "Empire" and alternative terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Empire"_and_alternative_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proponents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proponents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Proponents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proponents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Women_in_American_Imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Women_in_American_Imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Role of Women in American Imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Women_in_American_Imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Empire_and_Capitalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Empire_and_Capitalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 American Empire and Capitalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Empire_and_Capitalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_media_and_cultural_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_media_and_cultural_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 American media and cultural imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_media_and_cultural_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Expansion_through_Artistic_Expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Expansion_through_Artistic_Expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 American Expansion through Artistic Expression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Expansion_through_Artistic_Expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">American imperialism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" > 30 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="استعمارية أمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="استعمارية أمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="آمریکا یاییلماچیلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آمریکا یاییلماچیلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_amerikanske_koloniimperium" title="Det amerikanske koloniimperium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det amerikanske koloniimperium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismus#Vereinigte_Staaten" title="Imperialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Imperialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αμερικανικός ιμπεριαλισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμερικανικός ιμπεριαλισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismo_estadounidense" title="Imperialismo estadounidense – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperialismo estadounidense" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usona_Imperiismo" title="Usona Imperiismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Usona Imperiismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikar_inperialismo" title="Amerikar inperialismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Amerikar inperialismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="امپریالیسم آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپریالیسم آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rialisme_am%C3%A9ricain" title="Impérialisme américain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impérialisme américain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="미국 제국주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 제국주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ամերիկյան իմպերիալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ամերիկյան իմպերիալիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अमेरिकी साम्राज्यवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अमेरिकी साम्राज्यवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usana_imperialismo" title="Usana imperialismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Usana imperialismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialisme_Amerika" title="Imperialisme Amerika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imperialisme Amerika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismo_statunitense" title="Imperialismo statunitense – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Imperialismo statunitense" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99" title="אימפריאליזם אמריקאי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אימפריאליזם אמריקאי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerik%C4%81%C5%86u_imperi%C4%81lisms" title="Amerikāņu imperiālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Amerikāņu imperiālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="アメリカ帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA-imperiet" title="USA-imperiet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="USA-imperiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismo_americano" title="Imperialismo americano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imperialismo americano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Американский империализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Американский империализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Expansion of American political, economic, cultural, media, and military influence</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/American_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="American Empire (disambiguation)">American Empire</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"American hegemony" redirects here. For the most relevant time period, see <a href="/wiki/Hegemony#21st_century" title="Hegemony">Hegemony § 21st century</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a>. Many of the sources do not refer to "imperialism". Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10kMiles.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/10kMiles.JPG/220px-10kMiles.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/10kMiles.JPG/330px-10kMiles.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/10kMiles.JPG/440px-10kMiles.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>1898 <a href="/wiki/Political_cartoon" title="Political cartoon">political cartoon</a>: "Ten thousand miles from tip to tip." referring to the expansion of American domination (symbolized by a <a href="/wiki/Bald_eagle#National_bird_of_the_United_States" title="Bald eagle">bald eagle</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>; the cartoon contrasts this with a map showing the significantly smaller size of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 1798, exactly 100 years earlier.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Empire1.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/American_Empire1.PNG/330px-American_Empire1.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/American_Empire1.PNG/495px-American_Empire1.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/American_Empire1.PNG/660px-American_Empire1.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Map of the United States and directly controlled territories at its greatest extent from 1898 to 1902, after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width: 15em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background: #EAECF0; font-size: 100%;">History of the United States expansion and influence</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Colonialism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Purchase" title="Alaska Purchase">Alaska Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceded_lands_(Hawaii)" title="Ceded lands (Hawaii)">Ceded lands</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Militarism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Military operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">List of wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_deployments" title="United States military deployments">Military deployments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_military_installations" title="List of American military installations">Military bases abroad</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign policy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">Non-interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_interventions_by_the_United_States" title="Foreign interventions by the United States">Foreign interventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">Involvement in regime change</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">Latin America</a>)</li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">Exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Americana" title="Pax Americana">Pax Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America%27s_Backyard" title="America's Backyard">America's Backyard</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_imperialism" title="Template:American imperialism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_imperialism" title="Template talk:American imperialism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_imperialism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American imperialism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> American imperialism is the expansion of American political, economic, cultural, media, and military influence beyond the boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>. Depending on the commentator, it may include imperialism through outright military conquest; military protection; <a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">gunboat diplomacy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>; subsidization of preferred factions; <a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">regime change</a>; economic or diplomatic support; or economic penetration through private companies, potentially followed by <a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">diplomatic or forceful intervention</a> when those interests are threatened.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The policies perpetuating American imperialism and expansionism are usually considered to have begun with "<a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>" in the late 19th century,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> though some consider <a href="/wiki/American_territorial_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="American territorial expansion">American territorial expansion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a> at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous Americans</a> to be similar enough in nature to be identified with the same term.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> While the United States has never officially identified itself and its territorial possessions as an empire, some commentators have referred to the country as such, including <a href="/wiki/Max_Boot" title="Max Boot">Max Boot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Niall Ferguson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Other commentators have accused the United States of practicing <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a>—sometimes defined as a modern form of <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>—which leverages economic power rather than military force in an <a href="/wiki/Informal_empire" title="Informal empire">informal empire</a>; the term "neocolonialism" has occasionally been used as a contemporary synonym for <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">modern-day imperialism</a>. The question of whether the United States should intervene in the affairs of foreign countries has been a much-debated topic in domestic politics for the country's entire history. Opponents of interventionism have pointed to the country's origin as <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">a former colony that rebelled against an overseas king</a>, as well as the American values of democracy, freedom, and independence.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Conversely, supporters of interventionism and of American presidents who have been labelled as “imperialists”[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] — most notably <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> — have justified their interventions in (or whole seizures of) various countries by citing the necessity of advancing American economic interests, such as trade and debt management; preventing European intervention (colonial or otherwise) in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>, manifested in the anti-European <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> of 1823; and the benefits of keeping "good order" around the world.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/220px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/330px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/440px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">U.S. westward expansion</a>–portions of each territory were granted statehood since the 18th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas,_Oregon,_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg/220px-Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg/330px-Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg/440px-Mitchell_A_New_Map_of_Texas%2C_Oregon%2C_and_California_1846_UTA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5412" data-file-height="5814" /></a><figcaption>A New Map of Texas, Oregon, and California, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Augustus_Mitchell" title="Samuel Augustus Mitchell">Samuel Augustus Mitchell</a>, 1846</figcaption></figure> Despite periods of peaceful co-existence, <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">wars with Native Americans</a> resulted in substantial territorial gains for American colonists who were expanding into native land. Wars with the Native Americans continued intermittently <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">after independence</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> campaign known as <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> gained for <a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">European American</a> <a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">settlers</a> more valuable territory on the eastern side of the continent. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, a founding father and first president of the United States, began a policy of <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">United States non-interventionism</a> which lasted into the 1800s. The United States promulgated the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> in 1823, in order to stop further European colonialism in the Latin America. Desire for territorial expansion to the Pacific Ocean was explicit in the idea of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>. The giant <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> was peaceful, but the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">annexation of 525,000 square miles (1,360,000 km2) of Mexican territory</a> was the result of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> of 1846. The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> reoriented American foreign policy towards opposing communism, and prevailing U.S. foreign policy embraced its role as a nuclear-armed global superpower. Through the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a> the United States framed the mission as protecting free peoples against an undemocratic system, anti-Soviet foreign policy became coercive and occasionally covert. <a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a> included <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">overthrowing the democratically elected government of Iran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_invasion" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Pigs invasion">Bay of Pigs invasion</a> in Cuba, occupation of <a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a>, and interference in various foreign elections. The long and bloody <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> led to widespread criticism of an "<a href="/wiki/J._William_Fulbright#Vietnam_War" title="J. William Fulbright">arrogance of power</a>" and <a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#Vietnam_War" title="United States war crimes">violations of international law</a> emerging from an "<a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">imperial presidency</a>," with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, among others, accusing the US of a <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr.#Opposition_to_the_Vietnam_War" title="Martin Luther King Jr.">new form of colonialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> In terms of territorial acquisition, the United States has integrated (with voting rights) all of its acquisitions on the North American continent, including the non-contiguous <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>. Hawaii has also become a state with equal representation to the mainland, but other island jurisdictions acquired during wartime remain territories, namely <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a>. (The federal government officially <a href="/wiki/Apology_Resolution" title="Apology Resolution">apologized for the overthrow of the Hawaiian government</a> in 1993.) The remainder of acquired territories have become independent with varying degrees of cooperation, ranging from three <a href="/wiki/Freely_associated_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Freely associated states">freely associated states</a> which participate in federal government programs in exchange for military basing rights, to Cuba which severed diplomatic relations during the Cold War. The United States was a public advocate for European <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> after World War II (having started a ten-year independence transition for the Philippines in 1934 with the <a href="/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act" title="Tydings–McDuffie Act">Tydings–McDuffie Act</a>). Even so, the US desire for an informal system of global <a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy#Primacy" title="Grand strategy">primacy</a> in an "<a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a>" often brought them into conflict with <a href="/wiki/National_liberation_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="National liberation movements">national liberation movements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The United States has now <a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">granted citizenship to Native Americans</a> and recognizes some degree of <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1700s–1800s:_Indigenous_American_Wars_and_manifest_destiny">1700s–1800s: Indigenous American Wars and manifest destiny</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1700s–1800s: Indigenous American Wars and manifest destiny">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Liberty" title="Empire of Liberty">Empire of Liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:School_Begins_(Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg/260px-School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg/390px-School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg/520px-School_Begins_%28Puck_Magazine_1-25-1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7721" data-file-height="5124" /></a><figcaption>Caricature by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dalrymple" title="Louis Dalrymple">Louis Dalrymple</a> showing <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a> lecturing four children labeled <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, in front of children holding books labeled with various U.S. states and territories. A black boy is washing windows, a Native American sits separate from the class, and a Chinese boy is outside the door. The caption reads: "School Begins. Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization): Now, children, you've got to learn these lessons whether you want to or not! But just take a look at the class ahead of you, and remember that, in a little while, you will feel as glad to be here as they are!"</figcaption></figure> Yale historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Kennedy (historian)">Paul Kennedy</a> has asserted, "From the time the first settlers arrived in <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and started moving westward, this was an imperial nation, a conquering nation."<a href="#cite_note-Trends_2002-8">[8]</a> Expanding on George Washington's description of the early United States as an "infant empire",<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Benjamin Franklin wrote: "Hence the Prince that acquires new Territory, if he finds it vacant, or removes the Natives to give his own People Room; the Legislator that makes effectual Laws for promoting of Trade, increasing Employment, improving Land by more or better Tillage; providing more Food by Fisheries; securing Property, etc. and the Man that invents new Trades, Arts or Manufactures, or new Improvements in Husbandry, may be properly called Fathers of their Nation, as they are the Cause of the Generation of Multitudes, by the Encouragement they afford to Marriage."<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Thomas Jefferson asserted in 1786 that the United States "must be viewed as the nest from which all America, North & South is to be peopled. [...] The navigation of the Mississippi we must have. This is all we are as yet ready to receive.".<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> From the left <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> writes that "the United States is the one country that exists, as far as I know, and ever has, that was founded as an empire explicitly".<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> A national drive for territorial acquisition across the continent was popularized in the 19th century as the ideology of manifest destiny.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The policy of settlement of land was a foundational goal of the United States of America, with one of the driving factors of discontent with British rule originating from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>, which barred settlement west of the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolton19993–38[httpsarchiveorgdetailsforcedfoundersin00holtpage3-15">[15]</a> As part of the desire of Manifest Destiny to open up land for American settlement came campaigns in the Great Lakes region which saw the United States fight the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Confederacy" title="Northwestern Confederacy">Northwestern Confederacy</a> resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a>. Subsequent treaties such as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Treaty of Greenville</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Wayne_(1809)" title="Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)">Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)</a> resulted in a rise of Anti-American sentiment among the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region, which helped to create <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tecumseh's Confederacy">Tecumseh's Confederacy</a> which was defeated by the end of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830 culminated in the deportation of 60,000 Native Americans in an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>, where up to 16,700 people died in an act of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>. The deportation of Natives West of the Mississippi, resulted in significant economic gains for settlers. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> firm, Byrd and Belding earned up to $27,000 in two years through supplying food.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The policy of Manifest Destiny would continue to be realized with the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> of 1846, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">cession of 525,000 square miles (1,360,000 km2) of Mexican territory to the United States</a>, stretching up to the Pacific coast.<a href="#cite_note-lens-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Field_644–668-18">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a> strongly opposed this war and expansionism generally.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Following the American victory over Mexico, colonization and settlement of California would begin which would soon lead to the <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a>. Estimates of total deaths in the genocide vary greatly from 2,000<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> to 100,000 dead.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The discovery of Gold in California resulted in an influx of settlers, who formed militias to kill and displace Indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The government of California supported expansion and settlement through the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Government_and_Protection_of_Indians" title="Act for the Government and Protection of Indians">Act for the Government and Protection of Indians</a> which legalized the enslavement of Native Americans and allowed settlers to capture and force them into labor.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-PBS-GR-24">[24]</a> California further offered and paid bounties for the killing of Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Madley-25">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851),_the_Indian_territories.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg/250px-Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg/375px-Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg/500px-Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_%281851%29%2C_the_Indian_territories.jpg 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Indian land as defined by the Treaty of Fort Laramie</figcaption></figure> American expansion in the Great Plains resulted in conflict between many tribes West of the Mississippi and the United States. In 1851, the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Laramie_Treaty_of_1851" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a> was signed, which gave the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes territory from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas. The land was initially not wanted by White settlers, but following the discovery of gold in the region, settlers began to pour into the territory. In 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Wise" title="Treaty of Fort Wise">Treaty of Fort Wise</a> which saw the loss of 90% of their land.<a href="#cite_note-greene-27-26">[26]</a> The refusal of various warriors to recognise the treaty resulted in white settlers starting to believe that war was coming. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a> would result in the <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand Creek Massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</a> in which up to 600 Cheyenne were killed, most of whom were children and women. On October 14, 1865, the chiefs of what remained of the Southern Cheyennes and Arapahos agreed to live south of the Arkansas, sharing land that belonged to the Kiowas,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> and thereby relinquish all claims in the Colorado territory. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siouxreservationmap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Siouxreservationmap.png/350px-Siouxreservationmap.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Siouxreservationmap.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the Great Sioux Reservation and current reservations</figcaption></figure> Following the victory of <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud" title="Red Cloud">Red Cloud</a> in <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a> over the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)</a> was signed. This treaty led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_Reservation" title="Great Sioux Reservation">Great Sioux Reservation</a>. However, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills resulted in a surge of White settlement in the region. The gold rush was very profitable for the White settlers and the American government, with just one of the Black Hill Mines yielding $500 Million in gold.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Attempts to purchase the land failed, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Sioux War">Great Sioux War</a> began as a result. Despite initial success by Native Americans in the war's first few battles, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>, the United States eventually won and ended the reservation, carving it up into smaller reservations. The reservation system did not just serve as a way to facilitate American settlement and expansion of land, but also enriched local merchants and businesses who held significant economic power over the Native tribes. Traders would often accept payment for goods via annuity money from land sales<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> contributing to further poverty. In the South-West, various settlements and communities had been established thanks to profits from the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. In order to maintain revenue and profit, settlers often waged war against native tribes.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> By 1871, the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Tucson" class="mw-redirect" title="Tucson">Tucson</a> for example had a population of three thousand, including saloon-keepers, traders and contractors who had made fortunes during the Civil War and were hopeful of continuing their profits with an Indian war. Desire to fight resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Camp_Grant_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Grant Massacre">Camp Grant Massacre</a> of 1871 where up to 144 <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a> were killed, most being women and children. Up to 27 Apache children were captured and sold into slavery in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In the 1860s, the <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a> faced deportation in an attempted act of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a>. The "Long Walk" started at the beginning of spring 1864. Bands of Navajo led by the Army were relocated from their traditional lands in eastern Arizona Territory and western New Mexico Territory to Fort Sumner. Around 200 died during the march. During the march, New Mexican slavers, assisted by the Ute often attacked isolated bands, killing the men, taking the women and children captive, and capturing horses and livestock. As part of these raids, a large number of slaves were taken and sold throughout the region.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Starting in 1820, the <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> began subsidizing free black people to colonize the west coast of Africa. In 1822, it declared the colony of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, which became independent in 1847. By 1857, Liberia had merged with other colonies formed by state societies, including the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Maryland" title="Republic of Maryland">Republic of Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi-in-Africa" title="Mississippi-in-Africa">Mississippi-in-Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_Africa" title="Kentucky in Africa">Kentucky in Africa</a>. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A 19th-century political cartoon done in color depicting a colossal man straddling the Rio Grande river with one half labeled "MEXICO" and the other half labeled "UNITED STATES". The man's outfit is bisected down the middle; his "United States" half wears a a gold-buttoned blue-cloth military uniform resembling American military officers of the time period. His "Mexico" half wears a wide-brimmed hat and a tan (possibly leather?) jacket and pants with tassels. In one hand he carries papers labeled "RR BONDS" (possibly "railroad bonds") and "MINING SHARES". Tucked under his military belt is a paper labeled "CAPTAIN GENERAL PAY". In his other free hand he holds a smoking cigar. He wears a saber on his belt. A string ties him to a ship on the Mexico half of the image in a waterway labeled "NICARAGUA SHIP CANAL". Behind him is a train crossing a bridge over a river labeled "RIO GRANDE". Further behind the figure are buildings with smokestacks labeled "MINAS PRISTOS MINING CO." The image is signed "KENDRICK". It is captioned "THE AMERICAN COLOSSUS" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg/228px-The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg/342px-The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg/456px-The_American_Colossus_by_Kendrick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8100" data-file-height="12300" /></a><figcaption>The American Colossus (1880), shown connected to the United States, Mexico, and Nicaragua</figcaption></figure> President James Monroe presented his famous <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">doctrine for the western hemisphere</a> in 1823. Historians have observed that while the Monroe Doctrine contained a commitment to resist colonialism from Europe, it had some aggressive implications for American policy, since there were no limitations on the US's actions mentioned within it. Historian Jay Sexton notes that the tactics used to implement the doctrine were modeled after those employed by European imperial powers during the 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> From the left historian <a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a> described it as "imperial anti-colonialism."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg/220px-Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg/330px-Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg/440px-Wounded_Knee_aftermath5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4906" data-file-height="3381" /></a><figcaption>Big Foot's camp three weeks after <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Wounded Knee Massacre</a>; with bodies of four <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Lakota Sioux</a> wrapped in blankets in the foreground</figcaption></figure> In the older historiography <a href="/wiki/William_Walker_(filibuster)" title="William Walker (filibuster)">William Walker's filibustering</a> represented the high tide of antebellum American imperialism. His brief seizure of Nicaragua in 1855 is typically called a representative expression of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a> with the added factor of trying to expand slavery into Central America. Walker failed in all his escapades and never had official U.S. backing. Historian Michel Gobat, however, presents a strongly revisionist interpretation. He argues that Walker was invited in by Nicaraguan liberals who were trying to force economic modernization and political liberalism. Walker's government comprised those liberals, as well as Yankee colonizers, and European radicals. Walker even included some local Catholics as well as indigenous peoples, Cuban revolutionaries, and local peasants. His coalition was much too complex and diverse to survive long, but it was not the attempted projection of American power, concludes Gobat.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> began in the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial era</a>. Their escalation under the federal republic allowed the US to dominate North America and carve out the 48 <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">contiguous states</a>. This can be considered to be an explicitly colonial process in light of arguments that Native American nations were sovereign entities prior to annexation.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Their sovereignty was systematically undermined by US state policy (usually involving unequal or <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States treaties">broken treaties</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">white settler-colonialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Furthermore, following the Dawes Act of 1887 native american systems of land tenure and communal ownership were ended, in favour of private property and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-38">[38]</a> This resulted in the loss of around 100 Million acres of land from 1887 to 1934. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1890s–1900s:_New_Imperialism_and_"The_White_Man's_Burden"">1890s–1900s: New Imperialism and "The White Man's Burden"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1890s–1900s: New Imperialism and "The White Man's Burden"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom">Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1898%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Philippines (1898–1946)">History of the Philippines (1898–1946)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Big_stick_ideology" title="Big stick ideology">Big stick ideology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary" title="Roosevelt Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg/220px-Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg/330px-Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg/440px-Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2593" /></a><figcaption>This cartoon reflects the view of <a href="/wiki/Judge_(magazine)" title="Judge (magazine)">Judge magazine</a> regarding America's imperial ambitions following McKinley's quick victory in the Spanish–American War of 1898.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The American flag flies from the Philippines and Hawaii in the Pacific to Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean.</figcaption></figure> A variety of factors converged during the "<a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a>" of the late 19th century, when the United States and the other <a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a> rapidly expanded their overseas territorial possessions. One of these factors was the prevalence of overt racism, notably <a href="/wiki/John_Fiske_(philosopher)" title="John Fiske (philosopher)">John Fiske</a>'s conception of "<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-Saxon</a>" racial superiority and <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Strong" title="Josiah Strong">Josiah Strong</a>'s call to "civilize and Christianize." The concepts were manifestations of a growing <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a> and racism in some schools of American political thought.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Early in his career, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> was instrumental in preparing the Navy for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and was an enthusiastic proponent of testing the U.S. military in battle, at one point stating "I should welcome almost any war, for I think this country needs one."<a href="#cite_note-PBS1-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-PBS2-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Roosevelt claimed that he rejected imperialism, but he embraced the near-identical doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> wrote the imperialist poem "<a href="/wiki/The_White_Man%27s_Burden" title="The White Man's Burden">The White Man's Burden</a>" for Roosevelt, the politician told colleagues that it was "rather poor poetry, but good sense from the expansion point of view."<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Roosevelt proclaimed his own <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary" title="Roosevelt Corollary">corollary to the Monroe Doctrine</a> as justification,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> although his ambitions extended even further, into the Far East. Scholars have noted the resemblance between U.S. policies in the Philippines and European actions in their <a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">colonies in Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">Africa</a> during this period.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> By one contrast, however, the United States claimed to colonize in the name of anti-colonialism: "We are coming, Cuba, coming; we are bound to set you free! We are coming from the mountains, from the plains and inland sea! We are coming with the wrath of God to make the Spaniards flee! We are coming, Cuba, coming; coming now!"<a href="#cite_note-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998-51">[51]</a> Filipino revolutionary General <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Aguinaldo" title="Emilio Aguinaldo">Emilio Aguinaldo</a> wondered: "The Filipinos fighting for Liberty, the American people fighting them to give them liberty. The two peoples are fighting on parallel lines for the same object."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> However, from 1898 until the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban revolution">Cuban revolution</a>, The United States of America had significant influence over the economy of Cuba. By 1950, US investors owned 44 of the 161 sugar mills in Cuba, and slightly over 47% of total sugar output.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> By 1906, up to 15% of Cuba was owned by American landowners.<a href="#cite_note-auto-54">[54]</a> This consisted of 632,000 acres of sugar lands, 225,000 acres of tobacco, 700,000 of fruits and 2,750,000 acres of mining land, along with a quarter of the banking industry.<a href="#cite_note-auto-54">[54]</a> Industry and trade were two of the most prevalent justifications of imperialism. <a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">American intervention in both Latin America and Hawaii</a> resulted in multiple industrial investments, including the popular industry of <a href="/wiki/Dole_Food_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dole Food Company">Dole</a> bananas. If the United States was able to annex a territory, in turn they were granted access to the trade and capital of those territories. In 1898, Senator <a href="/wiki/Albert_Beveridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Beveridge">Albert Beveridge</a> proclaimed that an expansion of markets was absolutely necessary, "American factories are making more than the American people can use; American soil is producing more than they can consume. Fate has written our policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours."<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG/220px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG/330px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG/440px-Editorial_cartoon_about_Jacob_Smith%27s_retaliation_for_Balangiga.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>One of the New York Journal's most infamous cartoons, depicting <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> General <a href="/wiki/Jacob_H._Smith" title="Jacob H. Smith">Jacob H. Smith</a>'s order "Kill Everyone over Ten," from the front page on May 5, 1902</figcaption></figure> American rule of ceded Spanish territory was not uncontested. The <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine Revolution</a> had begun in August 1896 against Spain, and after the defeat of Spain in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Battle of Manila Bay</a>, began again in earnest, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Philippine Declaration of Independence">Philippine Declaration of Independence</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic" title="First Philippine Republic">First Philippine Republic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> ensued, with extensive damage and death, ultimately resulting in the defeat of the Philippine Republic.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The United States' interests in Hawaii began in the 1800s with the United States becoming concerned that Great Britain or France might have colonial ambitions on the Hawaiian Kingdom. In 1849 the United States and The Kingdom of Hawaii signed a treaty of friendship removing any colonial ambitions Great Britain or France might have had. In 1885, King David Kalākaua, last king of Hawaii, signed a trade reciprocity treaty with the United States allowing for tariff free trade of sugar to the United States. The treaty was renewed in 1887 and with it came the overrunning of Hawaiian politics by rich, white, plantation owners. On July 6, 1887, the Hawaiian League, a non-native political group, threatened the king and forced him to sign a new constitution stripping him of much of his power. King Kalākaua would die in 1891 and be succeeded by his sister Lili'uokalani. In 1893 with support from marines from the USS Boston Queen Lili'uokalani would be deposed in a bloodless coup. Hawaii has been under US control ever since and became the 50th US state on August 21, 1959 in a joint resolution with Alaska. <a href="/wiki/Benevolent_Assimilation_(book)" title="Benevolent Assimilation (book)">Stuart Creighton Miller</a> says that the public's sense of innocence about <a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a> impairs popular recognition of U.S. imperial conduct.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The resistance to actively occupying foreign territory has led to policies of exerting influence via other means, including governing other countries via surrogates or <a href="/wiki/Puppet_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet regime">puppet regimes</a>, where domestically unpopular governments survive only through U.S. support.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GreaterAmericaMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GreaterAmericaMap.jpg/220px-GreaterAmericaMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GreaterAmericaMap.jpg/330px-GreaterAmericaMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/GreaterAmericaMap.jpg/440px-GreaterAmericaMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption>A map of "Greater America" <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900, including overseas territories</figcaption></figure> The Philippines is sometimes cited as an example. After Philippine independence, the US continued to direct the country through Central Intelligence Agency operatives like <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lansdale" title="Edward Lansdale">Edward Lansdale</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Bonner" title="Raymond Bonner">Raymond Bonner</a> and other historians note, Lansdale controlled the career of President <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Magsaysay" title="Ramon Magsaysay">Ramon Magsaysay</a>, going so far as to physically beat him when the Philippine leader attempted to reject a speech the CIA had written for him. American agents also drugged sitting President <a href="/wiki/Elpidio_Quirino" title="Elpidio Quirino">Elpidio Quirino</a> and prepared to assassinate Senator <a href="/wiki/Claro_M._Recto" title="Claro M. Recto">Claro Recto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Prominent Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan has called the CIA "US imperialism's <a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_the_Philippines" title="CIA activities in the Philippines">clandestine apparatus in the Philippines</a>".<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, Philippine independence was qualified by legislation passed by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Trade_Act" title="Bell Trade Act">Bell Trade Act</a> provided a mechanism whereby U.S. import quotas might be established on Philippine articles which "are coming, or are likely to come, into substantial competition with like articles the product of the United States". It further required U.S. citizens and corporations be granted equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In hearings before the Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs <a href="/wiki/William_L._Clayton" title="William L. Clayton">William L. Clayton</a> described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1918:_Wilsonian_intervention">1918: Wilsonian intervention</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1918: Wilsonian intervention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG/220px-American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG/330px-American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG/440px-American_troops_in_Vladivostok_1918_HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2960" data-file-height="1815" /></a><figcaption>American troops marching in <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a>, August 1918</figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> broke out in Europe, President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> promised American neutrality throughout the war. This promise was broken when the United States entered the war after the <a href="/wiki/Zimmermann_Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Zimmermann Telegram">Zimmermann Telegram</a>. This was "a war for empire" to control vast raw materials in Africa and other colonized areas, according to the contemporary historian and civil rights leader <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> More recently historian <a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a> argues that Wilson entered the war in order to open international markets to surplus US production. He quotes Wilson's own declaration that <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Concessions obtained by financiers must be safeguarded by ministers of state, even if the sovereignty of unwilling nations be outraged in the process... the doors of the nations which are closed must be battered down.</blockquote> In a memo to Secretary of State Bryan, the president described his aim as "an <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">open door</a> to the world".<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a> notes that Wilson's original avoidance of world war was not motivated by anti-imperialism; his fear was that "<a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white civilization and its domination in the world</a>" were threatened by "the great white nations" destroying each other in endless battle.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Despite President Wilson's official doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Moral_diplomacy" title="Moral diplomacy">moral diplomacy</a> seeking to "make the world safe for democracy," some of his <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">activities at the time</a> can be viewed as imperialism to stop the advance of democracy in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The United States invaded <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> on July 28, 1915, and American rule continued until August 1, 1934. The historian Mary Renda in her book, Taking Haiti, talks about the American invasion of Haiti to bring about political stability through U.S. control. The American government did not believe Haiti was ready for self-government or democracy, according to Renda. In order to bring about political stability in Haiti, the United States secured control and integrated the country into the international capitalist economy, while preventing Haiti from practicing self-governance or democracy. While Haiti had been running their own government for many years before American intervention, the U.S. government regarded Haiti as unfit for self-rule. In order to convince the American public of the justice in intervening, the United States government used <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalist</a> propaganda, depicting the Haitian political process as uncivilized. The Haitian government would come to agree to U.S. terms, including American overseeing of the Haitian economy. This direct supervision of the Haitian economy would reinforce U.S. propaganda and further entrench the perception of Haitians' being incompetent of self-governance.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In World War I, the US, Britain, and Russia had been allies for seven months, from April 1917 until the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolsheviks</a> seized power in Russia in November. Active distrust surfaced immediately, as even before the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> British officers had been involved in the <a href="/wiki/Kornilov_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Kornilov Affair">Kornilov Affair</a>, an attempted coup d'état by the Russian Army against the Provisional Government.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Nonetheless, once the Bolsheviks took Moscow, the British government began talks to try and keep them in the war effort. British diplomat <a href="/wiki/R._H._Bruce_Lockhart" title="R. H. Bruce Lockhart">Bruce Lockhart</a> cultivated a relationship with several Soviet officials, including <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, and the latter approved the initial Allied military mission to secure the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front of World War I">Eastern Front</a>, which was collapsing in the revolutionary upheaval. Ultimately, Soviet head of state <a href="/wiki/V.I._Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="V.I. Lenin">V.I. Lenin</a> decided the Bolsheviks would settle peacefully with the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a>. This separate peace led to Allied disdain for the Soviets, since it left the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Western Allies</a> to fight Germany without a strong Eastern partner. The <a href="/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Intelligence Service">Secret Intelligence Service</a>, supported by US diplomat Dewitt C. Poole, sponsored an attempted coup in Moscow involving Bruce Lockhart and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Reilly" title="Sidney Reilly">Sidney Reilly</a>, which involved an attempted assassination of Lenin. The Bolsheviks proceeded to shut down the British and U.S. embassies.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Tensions between Russia (including its allies) and the West turned intensely ideological. Horrified by mass executions of White forces, land expropriations, and widespread repression, the Allied military expedition now <a href="/wiki/North_Russia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North Russia Campaign">assisted</a> the anti-Bolshevik Whites in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, with the US covertly giving support<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> to the autocratic and antisemitic <a href="/wiki/Kolchak,_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolchak, Alexander">General Alexander Kolchak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Over 30,000 Western troops</a> were deployed in Russia overall.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> This was the first event that made Russian–American relations a matter of major, long-term concern to the leaders in each country. Some historians, including <a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Powaski" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald Powaski">Ronald Powaski</a>, trace the origins of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> to this conflict.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Wilson launched seven armed interventions, more than any other president.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Looking back on the Wilson era, General <a href="/wiki/Smedley_Butler" title="Smedley Butler">Smedley Butler</a>, a leader of the Haiti expedition and the highest-decorated Marine of that time, considered virtually all of the operations to have been economically motivated.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/War_Is_a_Racket" title="War Is a Racket">1933 speech</a> he said:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I was a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism. I suspected I was just part of a racket at the time. Now I am sure of it...I helped make Mexico, especially Tampico, safe for American oil interests in 1914. I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues in. I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefits of Wall Street ... Looking back on it, I feel that I could have given Al Capone a few hints. The best he could do was to operate his racket in three districts. I operated on three continents.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1920s–1930s">1920s–1930s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1920s–1930s">edit</a>]</div> Following World War I, the British maintained occupation of the Middle East, most notably Turkey and portions of formerly Ottoman territory following the empire's collapse.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> The occupation led to rapid industrialization, which resulted in the discovery of crude oil in Persia in 1908, sparking a boom in the Middle Eastern economy.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> By the 1930s, the United States had cemented itself in the Middle East via a series of acquisitions through the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil of California">Standard Oil of California (SOCAL)</a>, which saw US control over Saudi oil.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> It was clear to the US that further expansion in Middle Eastern oil would not be possible without diplomatic representation. In 1939, CASOC appealed to the US State Department about increasing political relations with <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. This appeal was ignored until Germany and Japan made similar attempts following the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1941–1945:_World_War_II">1941–1945: World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1941–1945: World War II">edit</a>]</div> At the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the US had multiple territories in the Pacific. The majority of these territories were military bases like Midway, Guam, Wake Island and Hawaii. Japan's surprise attack on <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> was what ended up bringing the United States into the war. Japan also launched multiple attacks on other American Territories like Guam and Wake Island. By early 1942 Japan also was able to take over the Philippine islands. At the end of the Philippine island campaign the general <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">MacArthur</a> stated "I came through and I shall return" in response to the Americans losing the island to the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The loss of American territories ended the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a>. The Battle of Midway was the American offensive to stop Midway Island from falling into Japanese control. This led to the pushback of American forces and the recapturing of American territories. There were many battles that were fought against the Japanese which retook both allied territory as well as took over Japanese territories. In October 1944 American started their plan to retake the Philippine islands. Japanese troops on the island ended up surrendering in August 1945. After the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945, the United States occupied and reformed Japan up until 1952. The maximum geographical extension of American direct political and military control happened in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of World War II</a>, in the period after the surrender and occupations of <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Austria" title="Allied-occupied Austria">Austria</a> in May and later <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea" title="United States Army Military Government in Korea">Korea</a> in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">September 1945</a> and before the United States granted the Philippines independence on <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Manila_(1946)" title="Treaty of Manila (1946)">July 4, 1946</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Grand_Area">The Grand Area</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Grand Area">edit</a>]</div> In an October 1940 report to Franklin Roosevelt, Bowman wrote that "the US government is interested in any solution anywhere in the world that affects American trade. In a wide sense, commerce is the mother of all wars." In 1942 this economic globalism was articulated as the "Grand Area" concept in secret documents. The US would have to have control over the "Western Hemisphere, Continental Europe and Mediterranean Basin (excluding Russia), the Pacific Area and the Far East, and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a> (excluding Canada)." The Grand Area encompassed all known major oil-bearing areas outside the Soviet Union, largely at the behest of corporate partners like the Foreign Oil Committee and the Petroleum Industry War Council.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The US thus avoided overt territorial acquisition, like that of the European colonial empires, as being too costly, choosing the cheaper option of forcing countries to open their door to American business interests.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Although the United States was the last major belligerent to join the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, it began planning for the post-war world from the conflict's outset. This postwar vision originated in the <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a> (CFR), an economic elite-led organization that became integrated into the government leadership. CFR's <a href="/wiki/War_and_Peace_Studies" title="War and Peace Studies">War and Peace Studies</a> group offered its services to the State Department in 1939 and a secret partnership for post-war planning developed. CFR leaders <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Fish_Armstrong" title="Hamilton Fish Armstrong">Hamilton Fish Armstrong</a> and Walter H. Mallory saw World War II as a "grand opportunity" for the U.S. to emerge as "the premier power in the world."<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> This vision of empire assumed the necessity of the US to "police the world" in the aftermath of the war. This was not done primarily out of altruism, but out of economic interest. <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Bowman" title="Isaiah Bowman">Isaiah Bowman</a>, a key liaison between the CFR and the State Department, proposed an "American economic <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a>." This built upon the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Time-Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-Life">Time-Life</a> publisher <a href="/wiki/Henry_Luce" title="Henry Luce">Henry Luce</a>, who (in his "<a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a>" essay) wrote, "Tyrannies may require a large amount of living space [but] freedom requires and will require far greater living space than Tyranny." According to Bowman's biographer, <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smith_(geographer)" title="Neil Smith (geographer)">Neil Smith</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Better than the American Century or the Pax Americana, the notion of an American Lebensraum captures the specific and global historical geography of U.S. ascension to power. After World War II, global power would no longer be measured in terms of colonized land or power over territory. Rather, global power was measured in directly economic terms. Trade and markets now figured as the economic nexuses of global power, a shift confirmed in the 1944 Bretton Woods agreement, which not only inaugurated an international currency system but also established two central banking institutions—the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank—to oversee the global economy. These represented the first planks of the economic infrastructure of the postwar American Lebensraum.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> </blockquote> FDR promised: Hitler will get lebensraum, a global American one.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1947–1952:_Cold_War_in_Western_Europe">1947–1952: Cold War in Western Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1947–1952: Cold War in Western Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_(_550_duizend_deelnemers_)_overzichten,_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg/220px-Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg/330px-Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg/440px-Anti_kernwapendemonstratie_in_Den_Haag_%28_550_duizend_deelnemers_%29_overzichten%2C_Bestanddeelnr_253-8821.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3677" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Protest against the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Pershing_II" title="Pershing II">Pershing II</a> missiles in Europe, <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>, Netherlands, 1983</figcaption></figure> Prior to his death in 1945, President Roosevelt was planning to withdraw all U.S. forces from Europe as soon as possible. Soviet actions in Poland and Czechoslovakia led his successor Harry Truman to reconsider. Heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/George_Kennan" class="mw-redirect" title="George Kennan">George Kennan</a>, Washington policymakers believed that the Soviet Union was an expansionary dictatorship that threatened American interests. In their theory, Moscow's weakness was that it had to keep expanding to survive; and that, by containing or stopping its growth, stability could be achieved in Europe. The result was the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a> (1947). Initially regarding only Greece and Turkey, the <a href="/wiki/NSC-68" class="mw-redirect" title="NSC-68">NSC-68</a> (1951) extended the Truman Doctrine to the whole non-Communist world. The United States could no longer distinguish between national and global security.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Hence, the Truman Doctrine was described as "globalizing" the Monroe Doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> A second equally important consideration was the need to restore the world economy, which required the rebuilding and reorganizing of Europe for growth. This matter, more than the Soviet threat, was the main impetus behind the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> of 1948. A third factor was the realization, especially by Britain and the three <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> nations, that American military involvement was needed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a> has commented on the importance of "the eagerness with which America's friendship was sought and its leadership welcomed.... In Western Europe, America built an empire 'by invitation'"<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> According to Lundestad, the <a href="/wiki/1948_Italian_general_election" title="1948 Italian general election">U.S. interfered in Italian</a> and French politics in order to <a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">purge elected communist officials</a> who might oppose such invitations.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950–1959:_Cold_War_outside_Europe">1950–1959: Cold War outside Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1950–1959: Cold War outside Europe">edit</a>]</div> The end of the Second World War and start of the Cold War saw increased US interest in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan Revolution</a>, Guatemala saw the expansion of labour rights and <a href="/wiki/Decree_900" title="Decree 900">land reforms</a> which granted property to landless peasants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandy19944-96">[96]</a> Lobbying by the <a href="/wiki/United_Fruit_Company" title="United Fruit Company">United Fruit Company</a>, whose profits were affected by these policies, as well as fear of Communist influence in Guatemala culminated in the USA supporting <a href="/wiki/Operation_PBFortune" title="Operation PBFortune">Operation PBFortune</a> to overthrow Guatemalan President <a href="/wiki/Jacobo_%C3%81rbenz" title="Jacobo Árbenz">Jacobo Árbenz</a> in 1952. The plan involved providing weapons to the exiled Guatemalan military officer <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas" title="Carlos Castillo Armas">Carlos Castillo Armas</a>, who was to lead an invasion from Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoulton201347–49-97">[97]</a> This culminated in the <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a>. The subsequent military junta assumed dictatorial powers, banned opposition parties and reversed the social reforms of the revolution. The USA would continue to support Guatemala through the Cold War, including during the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemalan Genocide">Guatemalan Genocide</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> in which up to 200,000 people were killed. After the coup, American enterprises saw a return of influence in the country, in both the public level of government but also in the economy.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> On the March 15, 1951 the Iranian parliament, passed legislation that was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammad Mosaddegh</a> to nationalize the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>, which gained significant revenues from Iranian oil, more so than the Iranian government itself. Mosaddegh was elected Prime Minister by the Majlis later in 1952. Mosadeggh's support by the <a href="/wiki/Tudeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudeh">Tudeh</a> as well as a boycott by various businesses against the nationalised industry resulted in fears by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the United States that Iran would turn to Communism. America would officially remain neutral, but the CIA supported various candidates in the <a href="/wiki/1952_Iranian_legislative_election" title="1952 Iranian legislative election">1952 Iranian legislative election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In late 1952, with Mosaddegh remaining in power, the CIA launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ajax" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Ajax">Operation Ajax</a> with support by the United Kingdom to overthrow Mosaddegh.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-CN-IC-01-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The coup saw an increase in power of the monarchy, which went from a constitutional monarchy to an authoritarian nation. In the aftermath of the coup, the Shah agreed to replace the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company with a consortium—British Petroleum and eight European and American oil companies. In August 2013, the U.S. government formally acknowledged the U.S. role in the coup by releasing a bulk of previously classified government documents that show it was in charge of both the planning and the execution of the coup, including the bribing of Iranian politicians, security and army high-ranking officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1945–1970:_Asia-Pacific">1945–1970: Asia-Pacific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1945–1970: Asia-Pacific">edit</a>]</div> In Korea, the U.S. occupied the Southern half of the peninsula in 1945 and dissolved the Socialist <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Korea" title="People's Republic of Korea">People's Republic of Korea</a>. After which, the USA quickly allied with <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a>, leader of the fight against the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Korea" title="People's Republic of Korea">People's Republic of Korea</a> that proclaimed a provisional government. There was a lot of opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">division of Korea</a>, including rebellions by communists such as the <a href="/wiki/Jeju_uprising" title="Jeju uprising">Jeju uprising</a> in 1948 and further <a href="/wiki/Communist_partisans_in_the_Korean_War" title="Communist partisans in the Korean War">Communist partisans in the Korean War</a>. The Jeju Uprising was violently suppressed and led to the deaths of 30,000 people, the majority of them civilians. North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950, starting the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blowback-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> With <a href="/wiki/NSC_68" title="NSC 68">National Security Council document 68</a> and the subsequent Korean War, the U.S. adopted a policy of "<a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">rollback</a>" against communism in Asia. <a href="/wiki/John_Tirman" title="John Tirman">John Tirman</a>, an American political theorist has claimed that this policy was heavily influenced by America's imperialistic policy in Asia in the 19th century, with its goals to <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Americanization" title="Americanization">Americanize</a> the peasant masses.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In the following conflict, the USA oversaw a large bombing campaign over <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_North_Korea" title="Bombing of North Korea">North Korea</a>. A total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, were dropped on Korea.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong_2010-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">In Vietnam</a>, the U.S. eschewed its anti-imperialist rhetoric by materially supporting the <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Empire</a> in a colonial <a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">counterinsurgency</a>. Influenced by the Grand Area policy, the U.S. eventually assumed military and financial support for the South Vietnamese state against the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Vietnamese communists</a> following the first <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_war" class="mw-redirect" title="First Indochina war">First Indochina war</a>. The US and South Vietnam feared <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> would win nationwide elections. They both refused to sign agreements at the <a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a> arguing that fair elections weren't possible in North Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Beginning in 1965, the US sent many combat units to fight <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a> and North Vietnamese soldiers in South Vietnam, with fighting extending to <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. During the war <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> called the American government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today."<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Initially based on stopping the spread of Communism into South Vietnam, the war and its motivations slowly began to lose its momentum in justifying the damage the war was causing to both sides. Particularly on the home front, where by 1970, two thirds of the American public advocated against the war. The Vietnam War also saw expansion of conflict into neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. Both of which saw extensive bombing campaigns under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barrel_Roll" title="Operation Barrel Roll">Operation Barrel Roll</a>, which made Laos "the most heavily bombed nation in history",<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Menu" title="Operation Menu">Operation Menu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Freedom_Deal" title="Operation Freedom Deal">Operation Freedom Deal</a>. After the deaths of six generals in the Indonesian Army, which <a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a> blamed on the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Communist Party of Indonesia</a> and a failed coup attempt by the <a href="/wiki/30_September_Movement" title="30 September Movement">30 September Movement</a>, an Anti-Communist purge began across the country led by Suharto and the army. The subsequent killings resulted in the deaths of up to 1,000,000 people. Though some estimates claim a death toll of 2 or 3 Million. Ethnic Chinese, trade unionists, teachers, activists, artists, ethnic Javanese <a href="/wiki/Abangan" title="Abangan">Abangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesians" title="Chinese Indonesians">ethnic Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheists</a>, so-called "<a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">unbelievers</a>", and alleged <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">leftists</a> were also among targeted groups in the killings. Geoffrey B. Robinson, professor of history at <a href="/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a>, argued that powerful foreign states, in particular the United States, Great Britain and their allies, were instrumental in facilitating and encouraging the Indonesian Army's campaign of mass killing, and without such support, the killings would not have happened.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The political changes that came with the mass-killings not only resulted in the purge of the Communist Party, but also a shift in Indonesia's foreign policy towards the West and capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Furthermore, the mass-killings resulted in the expansion of American markets into Indonesia. By 1967, companies such as <a href="/wiki/Freeport-McMoRan" title="Freeport-McMoRan">Freeport Sulphur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company" title="Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company">Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Express" title="American Express">American Express</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar_Inc." title="Caterpillar Inc.">Caterpillar Inc.</a>, <a href="/wiki/StarKist" title="StarKist">StarKist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raytheon_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Raytheon Technologies">Raytheon Technologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</a>, began to explore business opportunities in Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Declassified documents released by the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta in October 2017 stated that the U.S. government had detailed knowledge of the massacres from the start. The documents revealed that the U.S. government actively encouraged and facilitated the Indonesian Army's massacres to further its geopolitical interests in the region.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s–1980s:_Latin_American_regime_change">1970s–1980s: Latin American regime change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1970s–1980s: Latin American regime change">edit</a>]</div> From 1968 until 1989, the United States of America supported a campaign of <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_terrorism" title="State terrorism">state terrorism</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(information_gathering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (information gathering)">intelligence</a> operations, <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>-backed <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'états</a>, and assassinations of <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> leaders in <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> It was officially implemented in November 1975 by the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_dictatorship" title="Right-wing dictatorship">right-wing dictatorships</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> of South America in Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Uruguay, and Paraguay with substantial US support.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990_onward">1990 onward</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1990 onward">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gulf_War">Gulf War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gulf War">edit</a>]</div> Professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Klay_Kieh_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Klay Kieh Jr. (page does not exist)">George Klay Kieh Jr.</a> argued that part of the motivation for the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> was derived from a desire to distract from the various crisis' in America at the time, such as the <a href="/wiki/Keating_Five" title="Keating Five">Keating Five</a>, national debt rising to $3 Trillion, an increasing trade deficit, unemployment, rising crime and growing wealth inequality.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> He also argued that other very significant motivating factors for the war were strategic factors, such as a fear of subsequent invasion of <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and other Pro-American monarchies in Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-121">[121]</a> Iraqi control over the Gulf region was also feared to harm access to the United States to a major corridor of international trade. Professor Kieh also argued for various economic factors behind the invasion. The Bush Administration calculated that Iraq's annexation of Kuwait would result in it controlling up to 45% of global oil production<a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-121">[121]</a> and since major banks such as <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_America" title="Bank of America">Bank of America</a> had significant stakes in the oil industry (various Gulf states saved more than $75 Billion in American banks), there were fears of a potential economic crisis due to the annexation.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iraq_War">Iraq War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Iraq War">edit</a>]</div> The American invasion of Iraq has been cited by William Robinson as an instance of imperialism in which the beneficiaries of imperial conquest were transnational <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> groups where the goal of the Iraq war was not political annexation, but rather the economic subjugation of Iraq and its incorporation into the global economy. Robinson draws specific attention to <a href="/wiki/Economic_reform_of_Iraq" title="Economic reform of Iraq">Order 39</a> where after taking control of Iraq in 2003, the America occupation force dismantled the previous Iraqi economy in favour of full privatization in Iraq and the permitting of 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi assets thereby strengthening the positions of foreign businesses and investors.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2011_Intervention_in_Libya">2011 Intervention in Libya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 2011 Intervention in Libya">edit</a>]</div> In 2011, as part of the wider <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>, protests erupted in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya_under_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi">Libya</a> against <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>, which soon spiralled into a civil war. In the ensuing conflict, a NATO-led coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1973" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973</a>. While the effort was initially largely led by <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, command was shared with the United States, as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Odyssey_Dawn" title="Operation Odyssey Dawn">Operation Odyssey Dawn</a>. According to the Libyan Health Ministry, the attacks saw 114 civilians killed and 445 civilians wounded.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Matteo_Capasso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matteo Capasso (page does not exist)">Matteo Capasso</a> argued that the <a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">2011 military intervention in Libya</a> was "US-led imperialism" and the final conclusion in a wider war on Libya since the 1970s via '<a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">gunboat diplomacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya" title="1986 United States bombing of Libya">military bombings</a>, international sanctions and arbitrary use of international law'.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Capasso argued that the war in Libya acted to strip Libya of its autonomy and resources and the 'overall weakening and fragmentation of the African and Arab political position, and the cheapening and/or direct annihilation of human lives in Third World countries'.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy">Strategy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Strategy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._military_alliances">U.S. military alliances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: U.S. military alliances">edit</a>]</div> The architect of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Kennan" class="mw-redirect" title="George Kennan">George Kennan</a>, designed in 1948 a globe-circling system of anti-Russian alliances embracing all non-Communist countries of the Old World.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The design was met by the US administration with enthusiasm. Disregarding George Washington's dictum of avoiding entangling alliances, in the early Cold War the United States contracted 44 formal alliances and many other forms of commitment with nearly 100 countries, most of the world countries.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Some observers described the process as "pactomania."<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Ostrovsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Ostrovsky (page does not exist)">Max Ostrovsky</a>, these are not alliances in the Westphalian sense characterized by <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a> and impermanence. Instead, they were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Client_kingdoms_in_ancient_Rome" title="Client kingdoms in ancient Rome">Roman client system</a> during the late Republic.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Scholars label the US network of alliances as "hub-and-spokes" system where the United States is the "hub." Spokes do not directly interrelate between and among themselves, but all are bound to the same hub.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The "hub-and-spokes" analogy is used in the comparative studies of empires.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> By contrast to earlier empires, however, the American "imperial" presence was largely welcome.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Ostrovsky says that although all earlier empires, especially persistent empires, were in a measure by bargain, cooperation and invitation, in the post-1945 world this took an extreme form. Disregarding national pride, large number of states, some of them recent great powers, "surrender their strategic sovereignty en mass[sic]." According to Ostrovsky, they host hegemonic bases, partly cover the expenses for running them, integrate their strategic forces under the hegemonic command, contribute 1-2% of their GDP to those forces, and tip military, economic and humanitarian contributions in case of the hegemonic operations worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._military_bases">U.S. military bases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: U.S. military bases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_military_deployments" title="United States military deployments">United States military deployments</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg/440px-US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg/660px-US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg/880px-US_military_bases_in_the_world_2007.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>U.S. military presence around the world in 2007. As of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit">[update]</a>, the U.S. had many <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">bases and troops stationed globally</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Their presence has generated controversy and opposition.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  More than 1,000 U.S. troops</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  100–1,000 U.S. troops</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Use of military facilities</div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">List of United States military bases</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg/220px-Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg/330px-Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg/440px-Combined_Air_Operations_Center_151007-F-MS415-022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Combined <a href="/wiki/Air_and_Space_Operations_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Air and Space Operations Center">Air and Space Operations Center</a> (CAOC) at <a href="/wiki/Al_Udeid_Air_Base" title="Al Udeid Air Base">Al Udeid Air Base</a> in Qatar, 2015</figcaption></figure> During World War II, Franklin Roosevelt promised that the American eagle will "fly high and strike hard." But he can only do so if he has safe perches around the world.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Initially, the Army and Navy disagreed. But the leading expert on "flying high and striking hard," <a href="/wiki/Curtis_LeMay" title="Curtis LeMay">Curtis LeMay</a>, endorsed: "We needed to establish bases within reasonable range; then we could bomb and burn them until they quit."<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> After the War, a global network of bases emerged. NCS-162/2 of 1953 stated: "The military striking power necessary to retaliate depends for the foreseeable future on having bases in allied countries." The bases were defined as nation's strategic frontier defining a sphere of American inviolate military predominance.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Chalmers Johnson</a> argued in 2004 that America's version of the colony is the military base.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chip_Pitts" title="Chip Pitts">Chip Pitts</a> argued similarly in 2006 that enduring U.S. bases in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> suggested a vision of "<a href="/wiki/Iraq_War#Iraqi_opinion" title="Iraq War">Iraq as a colony</a>."<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/New_Frontier" title="New Frontier">New Frontier</a> speech in 1960, John F. Kennedy noted that America's frontiers are on every continent. Circling the Sino-Soviet bloc with bases resulted in a network of global dimensions. Contemplating its genesis, an observer wondered: What two places in the world have less in common than the frozen <a href="/wiki/Qaanaaq" title="Qaanaaq">Thule</a> and tropical <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> half a way around the world? Both happened to be principal operating areas of the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command" title="Strategic Air Command">Strategic Air Command</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> On Guam, a common joke had it that few people other than nuclear targeters in Kemlin know where their island is.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> While territories such as <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> remain under U.S. control, the U.S. allowed many of its overseas territories or occupations to gain independence after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (1946), the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a> (1979), <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> (1981), the <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a> (1986), and the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> (1986). Most of them still have U.S. bases within their territories. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa</a>, which came under U.S. administration after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a> during the Second World War, this happened despite local popular opinion on the island.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> In 2003, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> distribution found the United States had bases in over 36 countries worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Camp_Bondsteel" title="Camp Bondsteel">Camp Bondsteel</a> base in the disputed territory of <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Since 1959, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> has regarded the U.S. presence in <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base" title="Guantanamo Bay Naval Base">Guantánamo Bay</a> as illegal.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> As of 2024, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_military_deployments" title="United States military deployments">United States deploys</a> approximately 160,000 of its active-duty personnel outside the United States and its territories.<a href="#cite_note-dmdc.osd.mil-153">[153]</a> In 2015 the Department of Defense reported the number of bases that had any military or civilians stationed or employed was 587. This includes land only (where no facilities are present), facility or facilities only (where there the underlying land is neither owned nor controlled by the government), and land with facilities (where both are present).<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Also in 2015, David Vine's book Base Nation, found 800 U.S. military bases located outside of the U.S., including 174 bases in Germany, 113 in Japan, and 83 in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>. The total cost was estimated at $100 billion a year.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Similarly, associates American author <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Kaplan" title="Robert D. Kaplan">Robert D. Kaplan</a>, the Roman garrisons were established to defend the frontiers of the empire and for surveillance of the areas beyond.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> For Historian Max Ostrovsky and International Law scholar <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Falk" title="Richard A. Falk">Richard A. Falk</a>, this is contrast rather than similarity: "this time there are no frontiers and no areas beyond. The global strategic reach is unprecedented in world history phenomenon."<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> "The United States is by circumstance and design an emerging global empire, the first in the history of the world."<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kagan" title="Robert Kagan">Robert Kagan</a> inscribed over the map of US global deployments: "<a href="/wiki/The_empire_on_which_the_sun_never_sets" title="The empire on which the sun never sets">The Sun never sets</a>."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unified_combatant_command">Unified combatant command</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Unified combatant command">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG/330px-Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG/495px-Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG/660px-Unified_Combatant_Commands_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption> Unified combatant command map</figcaption></figure> The global network of military alliances and bases is coordinated by the Unified combatant command (UCC).<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> As of 2024, the world is divided between six geographic "commands." The origins of the UCC is rooted in World War II with its global scale and two main theaters half-a-world apart. As in the case of military alliances and bases, the UCC was founded to wage the Cold War but long outlived this confrontation and expanded.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a>, who served as Secretary of Defense during the end of the Cold War, announced: "The strategic command, control and communication system should continue to evolve toward a joint global structure…"<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The continuation of the strategic pattern implied for some that "the United States would hold to its accidental hegemony."<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In 1998, the UCC determined the Soviet "succession": the former Soviet Republics in Europe and the whole of Russia were assigned to the <a href="/wiki/USEUCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="USEUCOM">USEUCOM</a> and those of the Central Asia to the <a href="/wiki/USCENTCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="USCENTCOM">USCENTCOM</a>. USEUCOM stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In 2002, for the first time, the entire surface of the Earth was divided among the US commands. The last unassigned region—Antarctica—entered the <a href="/wiki/USPACOM" class="mw-redirect" title="USPACOM">USPACOM</a> which stretched from Pole to Pole and covered half of the globe; the rest of geographic commands covered the other half. Historian <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Kelly_(historian)" title="Christopher Kelly (historian)"> Christopher Kelly</a> asked in 2002: What America needs to consider is "what is the optimum size for a non-territorial empire."<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> His colleague, Max Ostrovsky, replied: "Precisely that year, the UCC supplied a precise answer: <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">510 million km2</a>…"<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Canadian Historian, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ignatieff" title="Michael Ignatieff">Michael Ignatieff</a>, claims that the UCC map conveys the idea of the architecture underlying the entire global order and explaining how this order is sustained.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The US national defense evolves into global defense. The <a href="/wiki/Quadrennial_Defense_Review" title="Quadrennial Defense Review">Quadrennial Defense Review</a> of 2014 refers to "our global Combatant Commanders," that is "our" and "global" at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> These Commanders exercise heavy international influence and sometimes are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">Roman proconsuls</a> (chapter "'Empire' and alternative terms" below). "Command," translated into Latin, renders "imperium." The Romans used the word "command" for their sphere of rule containing nominally independent states. Later, the word "imperium" lost its original meaning of "command" and obtained the meaning of "empire."<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors">Factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Factors">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: American exceptionalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puck_cover2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Puck_cover2.jpg/170px-Puck_cover2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Puck_cover2.jpg/255px-Puck_cover2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Puck_cover2.jpg/340px-Puck_cover2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2466" data-file-height="3461" /></a><figcaption>On the cover of <a href="/wiki/Puck_(magazine)" title="Puck (magazine)">Puck</a> published on April 6, 1901, in the wake of gainful victory in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia (name)">Columbia</a>—the <a href="/wiki/National_personification" title="National personification">National personification</a> of the U.S.—preens herself with an <a href="/wiki/Easter_bonnet" title="Easter bonnet">Easter bonnet</a> in the form of a warship bearing the words "World Power" and the word "Expansion" on the smoke coming out of its stack.</figcaption></figure> On the ideological level, one motif for the <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism#Global_leadership_and_activism" title="American exceptionalism">global leadership</a> is the notion of <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a>. The United States occupies a special position among the nations of the world<a href="#cite_note-sagehistory.net-171">[171]</a> in terms of its national <a href="/wiki/Credo" title="Credo">credo</a>, historical evolution, and political and religious institutions and origins. Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kellner" title="Douglas Kellner">Douglas Kellner</a> traces the identification of American exceptionalism as a distinct phenomenon back to 19th-century French observer <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, who concluded by agreeing that the U.S., uniquely, was "proceeding along a path to which no limit can be perceived".<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a> editorial opines on the phenomenon, "In Britain, empire was justified as a benevolent <a href="/wiki/The_White_Man%27s_Burden" title="The White Man's Burden">'white man's burden.'</a> And in the United States, empire does not even exist; 'we' are merely protecting the causes of freedom, democracy and justice worldwide."<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fareed_Zakaria" title="Fareed Zakaria">Fareed Zakaria</a> stressed one element not exceptional for the American Empire—the concept of exceptionalism. All dominant empires thought they were special.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_interests">Economic interests</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Economic interests">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg/170px-Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg/255px-Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg/340px-Go_Away_Little_Man_Charles_Green_Bush.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>1903 cartoon, "Go Away, Little Man, and Don't Bother Me", depicts President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> intimidating Colombia to acquire the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg/170px-1899BalanceCartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg/255px-1899BalanceCartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg/340px-1899BalanceCartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>In 1899, Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as savage children. The figures are <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, Hawaii, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and "Ladrone Island" (Guam, largest of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>, which were formerly known as the Ladrones Islands).</figcaption></figure> A "<a href="/wiki/Social-democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Social-democratic">social-democratic</a>" theory says that imperialistic U.S. policies are the products of the excessive influence of certain sectors of U.S. business and government—the <a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">arms industry</a> in alliance with military and political bureaucracies and sometimes other industries such as oil and finance, a combination often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">military–industrial complex</a>." The complex is said to benefit from <a href="/wiki/War_profiteering" title="War profiteering">war profiteering</a> and looting <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a>, often at the expense of the public interest.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The proposed solution is typically unceasing popular vigilance in order to apply counter-pressure.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Chalmers Johnson</a> holds a version of this view.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a>, who served as an officer in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> during the late 19th century, supported the notion of American imperialism in his 1890 book titled <a href="/wiki/The_Influence_of_Sea_Power_upon_History" title="The Influence of Sea Power upon History">The Influence of Sea Power upon History</a>. Mahan argued that modern industrial nations must secure foreign markets for the purpose of exchanging goods and, consequently, they must maintain a maritime force that is capable of protecting these <a href="/wiki/Trade_routes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade routes">trade routes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> A theory of "super-imperialism" argues that imperialistic U.S. policies are not driven solely by the interests of American businesses, but also by the interests of a larger apparatus of a global alliance among the economic elite in developed countries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The argument asserts that <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">Global North</a> (Europe, Japan, Canada, and the U.S.) has become too entangled to permit military or geopolitical conflict between these countries, and the central conflict in modern imperialism is between the Global North (also referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Core_countries" title="Core countries">global core</a>) and the Global South (also referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">global periphery</a>), rather than between the imperialist powers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A conservative, anti-interventionist view as expressed by American journalist <a href="/wiki/John_T._Flynn" title="John T. Flynn">John T. Flynn</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The enemy aggressor is always pursuing a course of larceny, murder, rapine and barbarism. We are always moving forward with high mission, a destiny imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a> to regenerate our victims, while incidentally capturing their markets; to civilise savage and senile and paranoid peoples, while blundering accidentally into their oil wells.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security">Security</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Security">edit</a>]</div> The last period of the US Isolationist policy ended with World War II. Due to the progress of military technology, it was argued, the Oceans stopped protecting. Ever since, this War is invoked as a lesson for permanent involvement in world politics. Harry Truman,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> John Kennedy<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> and Bill Clinton<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> repeated close versions of this lesson. If hostile powers are not checked from the beginning, the paradigm tells, they would gain control over vaster resources and eventually the United States would have to fight them when they are stronger. The focus of this policy is on Eurasia. Since <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> and until <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics#United_States" title="Geopolitics">American geopolitical school</a> claims it vital to prevent the Eurasian land mass from coming under control of any single power or combination of powers.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Some scholars explain the Cold War by geopolitics rather than ideology.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> They stress that the US grand strategy designed for the Cold War long outlived the Soviet Communism.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> September 11 is another example of security crisis which triggered greater intervention as well as unleashed mass publications on the "American Empire" accompanied by heated debates (see "Post-September-11 debates" below). The pattern of increasing involvement responding to security crises or threats is known as "defensive imperialism" in the Roman studies<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> and Historian Max Ostrovsky applied the concept also to <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a> and the United States. All three, he finds, began with isolationism using geographic barriers and gradually built their empires responding to growing external threats. The three strategic transformations are analogous—from isolationism to hegemony to empire—with the modern process being currently uncompleted.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views_of_American_imperialism">Views of American imperialism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Views of American imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._foreign_policy_debate">U.S. foreign policy debate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: U.S. foreign policy debate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history of the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Overseas_interventions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas interventions of the United States">Overseas interventions of the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:American_imperialism" title="Talk:American imperialism">talk page</a> may contain suggestions. (January 2014)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">Annexation</a> is a crucial instrument in the expansion of a nation, due to the fact that once a territory is annexed it must act within the confines of its superior counterpart. The United States Congress' ability to annex a foreign territory is explained in a report from the Congressional Committee on Foreign Relations, "If, in the judgment of Congress, such a measure is supported by a safe and wise policy, or is based upon a natural duty that we owe to the people of Hawaii, or is necessary for our national development and security, that is enough to justify annexation, with the consent of the recognized government of the country to be annexed."<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Prior to annexing a territory, the American government still held immense power through the various legislations passed in the late 1800s. The <a href="/wiki/Platt_Amendment" title="Platt Amendment">Platt Amendment</a> was utilized to prevent Cuba from entering into any agreement with foreign nations and also granted the Americans the right to build naval stations on their soil.<a href="#cite_note-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998-51">[51]</a> Executive officials in the American government began to determine themselves the supreme authority in matters regarding the recognition or restriction of independence.<a href="#cite_note-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998-51">[51]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_W._Meinig" title="Donald W. Meinig">Donald W. Meinig</a> says imperial behavior by the United States dates at least to the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a>, which he describes as an "imperial acquisition—imperial in the sense of the aggressive encroachment of one people upon the territory of another, resulting in the subjugation of that people to alien rule." The U.S. policies towards the Native Americans, he said, were "designed to remold them into a people more appropriately conformed to imperial desires."<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BigStickinLAmerica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/BigStickinLAmerica.jpg/290px-BigStickinLAmerica.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/BigStickinLAmerica.jpg/435px-BigStickinLAmerica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/BigStickinLAmerica.jpg/580px-BigStickinLAmerica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>A map of Central America, showing the places affected by <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Big_Stick_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Stick ideology">Big Stick policy</a></figcaption></figure> Writers and academics of the early 20th century, like <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, in support of <a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">non-interventionism</a> (sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/American_isolationism" class="mw-redirect" title="American isolationism">isolationism</a>"), discussed American policy as being driven by self-interested expansionism going back as far as the writing of the Constitution. Many politicians today do not agree. <a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Pat Buchanan</a> claims that the modern United States' drive to empire is "far removed from what the Founding Fathers had intended the young Republic to become."<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_Consent:_The_Political_Economy_of_the_Mass_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media">Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media</a>, the political activist <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> argues that exceptionalism and the denials of imperialism are the result of a systematic strategy of propaganda, to "manufacture opinion" as the process has long been described in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> One of the earliest historians of American Empire, <a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a>, wrote, "The routine lust for land, markets or security became justifications for noble rhetoric about prosperity, liberty and security."<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Andrew Bacevich</a> argues that the U.S. did not fundamentally change its <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and remains focused on an effort to expand its control across the world.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> As the surviving superpower at the end of the Cold War, the U.S. could focus its assets in new directions, the future being "up for grabs," according to former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Paul Wolfowitz</a> in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Since 2001,<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Todd" title="Emmanuel Todd">Emmanuel Todd</a> assumes the U.S. cannot hold for long the status of mondial hegemonic power, due to limited resources. Instead, the U.S. is going to become just one of the major regional powers along with European Union, China, Russia, etc. Reviewing Todd's <a href="/wiki/After_the_Empire" title="After the Empire">After the Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._John_Ikenberry" class="mw-redirect" title="G. John Ikenberry">G. John Ikenberry</a> found that it had been written in "a fit of French wishful thinking."<a href="#cite_note-Ikenberry2004-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_after_September_11,_2001">Debate after September 11, 2001</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Debate after September 11, 2001">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg/220px-Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg/330px-Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg/440px-Nebel_Mexican_War_12_Scott_in_Mexico_City.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5237" data-file-height="3893" /></a><figcaption>American occupation of <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> in 1847</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_(detailed).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg/220px-Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg/330px-Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg/440px-Raising_of_American_flag_at_Iolani_Palace_with_US_Marines_in_the_foreground_%28detailed%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Ceremonies during the <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii#Annexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii">annexation of the Republic of Hawaii</a>, 1898</figcaption></figure> Following September 11, publications on the "American Empire" grew exponentially, accompanied by heated debates.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Harvard historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Maier" title="Charles S. Maier">Charles S. Maier</a> states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> Since September 11, 2001 ... if not earlier, the idea of American empire is back ... Now ... for the first time since the early Twentieth century, it has become acceptable to ask whether the United States has become or is becoming an empire in some classic sense."<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></blockquote> Harvard professor <a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Niall Ferguson</a> states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> It used to be that only the critics of American foreign policy referred to the American empire ... In the past three or four years [2001–2004], however, a growing number of commentators have begun to use the term American empire less pejoratively, if still ambivalently, and in some cases with genuine enthusiasm.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></blockquote> French political scientist Philip Golub argues: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> U.S. historians have generally considered the late 19th century imperialist urge as an aberration in an otherwise smooth democratic trajectory ... Yet a century later, as the U.S. empire engages in a new period of global expansion, Rome is once more a distant but essential mirror for American elites ... Now, with military mobilisation on an exceptional scale after September 2001, the United States is openly affirming and parading its imperial power. For the first time since the 1890s, the naked display of force is backed by explicitly imperialist discourse.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></blockquote> Following the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">invasion of Afghanistan</a> in 2001, the idea of American imperialism was re-examined. In November 2001, jubilant marines hoisted an American flag over Kandahar and in a stage display referred to the moment as the third after those on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_Hill" title="Battle of San Juan Hill">San Juan Hill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a>. All moments, writes <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smith_(geographer)" title="Neil Smith (geographer)">Neil Smith</a>, express U.S. global ambition. "Labelled a <a href="/wiki/War_on_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Terror">War on Terrorism</a>, the new war represents an unprecedented quickening of the American Empire, a third chance at global power."<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> On October 15, 2001, the cover of <a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Bill Kristol</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Weekly_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Weekly Standard">Weekly Standard</a> carried the headline, "The Case for American Empire".<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rich_Lowry" title="Rich Lowry">Rich Lowry</a>, editor in chief of the <a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a>, called for "a kind of low-grade <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>" to topple dangerous regimes beyond Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The columnist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Charles Krauthammer</a> declared that, given complete U.S. domination "culturally, economically, technologically and militarily", people were "now coming out of the closet on the word 'empire'".<a href="#cite_note-Trends_2002-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">New York Times</a> Sunday magazine cover for January 5, 2003, read "American Empire: Get Used To It". The phrase "American empire" appeared more than 1000 times in news stories during November 2002 – April 2003.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> A leading spokesman for America-as-Empire, British historian <a href="/wiki/A._G._Hopkins" title="A. G. Hopkins">A. G. Hopkins</a>,<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> argues that by the 21st century traditional economic imperialism was no longer in play, noting that the oil companies opposed the American invasion of Iraq in 2003. Instead, anxieties about the negative impact of globalization on rural and rust-belt America were at work, says Hopkins: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> These anxieties prepared the way for a conservative revival based on family, faith and flag that enabled the neo-conservatives to transform conservative patriotism into assertive nationalism after 9/11. In the short term, the invasion of Iraq was a manifestation of national unity. Placed in a longer perspective, it reveals a growing divergence between new globalised interests, which rely on cross-border negotiation, and insular nationalist interests, which seek to rebuild fortress America.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg/330px-CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg/495px-CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg/660px-CIA_Secret_Prisons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_rendition" title="Extraordinary rendition">extraordinary rendition</a> and detention program – countries involved in the Program, according to the 2013 Open Society Foundation's report on <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a></figcaption></figure> Harvard professor Niall Ferguson concludes that worldwide military and economic power have combined to make the U.S. the most powerful empire in history. It is a good idea he thinks, because like the successful <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in the 19th century it works to globalize free markets, enhance the rule of law and promote representative government. He fears, however, that Americans lack the long-term commitment in manpower and money to keep the Empire operating.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Head of the Olin Institute for Strategic Studies at Harvard University, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Peter_Rosen" title="Stephen Peter Rosen">Stephen Peter Rosen</a>, maintains: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> A political unit that has overwhelming superiority in military power, and uses that power to influence the internal behavior of other states, is called an empire. Because the United States does not seek to control territory or govern the overseas citizens of the empire, we are an indirect empire, to be sure, but an empire nonetheless. If this is correct, our goal is not combating a rival, but maintaining our imperial position and maintaining imperial order.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a></blockquote> The U.S. dollar is the de facto <a href="/wiki/World_currency" title="World currency">world currency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The term <a href="/wiki/Petrodollar_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrodollar warfare">petrodollar warfare</a> refers to the alleged motivation of U.S. foreign policy as preserving by force the status of the United States dollar as the world's dominant <a href="/wiki/Reserve_currency" title="Reserve currency">reserve currency</a> and as the currency in which <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> is priced. The term was coined by William R. Clark, who has written a book with the same title. The phrase oil <a href="/wiki/Currency_war" title="Currency war">currency war</a> is sometimes used with the same meaning.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> When asked on April 28, 2003, on <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Arabic" title="Al Jazeera Arabic">Al Jazeera</a> whether the United States was "empire building," Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a> replied, "We don't seek empires. We're not imperialistic. We never have been."<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Many – perhaps most – scholars[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have decided that the United States lacks the key essentials of an empire. For example, while there are American military bases around the world, the American soldiers do not rule over the local people, and the United States government does not send out governors or permanent settlers like all the historic empires did.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Harvard historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Maier" title="Charles S. Maier">Charles S. Maier</a> has examined the America-as-Empire issue at length. He says the traditional understanding of the word "empire" does not apply, because the United States does not exert formal control over other nations or engage in systematic conquest. The best term is that the United States is a "hegemon." Its enormous influence through high technology, economic power, and impact on popular culture gives it an international outreach that stands in sharp contrast to the inward direction of historic empires.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> World historian <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Anthony Pagden</a> asks, Is the United States really an empire? <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> I think if we look at the history of the European empires, the answer must be no. It is often assumed that because America possesses the military capability to become an empire, any overseas interest it does have must necessarily be imperial. ...In a number of crucial respects, the United States is, indeed, very un-imperial.... America bears not the slightest resemblance to ancient Rome. Unlike all previous European empires, it has no significant overseas settler populations in any of its formal dependencies and no obvious desire to acquire any. ...It exercises no direct rule anywhere outside these areas, and it has always attempted to extricate itself as swiftly as possible from anything that looks as if it were about to develop into even indirect rule.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg/220px-US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg/330px-US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg/440px-US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-004_U.S._Army_Sgt._Mark_Phiffer_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields_in_Southern_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. soldier stands guard duty near a burning oil well in the <a href="/wiki/Rumaila_oil_field" title="Rumaila oil field">Rumaila oil field</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, April 2003.</figcaption></figure> In the book <a href="/wiki/Empire_(Negri_and_Hardt_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire (Negri and Hardt book)">Empire</a> (2000), <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a> argue that "the decline of Empire has begun".<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Hardt says the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> is a classically imperialist war and is the last gasp of a doomed strategy.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> They expand on this, claiming that in the new era of imperialism, the classical imperialists retain a colonizing power of sorts, but the strategy shifts from military occupation of economies based on physical goods to a networked <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">biopower</a> based on an informational and <a href="/wiki/Affect_(philosophy)" title="Affect (philosophy)">affective</a> economies. They go on to say that the U.S. is central to the development of this new regime of <a href="/wiki/Power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Power in international relations">international power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, termed "Empire", but that it is decentralized and global, and not ruled by one sovereign state: "The United States does indeed occupy a privileged position in Empire, but this privilege derives not from its similarities to the old European imperialist powers, but from its differences."<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Hardt and Negri draw on the theories of <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, and Italian <a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomist Marxists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Geographer <a href="/wiki/David_Harvey_(geographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Harvey (geographer)">David Harvey</a> says there has emerged a new type of imperialism due to geographical distinctions as well as unequal rates of development.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> He says there have emerged three new global economic and political blocs: the United States, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, and Asia centered on China and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The edit at http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&curid=215140&diff=539849336&oldid=539669263 changed "East Asia centered around China and Japan" to "Asia centered around China and Russia" with no explanatory edit summary. The cited supporting source is not previewable online. (February 2013)">verification needed</a>] He says there are tensions between the three major blocs over resources and economic power, citing the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>, the motive of which, he argues, was to prevent rival blocs from controlling oil.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Furthermore, Harvey argues that there can arise conflict within the major blocs between business interests and the politicians due to their sometimes incongruent economic interests.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Politicians live in geographically fixed locations and are, in the U.S. and Europe,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="can't see the book so I'm not sure he said this. This is a very 'imperialist' view (only U.S. and Europe democratic) which would appear to be a departure from the rest of his analysis (September 2016)">verification needed</a>] accountable to an electorate. The 'new' imperialism, then, has led to an alignment of the interests of capitalists and politicians in order to prevent the rise and expansion of possible economic and political rivals from challenging America's dominance.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Salt_Lake_City_(SSN-716)_and_USS_Frank_Cable_(AS-40)_at_Apra_Harbor,_Guam,_on_23_May_2002_(6640652).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg/220px-USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg/330px-USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg/440px-USS_Salt_Lake_City_%28SSN-716%29_and_USS_Frank_Cable_%28AS-40%29_at_Apra_Harbor%2C_Guam%2C_on_23_May_2002_%286640652%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Naval_Base_Guam" title="Naval Base Guam">Naval Base Guam</a> in the U.S. territory of <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Empire"_and_alternative_terms">"Empire" and alternative terms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: "Empire" and alternative terms">edit</a>]</div> In one point of view, United States expansion overseas in the late 1890s has indeed been imperialistic, but that this imperialism is only a temporary phenomenon, a corruption of American ideals, or the relic of a past era. Historian <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Flagg_Bemis" title="Samuel Flagg Bemis">Samuel Flagg Bemis</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> expansionism was a short-lived imperialistic impulse and "a great aberration in American history," a very different form of territorial growth than that of earlier American history.<a href="#cite_note-miller-235">[235]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a> sees the Spanish–American War expansionism not as an aberration, but as a culmination of United States expansion westward.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Thorton wrote that "[...] imperialism is more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against."<a href="#cite_note-thor-237">[237]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoliberalism in international relations">Liberal internationalists</a> argue that even though the present world order is dominated by the United States, the form taken by that dominance is not imperial. International relations scholar <a href="/wiki/John_Ikenberry" title="John Ikenberry">John Ikenberry</a> argues that international institutions have taken the place of empire.<a href="#cite_note-Ikenberry2004-203">[203]</a> Classics professor and war historian <a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Victor Davis Hanson</a> argues that the U.S. does not pursue <a href="/wiki/World_domination" title="World domination">world domination</a>, but maintains worldwide influence by a system of mutually beneficial exchanges.<a href="#cite_note-Hanson2002-238">[238]</a> He dismisses the notion of an American Empire altogether, with a mocking comparison to historical empires: "We do not send out proconsuls to reside over client states, which in turn impose taxes on coerced subjects to pay for the legions. Instead, American bases are predicated on contractual obligations — costly to us and profitable to their hosts. We do not see any profits in Korea, but instead accept the risk of losing almost 40,000 of our youth to ensure that Kias can flood our shores and that shaggy students can protest outside our embassy in Seoul."<a href="#cite_note-Hanson2002-238">[238]</a> The existence of "proconsuls", however, has been recognized by many since the early Cold War. In 1957, French Historian <a href="/wiki/Amaury_de_Riencourt" title="Amaury de Riencourt">Amaury de Riencourt</a> associated the American "proconsul" with "the Roman of our time."<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Expert on recent American history, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger">Arthur M. Schlesinger</a>, detected several contemporary imperial features, including "proconsuls." Washington does not directly run many parts of the world. Rather, its "informal empire" was one "richly equipped with imperial paraphernalia: troops, ships, planes, bases, proconsuls, local collaborators, all spread wide around the luckless planet."<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> "The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander" title="Supreme Allied Commander">Supreme Allied Commander</a>, always an American, was an appropriate title for the American proconsul whose reputation and influence outweighed those of European premiers, presidents, and chancellors."<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> U.S. "combatant commanders ... have served as its proconsuls. Their standing in their regions has usually dwarfed that of ambassadors and assistant secretaries of state."<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/220px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/330px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/440px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">Enlargement of NATO</a></figcaption></figure> Harvard professor Niall Ferguson calls <a href="/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Combatant Command">the regional combatant commanders</a>, among whom the whole globe is divided, the "pro-consuls" of this "imperium."<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Bischof" title="Günter Bischof">Günter Bischof</a> calls them "the all powerful proconsuls of the new American empire. Like the proconsuls of Rome they were supposed to bring order and law to the unruly and anarchical world."<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> In September 2000, Washington Post reporter <a href="/wiki/Dana_Priest" title="Dana Priest">Dana Priest</a> published a series of articles whose central premise was Combatant Commanders' inordinate amount of political influence within the countries in their areas of responsibility. They "had evolved into the modern-day equivalent of the Roman Empire's proconsuls—well-funded, semi-autonomous, unconventional centers of U.S. foreign policy."<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> The Romans often preferred to exercise power through friendly client regimes, rather than direct rule: "Until Jay Garner and L. Paul Bremer became U.S. proconsuls in Baghdad, that was the American method, too".<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Another distinction of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Victor Davis Hanson</a>—that US bases, contrary to the legions, are costly to America and profitable for their hosts—expresses the American view. The hosts express a diametrically opposite view. Japan pays for 25,000 Japanese working on US bases. 20% of those workers provide entertainment: a list drawn up by the Japanese Ministry of Defense included 76 bartenders, 48 vending machine personnel, 47 golf course maintenance personnel, 25 club managers, 20 commercial artists, 9 leisure-boat operators, 6 theater directors, 5 cake decorators, 4 bowling alley clerks, 3 tour guides and 1 animal caretaker. Shu Watanabe of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Japan" title="Democratic Party of Japan">Democratic Party of Japan</a> asks: "Why does Japan need to pay the costs for US service members' entertainment on their holidays?"<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> One research on host nations support concludes: <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Us_troops_in_syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Us_troops_in_syria.jpg/220px-Us_troops_in_syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Us_troops_in_syria.jpg/330px-Us_troops_in_syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Us_troops_in_syria.jpg/440px-Us_troops_in_syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2299" data-file-height="1763" /></a><figcaption>A convoy of U.S. soldiers during the <a href="/wiki/American_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="American intervention in the Syrian civil war">American intervention in the Syrian civil war</a>, December 2018</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> At an alliance-level analysis, case studies of South Korea and Japan show that the necessity of the alliance relationship with the U.S. and their relative capabilities to achieve security purposes lead them to increase the size of direct economic investment to support the U.S. forces stationed in their territories, as well as to facilitate the US global defense posture. In addition, these two countries have increased their political and economic contribution to the U.S.-led military operations beyond the geographic scope of the alliance in the post-Cold War period ... Behavioral changes among the U.S. allies in response to demands for sharing alliance burdens directly indicate the changed nature of unipolar alliances. In order to maintain its power preponderance and primacy, the unipole has imposed greater pressure on its allies to devote much of their resources and energy to contributing to its global defense posture ... [It] is expected that the systemic properties of unipolarity–non-structural threat and a power preponderance of the unipole–gradually increase the political and economic burdens of the allies in need of maintaining alliance relationships with the unipole.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a></blockquote> Increasing the "economic burdens of the allies" was one of the major priorities of former President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Classicist Eric Adler notes that Hanson earlier had written about the decline of the classical studies in the United States and insufficient attention devoted to the classical experience. "When writing about American foreign policy for a lay audience, however, Hanson himself chose to castigate Roman imperialism in order to portray the modern United States as different from—and superior to—the Roman state."<a href="#cite_note-Adler2008-253">[253]</a> As a supporter of a hawkish unilateral American foreign policy, Hanson's "distinctly negative view of Roman imperialism is particularly noteworthy, since it demonstrates the importance a contemporary supporter of a hawkish American foreign policy places on criticizing Rome."<a href="#cite_note-Adler2008-253">[253]</a> Political theorist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a> argues that the term <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> is better than empire to describe the U.S.'s role in the world.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Hegemony is distinguished from empire as ruling only external but not internal affairs of other states.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a> argues a "balanced and nuanced analysis is not aided ... by the use of the word 'empire' to describe United States hegemony, since 'empire' obscures rather than illuminates the differences in form of governance between the United States and other Great Powers, such as <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Great Britain</a> in the 19th century or the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in the twentieth".<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Other political scientists, such as Daniel Nexon and Thomas Wright, argue that neither term exclusively describes <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">foreign relations of the United States</a>. The U.S. can be, and has been, simultaneously an empire and a hegemonic power. They claim that the general trend in U.S. foreign relations has been away from imperial modes of control.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proponents">Proponents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Proponents">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neoconservatism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a> and <a href="/wiki/One_World_(book)" title="One World (book)">One World (book)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg/170px-Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg/255px-Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg/340px-Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2275" data-file-height="2609" /></a><figcaption>Political cartoon depicting <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> to keep European powers out of the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Max_Boot" title="Max Boot">Max Boot</a> defends U.S. imperialism, writing, "U.S. imperialism has been the greatest force for good in the world during the past century. It has defeated communism and Nazism and has intervened against the Taliban and Serbian ethnic cleansing."<a href="#cite_note-maxboot_2003-05-06-258">[258]</a> Boot used "imperialism" to describe United States policy, not only in the early 20th century but "since at least 1803."<a href="#cite_note-maxboot_2003-05-06-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> This embrace of empire is made by other <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">neoconservatives</a>, including British historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a>, and writers <a href="/wiki/Dinesh_D%27Souza" title="Dinesh D'Souza">Dinesh D'Souza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Steyn" title="Mark Steyn">Mark Steyn</a>. It is also made by some <a href="/wiki/Liberal_hawk" title="Liberal hawk">liberal hawks</a>, such as political scientists <a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ignatieff" title="Michael Ignatieff">Michael Ignatieff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Scottish-American historian <a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Niall Ferguson</a> argues that the United States is an empire and believes that this is a good thing: "What is not allowed is to say that the United States is an empire and that this might not be wholly bad."<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Ferguson has drawn parallels between the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the global role of the United States in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, though he describes the United States' political and social structures as more like those of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> than of the British. Ferguson argues that all of these empires have had both positive and negative aspects, but that the positive aspects of the U.S. empire will, if it learns from history and its mistakes, greatly outweigh its negative aspects.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Women_in_American_Imperialism">Role of Women in American Imperialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Role of Women in American Imperialism">edit</a>]</div> Within the United States, women played important roles in both advocating for and protesting against American imperialism. Women's organisations and prominent figures actively supported and promoted the expansion of American influence overseas and saw imperialism as an opportunity to extend American values, culture, and civilization to other nations. These women believed in the superiority of American ideals and saw it as their duty to uplift and educate what they often perceived as 'lesser' peoples. By endorsing imperialist policies, women aimed to spread democracy, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and Western progress to territories beyond American borders: their domestic advocacy created a narrative that framed imperialism as a mission of benevolence, wherein the United States had a responsibility to guide and shape the destiny of other nations.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> During the era of American imperialism, women played a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> work. Missionary societies sent women to various parts of the world, particularly in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, with the aim of spreading Christianity and Western values. These women saw themselves as agents of cultural and religious transformation, seeking to "civilize" and "Christianize" indigenous populations. Their missionary efforts involved establishing schools, churches, hospitals, and orphanages in imperial territories; through these institutions, women aimed to improve the lives of local people, provide education, healthcare, and social services. Their work intertwined religious and imperialistic motives, as they believed that the spread of Christianity and Western values would uplift and transform the "heathen" populations they encountered.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> Women played a crucial role in educational and social reform initiatives within imperial territories during the era of American imperialism. They established schools, hospitals, and orphanages, aiming to improve the lives of indigenous populations – initiatives reflecting a belief in the superiority of <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_dichotomy" title="East–West dichotomy">Western values</a> and a desire to assimilate native cultures into American norms. Women also sought to provide education, healthcare, and social services that aligned with American ideals of progress and civilisation, and by promoting Western education and introducing social reforms, they hoped to shape the lives and future of the people they encountered in imperial territories. These efforts often entailed the imposition of Western cultural norms, as women saw themselves as agents of transformation and viewed <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> practices as in need of improvement and "upliftment".<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> Women also played important roles as nurses and medical practitioners during the era of American imperialism. Particularly during the Spanish–American War and subsequent American occupations, women provided healthcare services to soldiers, both American and local, and worked to improve public health conditions in occupied territories. These women played a vital role in caring for the wounded, preventing the spread of diseases, and providing medical assistance to communities affected by the conflicts. Their work as nurses and medical practitioners contributed to the establishment of healthcare infrastructure and the improvement of public health in imperial territories. These women worked tirelessly in often challenging conditions, dedicating themselves to the well-being and recovery of those affected by the conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> While some women supported American imperialism, others actively participated in anti-imperialist movements and expressed opposition to expansionist policies. Women, including suffragettes and progressive activists, were critical of the imperialist practices of the United States. They challenged the notion that spreading <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and civilization abroad could be achieved through the <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of other peoples. These women believed in the principles of self-determination, sovereignty, and equality for all nations. They argued that true progress and justice could not be achieved through the subjugation of others, emphasising the need for cooperation and respect among nations. By raising their voices against imperialism, these women sought to promote a vision of <a href="/wiki/Global_justice" title="Global justice">global justice</a> and equality.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Ultimately women's activism played a significant role in challenging and shaping American imperialism. Throughout history, women activists have been at the forefront of anti-imperialist movements, questioning the motives and consequences of U.S. expansionism. Women's organisations and prominent figures raised their voices against the injustices of imperialism, advocating for peace, human rights, and the self-determination of colonised peoples. They criticized the exploitation and oppression inherent in imperialistic practices, highlighting the disproportionate impact on marginalised communities. Women activists collaborated across borders, forging transnational alliances to challenge American dominance and promote global solidarity. By engaging in social and political activism, women contributed to a more nuanced understanding of imperialism, exposing its complexities and fostering dialogue on the ethical implications of empire. Moreover, sexuality and attitudes towards gender roles and behaviour played an important role in American expansionism. Regarding the war in Vietnam, the idea of American 'manliness' entered the conscience of those in support of ground involvement, pushing ideas of gender roles and that manly, American men shouldn't avoid conflict. These ideas of sexuality extended as far as President Johnson, who wanted to be presented as a 'hero statesman' to his people, highlighting further the effect of gender roles on both American domestic attitudes as well as foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Empire_and_Capitalism">American Empire and Capitalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: American Empire and Capitalism">edit</a>]</div> Writers like <a href="/wiki/William_I._Robinson" title="William I. Robinson">William I. Robinson</a> have characterised American empire since the 1980s and 1990s as one which is a front for the imperial designs of the American capitalist class, arguing that Washington D.C. has become the seat of the 'empire of capital' from which nations are colonised and re-colonised.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_media_and_cultural_imperialism">American media and cultural imperialism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: American media and cultural imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG/220px-McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG/330px-McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG/440px-McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>McDonald's in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> American imperialism has long had a media dimension (<a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media imperialism</a>) and cultural dimension (<a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural imperialism</a>). In Mass Communication and American Empire, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Schiller" title="Herbert Schiller">Herbert I. Schiller</a> emphasized the significance of the mass media and <a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">cultural industry</a> to American imperialism,<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> arguing that "each new electronic development widens the perimeter of American influence," and declaring that "American power, expressed industrially, militarily and culturally has become the most potent force on earth and communications have become a decisive element in the extension of United States world power."<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> In Communication and Cultural Domination, Schiller presented the premier definition of cultural imperialism as<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">the sum processes by which a society is brought into the modern [U.S.-centered] world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centres of the system.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> </blockquote>In Schiller's formulation of the concept, cultural imperialism refers to the American Empire's "coercive and persuasive agencies, and their capacity to promote and universalize an American 'way of life' in other countries without any reciprocation of influence."<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> According to Schiller, cultural imperialism "pressured, forced and bribed" societies to integrate with the U.S.'s expansive capitalist model but also incorporated them with attraction and persuasion by winning "the mutual consent, even solicitation of the indigenous rulers." Newer research on cultural imperialism sheds light on how the US national security state partners with media corporations to spread US foreign policy and military-promoting media goods around the world. In Hearts and Mines: The US Empire's Culture Industry, Tanner Mirrlees builds upon the work of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Schiller" title="Herbert Schiller">Herbert I. Schiller</a> to argue that the US government and media corporations pursue different interests on the world stage (the former, national security, and the latter, profit), but structural alliances and the synergistic relationships between them support the co-production and global flow of Empire-extolling cultural and entertainment goods.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Some researchers argue that military and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural imperialism</a> are interdependent. Every war of Empire has relied upon a culture or "way of life" that supports it, and most often, with the idea that a country has a unique or special mission to spread its way of life around the world. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Said</a>, one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">post-colonial theory</a>, said, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... so influential has been the discourse insisting on American specialness, altruism and opportunity, that imperialism in the United States as a word or ideology has turned up only rarely and recently in accounts of the United States culture, politics and history. But the connection between imperial politics and culture in North America, and in particular in the United States, is astonishingly direct.<a href="#cite_note-Said-275">[275]</a></blockquote> International relations scholar David Rothkopf disagrees with the notion that cultural imperialism is an intentional political or military process, and instead argues that it is the innocent result of economic <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, which allows access to numerous U.S. and Western ideas and products that many non-U.S. and non-Western consumers across the world voluntarily choose to consume.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> Many countries with American brands have incorporated these into their own local culture. An example of this would be the self-styled "Maccas," an Australian derivation of "McDonald's" with a tinge of Australian culture.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> International relations scholar <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nye" title="Joseph Nye">Joseph Nye</a> argues that U.S. power is more and more based on "<a href="/wiki/Soft_power" title="Soft power">soft power</a>," which comes from <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">cultural hegemony</a> rather than raw military or economic force. This includes such factors as the widespread desire to emigrate to the United States, the prestige and corresponding high proportion of foreign students at U.S. universities, and the spread of U.S. styles of popular music and cinema. Mass immigration into America may justify this theory, but it is hard to know whether the United States would still maintain its prestige without its military and economic superiority.,<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> In terms of soft power, <a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a>, argues that American universities:<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> <dl><dd>acted as magnets for attracting up-and-coming elites, who were keen to acquire the skills, qualifications and prestige that came with the 'Made in the USA' trademark. This is a subtle, long-term form of 'soft power' that has required only limited intervention by the US government to function successfully. It conforms to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel Huntington</a>'s view that American power rarely sought to acquire foreign territories, preferring instead to penetrate them — culturally, economically and politically — in such a way as to secure acquiescence for US interests.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a></dd></dl> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fraser_(journalist)" title="Matthew Fraser (journalist)">Matthew Fraser</a> argues that the American "soft power" and American global cultural influence is a good thing for other countries, and good for the world as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Tanner Mirrlees argues that the discourse of "soft power" used by Matthew Fraser and others to promote American global cultural influence represents an "apologia" for cultural imperialism, a way of rationalizing it (while denying it).<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_Expansion_through_Artistic_Expression">American Expansion through Artistic Expression</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: American Expansion through Artistic Expression">edit</a>]</div> America's imperial mission was the subject of much critique and praise to the contemporary American, and this is evident through the art and media which emerged in the 1800s as a result of this expansion. The disparities in the art produced in this period show the differences in public opinion, thus allowing us to identify how different social spheres responded to America's imperial endeavors. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg/220px-A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg/330px-A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg/440px-A_View_to_the_River_-_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Landscape painting by Edward D. Nelson - A View to the River, 1861</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a>, a romantic-inspired art movement which emerged in 1826 at the height of nineteenth-century American expansion depicted <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a> landscapes and grand natural scenes. These paintings which admired the marvels of unexplored American territory emphasized this idea of America as a promised land.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> Common themes explored among paintings within the Hudson River School include: discovery; exploration; settlement and promise. These themes were recurrent in other displays of artistic expression at this time. <a href="/wiki/John_Gast_(painter)" title="John Gast (painter)">John Gast</a>, famously known for his 1872 painting titled <a href="/wiki/American_Progress" title="American Progress">American Progress</a> similarly displays themes of discovery and the hopeful prospects of American expansion.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Notions of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a> is also emulated in art created in this time, with art often used to justify this belief that the White Man was inevitably destined to spread across the American continent.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output 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Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-American_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-American era">Post-American era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territories of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">United States involvement in regime change in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCarsonBonk1999" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Thomas; Bonk, Mary (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q6UYAAAAIAAJ">Gale encyclopedia of US economic history</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" title="Gale (publisher)">Gale Group</a>. pp. 467–469. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-3888-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-3888-7"><bdi>978-0-7876-3888-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span 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Retrieved 20 February 2019 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Noam+Chomsky+Lectures+on+Modern-Day+American+Imperialism%3A+Middle+East+and+Beyond&rft.date=2010-04-07&rft.au=Boston+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D7PdJ9TAdTdA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> "Despite disagreements about Manifest Destiny's validity at the time, O'Sullivan had stumbled on a broadly held national sentiment. Although it became a rallying cry as well as a rationale for the foreign policy that reached its culmination in 1845–46, the attitude behind Manifest Destiny had long been a part of the American experience."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Manifest-Destiny">"Manifest Destiny | History, Examples, & Significance"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 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The American Historical Review. 83 (3): 644–668. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1861842">10.2307/1861842</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1861842">1861842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=American+Imperialism%3A+The+Worst+Chapter+i+Almost+Any+Book&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=644-668&rft.date=1978-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1861842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1861842%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=James+A.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer_Tucker2012" class="citation book cs1">Spencer Tucker, ed. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FZVQcZpic-8C&pg=PA514">The Encyclopedia of the Mexican-American War: A Political, Social, and Military History</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 514. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851098538" title="Special:BookSources/9781851098538"><bdi>9781851098538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Mexican-American+War%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.pages=514&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781851098538&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFZVQcZpic-8C%26pg%3DPA514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNazaryan2016" class="citation web cs1">Nazaryan, Alexander (17 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/2016/08/26/california-native-americans-genocide-490824.html">"California Slaughter: The State-Sanctioned Genocide of Native Americans"</a>. Newsweek Magazine. Retrieved 16 August 2023. <q>The foremost of these critics is Gary Clayton Anderson, a professor at the University of Oklahoma. Anderson insists that what happened to Native Americans during colonization was ethnic cleansing, not genocide. "If we get to the point where the mass murder of 50 Indians in California is considered genocide, then genocide has no more meaning," he says. Anderson tells me that, by his estimate, no more than 2,000 Native Americans were killed in California.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newsweek+Magazine&rft.atitle=California+Slaughter%3A+The+State-Sanctioned+Genocide+of+Native+Americans&rft.date=2016-08-17&rft.aulast=Nazaryan&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2F2016%2F08%2F26%2Fcalifornia-native-americans-genocide-490824.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastillo2019" class="citation web cs1">Castillo, Edward (1 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190601001113/http://nahc.ca.gov/resources/california-indian-history/">"SHORT OVERVIEW OF CALIFORNIA INDIAN HISTORY"</a>. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SHORT+OVERVIEW+OF+CALIFORNIA+INDIAN+HISTORY&rft.date=2019-06-01&rft.aulast=Castillo&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnahc.ca.gov%2Fresources%2Fcalifornia-indian-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goldrush-value-land/">"The Gold Rush Impact on Native Tribes"</a>. PBS: The American Experience. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230530003136/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goldrush-value-land/">Archived</a> from the original on May 30, 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Gold+Rush+Impact+on+Native+Tribes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Fgoldrush-value-land%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadley2016" class="citation book cs1">Madley, Benjamin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8dYTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147">"The Yuma Massacres, Western Genocide, and U.S. Colonization of Indigenous Mexico"</a>. An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873. Yale: Yale University Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921140-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921140-1"><bdi>978-0-19-921140-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230426065805/https://books.google.com/books?id=8dYTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147">Archived</a> from the original on April 26, 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Yuma+Massacres%2C+Western+Genocide%2C+and+U.S.+Colonization+of+Indigenous+Mexico&rft.btitle=An+American+Genocide%3A+The+United+States+and+the+California+Indian+Catastrophe%2C+1846%E2%80%931873&rft.place=Yale&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921140-1&rft.aulast=Madley&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8dYTDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-GR-24"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS-GR_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goldrush-act-for-government-and-protection-of-indians/">"The Gold Rush: Act for the Government and Protection of Indians"</a>. PBS: The American Experience. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230605203358/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goldrush-act-for-government-and-protection-of-indians/">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS%3A+The+American+Experience&rft.atitle=The+Gold+Rush%3A+Act+for+the+Government+and+Protection+of+Indians&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Fgoldrush-act-for-government-and-protection-of-indians%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Madley-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Madley_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadley2008" class="citation journal cs1">Madley, Benjamin (Autumn 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25443732">"California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History"</a>. Western Historical Quarterly. 39 (3): 303–332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fwhq%2F39.3.303">10.1093/whq/39.3.303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25443732">25443732</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230211133558/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25443732">Archived</a> from the original on February 11, 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=California%27s+Yuki+Indians%3A+Defining+Genocide+in+Native+American+History&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=303-332&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fwhq%2F39.3.303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25443732%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Madley&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25443732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-greene-27-26"><a href="#cite_ref-greene-27_26-0">^</a> Greene, 2004, p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1971" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Dee (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://readerslibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Bury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf">Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</a> (PDF). p. 68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+My+Heart+at+Wounded+Knee&rft.pages=68&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Dee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freaderslibrary.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FBury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1971" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Dee (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://readerslibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Bury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf">Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</a> (PDF). p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+My+Heart+at+Wounded+Knee&rft.pages=177&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Dee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freaderslibrary.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FBury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpm.edu/content/wirp/ICW-146">"The Fur Trade | Milwaukee Public Museum"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fur+Trade+%26%23124%3B+Milwaukee+Public+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mpm.edu%2Fcontent%2Fwirp%2FICW-146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1971" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Dee (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://readerslibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Bury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf">Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</a> (PDF). p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+My+Heart+at+Wounded+Knee&rft.pages=130&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Dee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freaderslibrary.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FBury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1971" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Dee (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://readerslibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/Bury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf">Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</a> (PDF). p. 131.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bury+My+Heart+at+Wounded+Knee&rft.pages=131&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Dee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freaderslibrary.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FBury-My-Heart-at-Wounded-Knee.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> "Navajos [] were captured en route and sold off throughout New Mexico, Colorado, and northern Mexico." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 293). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrestonRossinow2016" class="citation book cs1">Preston, Andrew; Rossinow, Doug (2016-11-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tmp4DQAAQBAJ&q=outside+in.+lord+canning&pg=PT35">Outside In: The Transnational Circuitry of US History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190459871" title="Special:BookSources/9780190459871"><bdi>9780190459871</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outside+In%3A+The+Transnational+Circuitry+of+US+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016-11-15&rft.isbn=9780190459871&rft.aulast=Preston&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Rossinow%2C+Doug&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtmp4DQAAQBAJ%26q%3Doutside%2Bin.%2Blord%2Bcanning%26pg%3DPT35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSexton2011" class="citation book cs1">Sexton, Jay (2011-03-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4GVKXN8SWYC&pg=PA5">The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 2–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781429929288" title="Special:BookSources/9781429929288"><bdi>9781429929288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Monroe+Doctrine%3A+Empire+and+Nation+in+Nineteenth-Century+America&rft.pages=2-9&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2011-03-15&rft.isbn=9781429929288&rft.aulast=Sexton&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4GVKXN8SWYC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGobat2018" class="citation book cs1">Gobat, Michel (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674737495">Empire by Invitation: William Walker and Manifest Destiny in Central America</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674737495" title="Special:BookSources/9780674737495"><bdi>9780674737495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+by+Invitation%3A+William+Walker+and+Manifest+Destiny+in+Central+America&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780674737495&rft.aulast=Gobat&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D9780674737495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/discussions/4084046/h-diplo-roundtable-xx-38-empire-invitation-william-walker-and">this roundtable evaluation by scholars at H-Diplo.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2010" class="citation book cs1">Wilkins, David E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8fmv_pJ-iAC">American Indian Sovereignty and the U.S. Supreme Court: The Masking of Justice</a>. University of Texas Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8fmv_pJ-iAC&pg=PA19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77400-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77400-1"><bdi>978-0-292-77400-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Sovereignty+and+the+U.S.+Supreme+Court%3A+The+Masking+of+Justice&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77400-1&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ8fmv_pJ-iAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1980" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Walter L. (1980). "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism". The Journal of American History. 66 (4): 810–831. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1887638">10.2307/1887638</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1887638">1887638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=United+States+Indian+Policy+and+the+Debate+over+Philippine+Annexation%3A+Implications+for+the+Origins+of+American+Imperialism&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=810-831&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1887638&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1887638%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-38"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlansett2015" class="citation book cs1">Blansett, Kent (2015). 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Routledge. pp. 161–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765619846" title="Special:BookSources/9780765619846"><bdi>9780765619846</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Settlement+of+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Westward+Expansion+from+Jamestown+to+the+Closing+of+the+Frontier&rft.pages=161-162&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780765619846&rft.aulast=Blansett&rft.aufirst=Kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:3293822">"A Thing Well Begun Is Half Done"</a>. Persuasive Maps: PJ Mode Collection. 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Friedman's The World Is Flat"</a>. Dissent. pp. 64–67. Retrieved 2020-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dissent&rft.atitle=Flat+Note+from+the+Pied+Piper+of+Globalization%3A+Thomas+L.+Friedman%27s+The+World+Is+Flat&rft.ssn=fall&rft.pages=64-67&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Faux&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dissentmagazine.org%2Farticle%2Fflat-note-from-the-pied-piper-of-globalization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="/wiki/H._W._Brands" title="H. W. Brands">Brands, Henry William</a>. (1997). T.R.: The Last Romantic. New York: Basic Books. Reprinted 2001, full biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36954615?&ht=edition">OCLC 36954615</a>, ch 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS1-44"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS1_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/crucible/tl7.html">"April 16, 1897: T. Roosevelt Appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy"</a>. Crucible of Empire—Timeline. <a href="/wiki/PBS_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="PBS Online">PBS Online</a>. Retrieved July 26, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Crucible+of+Empire%E2%80%94Timeline&rft.atitle=April+16%2C+1897%3A+T.+Roosevelt+Appointed+Assistant+Secretary+of+the+Navy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fcrucible%2Ftl7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS2-45"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS2_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/crucible/Transcript.txt">"Transcript For "Crucible Of Empire""</a>. Crucible of Empire—Timeline. PBS Online. 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(2020-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CQLoDwAAQBAJ&q=The+Secret+US+Plan+to+Overthrow+the+British+Empire%3A+War+Plan+Red">The Secret US Plan to Overthrow the British Empire: War Plan Red</a>. Frontline Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-1205-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-1205-9"><bdi>978-1-5267-1205-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+US+Plan+to+Overthrow+the+British+Empire%3A+War+Plan+Red&rft.pub=Frontline+Books&rft.date=2020-04-30&rft.isbn=978-1-5267-1205-9&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Graham+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCQLoDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BSecret%2BUS%2BPlan%2Bto%2BOverthrow%2Bthe%2BBritish%2BEmpire%253A%2BWar%2BPlan%2BRed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5478/">""The White Man's Burden": Kipling's Hymn to U.S. Imperialism"</a>. historymatters.gmu.edu. Retrieved 2018-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historymatters.gmu.edu&rft.atitle=%22The+White+Man%27s+Burden%22%3A+Kipling%27s+Hymn+to+U.S.+Imperialism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistorymatters.gmu.edu%2Fd%2F5478%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/E-N/Imperialism-The-roosevelt-corollary.html">"The roosevelt corollary – Imperialism"</a>. www.americanforeignrelations.com. 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Univ of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807877173" title="Special:BookSources/9780807877173"><bdi>9780807877173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blood+of+Government%3A+Race%2C+Empire%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+the+Philippines&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2006-12-13&rft.isbn=9780807877173&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK_Lx0KCui5IC%26pg%3DPA509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pérez,_Louis_A_1998_51-2">c</a> Pérez, Louis A. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1998. Print. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAguinaldo,_Emilio1899" class="citation journal cs1">Aguinaldo, Emilio (September 1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/gilded/empire/text9/filipino.pdf">"Aguinaldo's Case Against the United States"</a> (PDF). North American Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=North+American+Review&rft.atitle=Aguinaldo%27s+Case+Against+the+United+States&rft.date=1899-09&rft.au=Aguinaldo%2C+Emilio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnationalhumanitiescenter.org%2Fpds%2Fgilded%2Fempire%2Ftext9%2Ffilipino.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE479">"FE479/FE479: Cuban Agriculture Before 1959: The Political and Economic Situations"</a>. edis.ifas.ufl.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=edis.ifas.ufl.edu&rft.atitle=FE479%2FFE479%3A+Cuban+Agriculture+Before+1959%3A+The+Political+and+Economic+Situations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedis.ifas.ufl.edu%2Fpublication%2FFE479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchman1970" class="citation journal cs1">Hitchman, James (January 1970). "U. S. Control Over Cuban Sugar Production 1898-1902". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 1: 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interamerican+Studies+and+World+Affairs&rft.atitle=U.+S.+Control+Over+Cuban+Sugar+Production+1898-1902&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=97&rft.date=1970-01&rft.aulast=Hitchman&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States: 1492–2001. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. Print. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2013" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Gregg (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVooDgAAQBAJ&q=theodore+roosevelt+imperialism+primary+sources">Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream</a>. Penguin. pp. 169–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780451239181" title="Special:BookSources/9780451239181"><bdi>9780451239181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honor+in+the+Dust%3A+Theodore+Roosevelt%2C+War+in+the+Philippines%2C+and+the+Rise+and+Fall+of+America%27s+Imperial+Dream&rft.pages=169-170&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780451239181&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVooDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtheodore%2Broosevelt%2Bimperialism%2Bprimary%2Bsources&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchirmerShalom1987" class="citation book cs1">Schirmer, Daniel B.; Shalom, Stephen Rosskamm (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC">The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance</a>. South End Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC&pg=PA18">18</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC&pg=PA40-41">40–41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89608-275-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89608-275-5"><bdi>978-0-89608-275-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philippines+Reader%3A+A+History+of+Colonialism%2C+Neocolonialism%2C+Dictatorship%2C+and+Resistance&rft.pages=18%2C+40-41&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-89608-275-5&rft.aulast=Schirmer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+B.&rft.au=Shalom%2C+Stephen+Rosskamm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTXE73VWcsEEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Secretary_Root%27s_Record:%22Marked_Severities%22_in_Philippine_Warfare" class="extiw" title="s:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare">Secretary Root's Record: "Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare</a>, Wikisource (multiple mentions) </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZinn2014" class="citation book cs1">Zinn, Howard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V_h2BAAAQBAJ">A People's History of the United States 1492—Present</a>. Time Apt. Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V_h2BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT204">unnumbered</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-615-5505-13-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-615-5505-13-3"><bdi>978-615-5505-13-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+the+United+States+1492%E2%80%94Present&rft.pages=unnumbered&rft.pub=Time+Apt.+Group&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-615-5505-13-3&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV_h2BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1982" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj6g2ag47TwC&q=to+exercise+future+domination.+mckinley&pg=PA52">Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/030016193X" title="Special:BookSources/030016193X"><bdi>030016193X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benevolent+Assimilation%3A+The+American+Conquest+of+the+Philippines%2C+1899%E2%80%931903&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=030016193X&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Creighton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZj6g2ag47TwC%26q%3Dto%2Bexercise%2Bfuture%2Bdomination.%2Bmckinley%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Johnson, Chalmers, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire (2000), pp. 72–79 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfieldTimes1987" class="citation news cs1">Butterfield, Fox; Times, Special to the New York (1987-04-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/19/world/new-book-on-marcos-says-us-knew-of-his-72-martial-law-plans.html">"New Book on Marcos Says U.S. Knew of His '72 Martial-Law Plans"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. 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Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558494642" title="Special:BookSources/1558494642"><bdi>1558494642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+Lansdale%27s+Cold+War&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Univ+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1558494642&rft.aulast=Nashel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntEJR0FuNmoC%26q%3Dmagsaysay.%2Blansdale.%2Bspeech%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimbulan2000" class="citation web cs1">Simbulan, Roland G. (August 18, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/filipinas/doc/cia.html">"Equipo Nizkor – Covert Operations and the CIA's Hidden History in the Philippines"</a>. www.derechos.org. Retrieved 2018-01-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.derechos.org&rft.atitle=Equipo+Nizkor+%E2%80%93+Covert+Operations+and+the+CIA%27s+Hidden+History+in+the+Philippines&rft.date=2000-08-18&rft.aulast=Simbulan&rft.aufirst=Roland+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.derechos.org%2Fnizkor%2Ffilipinas%2Fdoc%2Fcia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> Lecture at the University of the Philippines-Manila, Rizal Hall, Padre Faura, Manila </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chanrobles.com/commonwealthactno733.htm">"Commonwealth Act No. 733"</a>. Chan Robles Law Library. April 30, 1946.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commonwealth+Act+No.+733&rft.pub=Chan+Robles+Law+Library&rft.date=1946-04-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chanrobles.com%2Fcommonwealthactno733.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins1954" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Shirley (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4qaAAAAIAAJ">American Economic Policy Toward the Philippines</a>. Stanford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4qaAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA62">62</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1139-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1139-9"><bdi>0-8047-1139-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Economic+Policy+Toward+the+Philippines&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=0-8047-1139-9&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx4qaAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. p. 363 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Zinn, pp. 359–376 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeilerEkbladhGarder2017" class="citation book cs1">Zeiler, Thomas W.; Ekbladh, David K.; Garder, Lloyd C. (2017-03-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k6x0DgAAQBAJ&q=%22the+first+cold+war%22.+1917&pg=PT194">Beyond 1917: The United States and the Global Legacies of the Great War</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190604035" title="Special:BookSources/9780190604035"><bdi>9780190604035</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+1917%3A+The+United+States+and+the+Global+Legacies+of+the+Great+War&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-03-27&rft.isbn=9780190604035&rft.aulast=Zeiler&rft.aufirst=Thomas+W.&rft.au=Ekbladh%2C+David+K.&rft.au=Garder%2C+Lloyd+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk6x0DgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522the%2Bfirst%2Bcold%2Bwar%2522.%2B1917%26pg%3DPT194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteigerwald1994" class="citation book cs1">Steigerwald, David (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonianidealis00stei/page/30">Wilsonian Idealism in America</a>. Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wilsonianidealis00stei/page/30">30–42</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801429366" title="Special:BookSources/0801429366"><bdi>0801429366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilsonian+Idealism+in+America&rft.pages=30-42&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0801429366&rft.aulast=Steigerwald&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwilsonianidealis00stei%2Fpage%2F30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Renda, "Introduction," in Taking Haiti: Military Occupation & the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940, pp. 10–22, 29–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeilson2014" class="citation book cs1">Neilson, Keith (April 24, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbxwAwAAQBAJ&q=general+buchanan,+moscow,+kornilov&pg=PA285">Strategy and Supply (RLE The First World War): The Anglo-Russian Alliance 1914–1917</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317703457" title="Special:BookSources/9781317703457"><bdi>9781317703457</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategy+and+Supply+%28RLE+The+First+World+War%29%3A+The+Anglo-Russian+Alliance+1914%E2%80%931917&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-04-24&rft.isbn=9781317703457&rft.aulast=Neilson&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwbxwAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgeneral%2Bbuchanan%2C%2Bmoscow%2C%2Bkornilov%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichelson1997" class="citation book cs1">Richelson, Jeffery T. (July 17, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9X5a1fgKqewC&q=savinkov,+reilly%5C&pg=PT113">A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199880584" title="Special:BookSources/9780199880584"><bdi>9780199880584</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Spies%3A+Intelligence+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997-07-17&rft.isbn=9780199880584&rft.aulast=Richelson&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9X5a1fgKqewC%26q%3Dsavinkov%2C%2Breilly%255C%26pg%3DPT113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Sixsmith" title="Martin Sixsmith">Martin Sixsmith</a>, "Fanny Kaplan's Attempt to Kill Lenin" in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-L_XDQAAQBAJ&q=much+more+closely+with+Reilly+than+he+had+publicly+indicated&pg=PA192">Was Revolution Inevitable?: Turning Points of the Russian Revolution, edited by Tony Brenton (Oxford University Press, 2017 ), pp. 185–192</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrickey" class="citation web cs1">Trickey, Erick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/forgotten-doughboys-who-died-fighting-russian-civil-war-180971470/">"The Forgotten Story of the American Troops Who Got Caught Up in the Russian Civil War"</a>. Smithsonian. Retrieved 2019-04-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=The+Forgotten+Story+of+the+American+Troops+Who+Got+Caught+Up+in+the+Russian+Civil+War&rft.aulast=Trickey&rft.aufirst=Erick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fforgotten-doughboys-who-died-fighting-russian-civil-war-180971470%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2011" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Alan (2011-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zArfBAAAQBAJ&q=pogroms.+kolchak&pg=PA187">Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 – 1991</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781849664387" title="Special:BookSources/9781849664387"><bdi>9781849664387</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Frozen+Frontier%3A+A+History+of+Siberia+and+the+Russian+Far+East+1581+%E2%80%93+1991&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011-05-15&rft.isbn=9781849664387&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzArfBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpogroms.%2Bkolchak%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/allies.htm">"The National Archives | Exhibitions & Learning online | First World War | Spotlights on history"</a>. www.nationalarchives.gov.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nationalarchives.gov.uk&rft.atitle=The+National+Archives+%26%23124%3B+Exhibitions+%26+Learning+online+%26%23124%3B+First+World+War+%26%23124%3B+Spotlights+on+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fpathways%2Ffirstworldwar%2Fspotlights%2Fallies.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Powaski, "The United States and the Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1933", in The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991, pp. 5–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheim2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wertheim, Stephen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~saw2156/TheWilsonianChimera.pdf">"The Wilsonian Chimera: Why Debating Wilson's Vision Can't Save American Foreign Relations"</a> (PDF). White House Studies. 10 (4): 343–359. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-4768">1535-4768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=White+House+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Wilsonian+Chimera%3A+Why+Debating+Wilson%27s+Vision+Can%27t+Save+American+Foreign+Relations&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=343-359&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=1535-4768&rft.aulast=Wertheim&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~saw2156%2FTheWilsonianChimera.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubois2012" class="citation book cs1">Dubois, Laurent (2012-01-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=drU3HlesN5kC&q=smedley.+haiti&pg=PA396">Haiti: The Aftershocks of History</a>. Henry Holt and Company. pp. 240–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805095623" title="Special:BookSources/9780805095623"><bdi>9780805095623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haiti%3A+The+Aftershocks+of+History&rft.pages=240-249&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2012-01-03&rft.isbn=9780805095623&rft.aulast=Dubois&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdrU3HlesN5kC%26q%3Dsmedley.%2Bhaiti%26pg%3DPA396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19980524133805/http://www.fas.org/man/smedley.htm">"Excerpt from a speech delivered in 1933, by Major General Smedley Butler, USMC"</a>. Federation of American Scientists. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/man/smedley.htm">the original</a> on 1998-05-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federation+of+American+Scientists&rft.atitle=Excerpt+from+a+speech+delivered+in+1933%2C+by+Major+General+Smedley+Butler%2C+USMC.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fman%2Fsmedley.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-2">c</a> Quinn, J. W. (2009). American imperialism in the Middle East: 1920-1950 (dissertation). Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhouse2009" class="citation journal cs1">Woodhouse, C. M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24711057">"Britain and the Middle East"</a>. Pakistan Horizon. 62 (1): 81–106. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24711057">24711057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pakistan+Horizon&rft.atitle=Britain+and+the+Middle+East&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-106&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24711057%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Woodhouse&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24711057&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFfdrlibrary2015" class="citation web cs1">fdrlibrary (2015-10-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdr.blogs.archives.gov/2015/10/20/i-have-returned-general-macarthur-and-fdr/">""I Have Returned!" – General MacArthur and FDR"</a>. Forward with Roosevelt. Retrieved 2022-03-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forward+with+Roosevelt&rft.atitle=%22I+Have+Returned%21%22+%E2%80%93+General+MacArthur+and+FDR&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.au=fdrlibrary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffdr.blogs.archives.gov%2F2015%2F10%2F20%2Fi-have-returned-general-macarthur-and-fdr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729160345/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/republic-day/">"Philippine Republic Day"</a>. www.gov.ph. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/republic-day/">the original</a> on 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2020-05-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gov.ph&rft.atitle=Philippine+Republic+Day&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.officialgazette.gov.ph%2Frepublic-day%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> George A. Gonzalez, Urban Sprawl, Global Warming, and the Empire of Capital (SUNY Press, 2009), p. 69-110 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul2012" class="citation book cs1">Paul, Erik (October 23, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MfhpXT5mQoEC&q=cheaper+alternative+of+forcing+countries+to+open+up+their+economies&pg=PA95">Neoliberal Australia and US Imperialism in East Asia</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137272775" title="Special:BookSources/9781137272775"><bdi>9781137272775</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neoliberal+Australia+and+US+Imperialism+in+East+Asia&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012-10-23&rft.isbn=9781137272775&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMfhpXT5mQoEC%26q%3Dcheaper%2Balternative%2Bof%2Bforcing%2Bcountries%2Bto%2Bopen%2Bup%2Btheir%2Beconomies%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Neil (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanempirero0000smit">American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520243385" title="Special:BookSources/9780520243385"><bdi>9780520243385</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive. <q>grand opportunity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Empire%3A+Roosevelt%27s+Geographer+and+the+Prelude+to+Globalization&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.isbn=9780520243385&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanempirero0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Neil (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanempirero0000smit">American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520243385" title="Special:BookSources/9780520243385"><bdi>9780520243385</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive. <q>lebensraum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Empire%3A+Roosevelt%27s+Geographer+and+the+Prelude+to+Globalization&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.isbn=9780520243385&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanempirero0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Neil (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanempirero0000smit">American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520243385" title="Special:BookSources/9780520243385"><bdi>9780520243385</bdi></a> – via Internet Archive. <q>lebensraum.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Empire%3A+Roosevelt%27s+Geographer+and+the+Prelude+to+Globalization&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.isbn=9780520243385&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanempirero0000smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988">, p 27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Ambrose" title="Stephen E. Ambrose">Ambrose, Stephen E.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Brinkley" title="Douglas Brinkley">Brinkley, Douglas G.</a> (1997). Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy since 1938, (New York: Penguin Books), p 111-112. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Whitaker, Arthur P. (1954). The Western Hemisphere Idea: Its Rise and Decline, (New York: Cornell University Press), p 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anatol_Lieven" title="Anatol Lieven">Lieven, Anatol</a> (2004). "America right or wrong: An anatomy of American nationalism," The Geopolitics Reader, (eds <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Toal" title="Gerard Toal">Toal, Gerard</a> et al, London & New York: Routeledge), p 171-172. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Darwin2010" class="citation book cs1">John Darwin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0z12AiODd8kC&pg=PA470">After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 470. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596917606" title="Special:BookSources/9781596917606"><bdi>9781596917606</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Tamerlane%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Global+Empires%2C+1400%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781596917606&rft.au=John+Darwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0z12AiODd8kC%26pg%3DPA470&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> "If this American expansion created what we could call an American empire, this was to a large extent an empire by invitation...In semi-occupied Italy the State Department and Ambassador James Dunn in particular actively encouraged the non-communists to break with the communists and undoubtedly contributed to the latter being thrown out of the government in May 1947. In more normal France the American role was more restrained when the Ramadier government threw out its communists at about the same time. After the communists were out, Washington worked actively, through overt as well as covert activities, to isolate them as well as leftist socialists... US economic assistance was normally given with several strings attached." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundestad1986" class="citation journal cs1">Lundestad, Geir (1986). "Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952". Journal of Peace Research. 23 (3): 263–277. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.689.5556">10.1.1.689.5556</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002234338602300305">10.1177/002234338602300305</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/423824">423824</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73345898">73345898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Peace+Research&rft.atitle=Empire+by+Invitation%3F+The+United+States+and+Western+Europe%2C+1945%E2%80%931952&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263-277&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.689.5556%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73345898%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F423824%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002234338602300305&rft.aulast=Lundestad&rft.aufirst=Geir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandy19944-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandy19944_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHandy1994">Handy 1994</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoulton201347–49-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoulton201347–49_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoulton2013">Moulton 2013</a>, pp. 47–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalkin2013" class="citation news cs1">Malkin, Elisabeth (16 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/17/world/americas/trial-on-guatemalan-civil-war-carnage-leaves-out-us-role.html">"Trial on Guatemalan Civil War Carnage Leaves Out U.S. Role"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved July 7, 2023. <q>The U.S. played a very powerful and direct role in the life of this institution, the army, that went on to commit genocide</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Trial+on+Guatemalan+Civil+War+Carnage+Leaves+Out+U.S.+Role&rft.date=2013-05-16&rft.aulast=Malkin&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F05%2F17%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Ftrial-on-guatemalan-civil-war-carnage-leaves-out-us-role.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaiz1970" class="citation journal cs1">Paiz, Alfonso (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40401478">"The "Third Government of the Revolution" and Imperialism in Guatemala"</a>. Science & Society. 34 (2): 151. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40401478">40401478</a>. Retrieved 31 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Society&rft.atitle=The+%22Third+Government+of+the+Revolution%22+and+Imperialism+in+Guatemala&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40401478%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Paiz&rft.aufirst=Alfonso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40401478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamian2017" class="citation interview cs1">Abrahamian, Ervand (24 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.democracynow.org/2017/7/24/newly_declassified_documents_confirm_us_backed">"Newly Declassified Documents Confirm U.S. Backed 1953 Coup in Iran Over Oil Contracts"</a> (Interview). 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Daedalus. 134 (2): 46–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F0011526053887301">10.1162/0011526053887301</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57564158">57564158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daedalus&rft.atitle=Imperialism%2C+liberalism+%26+the+quest+for+perpetual+peace&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=46-57&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F0011526053887301&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57564158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F249559701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> Quoting pp 52–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/jul/15/globalisation.highereducation">"Empire hits back"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Observer" title="The Observer">The Observer</a>. July 15, 2001. Retrieved April 6, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Empire+hits+back&rft.date=2001-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2001%2Fjul%2F15%2Fglobalisation.highereducation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTahmazyan2020" class="citation web cs1">Tahmazyan, Daniel (30 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.evnreport.com/politics/the-2020-artsakh-war-what-the-world-lacks-now-is-leadership">"The 2020 Artsakh War: What the World Lacks Now Is Leadership -- evnreport.com"</a>. evnreport.com. Retrieved 5 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=evnreport.com&rft.atitle=The+2020+Artsakh+War%3A+What+the+World+Lacks+Now+Is+Leadership+--+evnreport.com&rft.date=2020-11-30&rft.aulast=Tahmazyan&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.evnreport.com%2Fpolitics%2Fthe-2020-artsakh-war-what-the-world-lacks-now-is-leadership&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hardt, Michael (July 13, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/imperialism-empire/">"From Imperialism to Empire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=From+Imperialism+to+Empire&rft.date=2006-07-13&rft.aulast=Hardt&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fimperialism-empire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegri,_AntonioHardt,_Michael2000" class="citation book cs1">Negri, Antonio; Hardt, Michael (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empire0000hard">Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00671-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00671-2"><bdi>0-674-00671-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 8, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-674-00671-2&rft.au=Negri%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Hardt%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempire0000hard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> p. xiii–xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Michael Hardt, <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>: an Apprenticeship in Philosophy, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-2161-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-2161-6">0-8166-2161-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Autonomism#Italian_autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism#Italian autonomism</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2005" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA-OhoC">The new imperialism</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA–OhoC&pg=PA101">101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927808-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927808-4"><bdi>978-0-19-927808-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+imperialism&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927808-4&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN3VZWhA-OhoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2005">Harvey 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA-OhoC&pg=PA31">31</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2005">Harvey 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA-OhoC&pg=PA77">77–78</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2005">Harvey 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA-OhoC&pg=PA187">187</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2005">Harvey 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N3VZWhA-OhoC&pg=PA76">76–78</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller-235"><a href="#cite_ref-miller_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1982" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livejournal.com/users/bailey83221/4300.html#miller">"Benevolent Assimilation" The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-02697-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-02697-8"><bdi>0-300-02697-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Benevolent+Assimilation%22+The+American+Conquest+of+the+Philippines%2C+1899%E2%80%931903&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-300-02697-8&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Creighton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livejournal.com%2Fusers%2Fbailey83221%2F4300.html%23miller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLafeber,_Walter1975" class="citation book cs1">Lafeber, Walter (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newempireinterpr00lafe_0">The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9048-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9048-0"><bdi>0-8014-9048-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Empire%3A+An+Interpretation+of+American+Expansion%2C+1860%E2%80%931898&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-8014-9048-0&rft.au=Lafeber%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewempireinterpr00lafe_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thor-237"><a href="#cite_ref-thor_237-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton,_Archibald_Paton1978" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Archibald Paton (September 1978). Imperialism in the Twentieth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-24848-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-24848-1"><bdi>0-333-24848-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperialism+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1978-09&rft.isbn=0-333-24848-1&rft.au=Thornton%2C+Archibald+Paton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanson2002-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson2002_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson2002_238-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511233845/http://www.nationalreview.com/hanson/hanson112702.asp">"A Funny Sort of Empire"</a>. National Review. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalreview.com/hanson/hanson112702.asp">the original</a> on 2008-05-11. Retrieved October 8, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=A+Funny+Sort+of+Empire&rft.date=2002-11&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalreview.com%2Fhanson%2Fhanson112702.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Cited in <a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a>, The United States and Western Europe since 1945: From 'Empire' by Invitation to Transatlantic Drift, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Schlesinger, Arthur Meier. The Cycles of American History, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), p 141. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13455179">13455179</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kaplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawrence Kaplan">Lawrence Kaplan</a>, "Western Europe in 'The American Century'", Diplomatic History, 6/2, (1982): p 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eliot_A._Cohen" title="Eliot A. Cohen">Cohen, Eliot A.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2004-07-01/history-and-hyperpower">"History and the Hyperpower"</a>. Foreign Affairs. 83 (4): 49–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20034046">10.2307/20034046</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034046">20034046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=History+and+the+Hyperpower&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=49-63&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20034046&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20034046%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Eliot+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2Funited-states%2F2004-07-01%2Fhistory-and-hyperpower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> pp. 60-61 </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire, (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), p 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Günter Bischof, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beigewum.at/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2009_2_014-23.pdf">Empire Discourses: The 'American Empire' in Decline?</a>" Kurswechsel, 2, (2009): p 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Cited in Andrew Feickert, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R42077.pdf">The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands: Background and Issues for Congress</a>", (Congressional Research Service, Washington: White House, 2013), p 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedland2007" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Freedland" title="Jonathan Freedland">Freedland, Jonathan</a> (June 14, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2007/06/14/bushs-amazing-achievement/">"Bush's Amazing Achievement"</a>. 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The Political Economy of Communication. 2 (3): 3–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Communication&rft.atitle=U.S.+Empire+and+Communications+Today%3A+Revisiting+Herbert+I.+Schiller&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3-27&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Mirrlees&rft.aufirst=Tanner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polecom.org%2Findex.php%2Fpolecom%2Farticle%2Fview%2F56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiller1969" class="citation book cs1">Schiller, Herbert (1969). Mass Communication and American Empire (1st ed.). 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Sharp. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807061756" title="Special:BookSources/9780807061756"><bdi>9780807061756</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+and+Cultural+Domination&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharp&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780807061756&rft.aulast=Schiller&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirrlees2015" class="citation journal cs1">Mirrlees, Tanner (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polecom.org/index.php/polecom/article/view/56">"U.S. Empire and Communications Today: Revisiting Herbert I. Schiller"</a>. The Political Economy of Communication. 3 (2): 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Communication&rft.atitle=U.S.+Empire+and+Communications+Today%3A+Revisiting+Herbert+I.+Schiller&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Mirrlees&rft.aufirst=Tanner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polecom.org%2Findex.php%2Fpolecom%2Farticle%2Fview%2F56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirrlees2016" class="citation book cs1">Mirrlees, Tanner (2016). Hearts and Mines: The US Empire's Culture Industry (1st ed.). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780774830157" title="Special:BookSources/9780774830157"><bdi>9780774830157</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hearts+and+Mines%3A+The+US+Empire%27s+Culture+Industry&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780774830157&rft.aulast=Mirrlees&rft.aufirst=Tanner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Said-275"><a href="#cite_ref-Said_275-0">^</a> Said, Edward. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20010917140537/http://www.zmag.org/zmag/articles/barsaid.htm">"Culture and Imperialism, speech at York University, Toronto, February 10, 1993"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zmag.org/zmag/articles/barsaid.htm">the original</a> on 2001-09-17. Retrieved 2006-02-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Imperialism%2C+speech+at+York+University%2C+Toronto%2C+February+10%2C+1993.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmag.org%2Fzmag%2Farticles%2Fbarsaid.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Rothkopf, David <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/protected/rothkopf.html">In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119145355/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/protected/rothkopf.html">Archived</a> 2012-01-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Foreign Policy, Number 107, Summer 1997, pp. 38–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mcdonalds.com.au/about-maccas/maccas-story">"Our Story | About Macca's | McDonald's AU"</a>. mcdonalds.com.au. Retrieved 2016-11-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mcdonalds.com.au&rft.atitle=Our+Story+%7C+About+Macca%27s+%7C+McDonald%27s+AU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmcdonalds.com.au%2Fabout-maccas%2Fmaccas-story&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Joseph S. Nye Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (2004), pp. 33–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott-Smith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Scott-Smith, Giles (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228653861">"The Ties that Bind: Dutch-American Relations, US Public Diplomacy and the Promotion of American Studies since the Second World War"</a>. 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(1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usna.edu/NAFAC/_files/round_tables/opferman/Transnational%20Organizations%20in%20World%20Politics.pdf">"Transnational Organizations in World Politics"</a> (PDF). World Politics. 25 (3): 333–368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2010115">10.2307/2010115</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2010115">2010115</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154553877">154553877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics&rft.atitle=Transnational+Organizations+in+World+Politics&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=333-368&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154553877%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2010115%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2010115&rft.aulast=Huntington&rft.aufirst=Samuel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usna.edu%2FNAFAC%2F_files%2Fround_tables%2Fopferman%2FTransnational%2520Organizations%2520in%2520World%2520Politics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> p. 344. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> See also Liping Bu, Making The World Like Us: Education, Cultural Expansion, and the American Century (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser,_Matthew2005" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Matthew (2005). Weapons of Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire. St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+Mass+Distraction%3A+Soft+Power+and+American+Empire&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Fraser%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Mirrlees, Tanner. 2006. American Soft Power or American Cultural Imperialism. In Colin Mooers (ed.), The New Imperialists: Ideologies of Empire. Oxford: One World Press. 198-228, </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCusack2021" class="citation journal cs1">Cusack, Tricia (2021-09-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31261%2Frias.11804">"The Chosen People: The Hudson River School and the Construction of American Identity"</a>. Review of International American Studies. 14 (1): 107–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31261%2Frias.11804">10.31261/rias.11804</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1991-2773">1991-2773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+International+American+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Chosen+People%3A+The+Hudson+River+School+and+the+Construction+of+American+Identity&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107-152&rft.date=2021-09-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31261%2Frias.11804&rft.issn=1991-2773&rft.aulast=Cusack&rft.aufirst=Tricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.31261%252Frias.11804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeems2011" class="citation journal cs1">Weems, Jason (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/660024">"Looking Up, Looking Down, Looking Out"</a>. American Art. 25 (1): 2–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F660024">10.1086/660024</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1073-9300">1073-9300</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:188656106">188656106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Art&rft.atitle=Looking+Up%2C+Looking+Down%2C+Looking+Out&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-10&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A188656106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1073-9300&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F660024&rft.aulast=Weems&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1086%2F660024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigginsMerkMerk1963" class="citation journal cs1">Wiggins, J. Russell; Merk, Frederick; Merk, Lois Bannister (December 1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/363114">"Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation"</a>. The New England Quarterly. 36 (4): 528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F363114">10.2307/363114</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-4866">0028-4866</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/363114">363114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Manifest+Destiny+and+Mission+in+American+History%3A+A+Reinterpretation&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=528&rft.date=1963-12&rft.issn=0028-4866&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F363114%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F363114&rft.aulast=Wiggins&rft.aufirst=J.+Russell&rft.au=Merk%2C+Frederick&rft.au=Merk%2C+Lois+Bannister&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F363114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandy1994" class="citation book cs1">Handy, Jim (1994). Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4438-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4438-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4438-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+in+the+Countryside%3A+Rural+Conflict+and+Agrarian+Reform+in+Guatemala%2C+1944%E2%80%931954&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4438-0&rft.aulast=Handy&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolton1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Woody_Holton" title="Woody Holton">Holton, Woody</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fV_qCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Land Speculators versus Indians and the Privy Council"</a>. Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia. UNC Press Books. pp. 3–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-9986-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-9986-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-9986-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Land+Speculators+versus+Indians+and+the+Privy+Council&rft.btitle=Forced+Founders%3A+Indians%2C+Debtors%2C+Slaves%2C+and+the+Making+of+the+American+Revolution+in+Virginia&rft.pages=3-38&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-9986-1&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=Woody&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfV_qCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoulton2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moulton, Aaron Coy (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.35424%2Frha.149.2013.406">""Amplies Ayuda Externa" Contra "La Gangrena Comunista": Las Fuerzas Regionales Anticomunistas y la Finalizacion de la Operacion PBFortune, Octobre de 1952"</a> ["Extend External Assistance" Against "The Communist Gangrene": The Regional Anti-Communist Forces and the Finalization of Operation PBFortune, October 1952]. Revista de Historia de América (in Spanish) (149): 45–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.35424%2Frha.149.2013.406">10.35424/rha.149.2013.406</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44732841">44732841</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257442076">257442076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Historia+de+Am%C3%A9rica&rft.atitle=%22Amplies+Ayuda+Externa%22+Contra+%22La+Gangrena+Comunista%22%3A+Las+Fuerzas+Regionales+Anticomunistas+y+la+Finalizacion+de+la+Operacion+PBFortune%2C+Octobre+de+1952&rft.issue=149&rft.pages=45-58&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257442076%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44732841%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.35424%2Frha.149.2013.406&rft.aulast=Moulton&rft.aufirst=Aaron+Coy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.35424%252Frha.149.2013.406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacevich2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Bacevich, Andrew</a> (2008). The Limits of Power: The End of American Exceptionalism. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8815-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8815-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-8815-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Limits+of+Power%3A+The+End+of+American+Exceptionalism&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-8815-1&rft.aulast=Bacevich&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Bacevich" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew J. Bacevich">Bacevich, Andrew J.</a>, "The Old Normal: Why we can't beat our addiction to war", <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a>, vol. 340, no. 2038 (March 2020), pp. 25–32. "In 2010, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Michael_Mullen" title="Michael Mullen">Michael Mullen</a>, chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, declared that the <a href="/wiki/U.S._national_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. national debt">national debt</a>, the prime expression of American profligacy, had become 'the most significant threat to our national security.' In 2017, General <a href="/wiki/Paul_Selva" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Selva">Paul Selva</a>, Joint Chiefs vice chair, stated bluntly that 'the dynamics that are happening in our <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate</a> will drive uncertainty and will drive conflict." (p. 31.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Bacevich" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew J. Bacevich">Bacevich, Andrew J.</a>, "The Reckoning That Wasn't: Why America Remains Trapped by False Dreams of Hegemony", <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, vol. 102, no. 2 (March/April 2023), pp. 6–10, 12, 14, 16–21. "Washington... needs to... avoid needless war... and provide ordinary citizens with the prospect of a decent life.... The chimera of another righteous military triumph cannot fix what ails the United States." (p. 21.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoot2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Boot" title="Max Boot">Boot, Max</a> (2002). The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00721-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00721-X"><bdi>0-465-00721-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Savage+Wars+of+Peace%3A+Small+Wars+and+the+Rise+of+American+Power&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-465-00721-X&rft.aulast=Boot&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1994" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Seyom (1994). Faces of Power: Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Clinton. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-09669-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-09669-0"><bdi>0-231-09669-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faces+of+Power%3A+Constancy+and+Change+in+United+States+Foreign+Policy+from+Truman+to+Clinton&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-231-09669-0&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Seyom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_H._Burton" title="David H. Burton">Burton, David H.</a> (1968). Theodore Roosevelt: Confident Imperialist. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0007GMSSY">B0007GMSSY</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theodore+Roosevelt%3A+Confident+Imperialist&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0007GMSSY%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Burton&rft.aufirst=David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Callahan, Patrick (2003). Logics of American Foreign Policy: Theories of America's World Role. New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-08848-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-08848-4"><bdi>0-321-08848-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logics+of+American+Foreign+Policy%3A+Theories+of+America%27s+World+Role&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-321-08848-4&rft.aulast=Callahan&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaalderJames_M._Lindsay2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ivo_Daalder" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivo Daalder">Daalder, Ivo H.</a>; James M. Lindsay (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americaunboundbu00daal">America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy</a>. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-1688-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-1688-5"><bdi>0-8157-1688-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+Unbound%3A+The+Bush+Revolution+in+Foreign+Policy&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8157-1688-5&rft.aulast=Daalder&rft.aufirst=Ivo+H.&rft.au=James+M.+Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericaunboundbu00daal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulbrightSeth_P._Tillman1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._William_Fulbright" title="J. William Fulbright">Fulbright, J. William</a>; Seth P. Tillman (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/priceofempire00fulb">The Price of Empire</a>. Pantheon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-57224-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-57224-6"><bdi>0-394-57224-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Empire&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-394-57224-6&rft.aulast=Fulbright&rft.aufirst=J.+William&rft.au=Seth+P.+Tillman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpriceofempire00fulb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaddis2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">Gaddis, John Lewis</a> (2005). Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517447-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517447-X"><bdi>0-19-517447-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategies+of+Containment%3A+A+Critical+Appraisal+of+Postwar+American+National+Security+Policy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-517447-X&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampf2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hampf, Michaela (2019). Empire of Liberty (in German). De Gruyter Oldenbourg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-065774-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-065774-6"><bdi>978-3-11-065774-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Liberty&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Oldenbourg&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-11-065774-6&rft.aulast=Hampf&rft.aufirst=Michaela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzy_Hansen" title="Suzy Hansen">Hansen, Suzy</a>, "Twenty Years of Outsourced War" (review of <a href="/wiki/Phil_Klay" title="Phil Klay">Phil Klay</a>, Uncertain Ground: Citizenship in an Age of Endless, Invisible War, Penguin Press, 2022, 252 pp.; and <a href="/wiki/Phil_Klay" title="Phil Klay">Phil Klay</a>, Missionaries, Penguin, 2020, 407 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXX, no. 16 (19 October 2023), pp. 26–28. "Klay remains transfixed by the idea that in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and in all contemporary <a href="/wiki/American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="American wars">American wars</a>, there have been not only no definable diplomatic or political objectives, but also no definable military objectives. No one has any clue what they're fighting for or even 'clear benchmarks of success.' That means that there is no obvious enemy, or that one's perception of the enemy keeps shifting. 'If you think the mission your country keeps sending you on is pointless or impossible and that you're only deploying to protect your brothers and sisters in arms from danger,' Klay writes, 'then it's not the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> or <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> or <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a> that's trying to kill you, it's America.'" (p. 28.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardtAntonio_Negri2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Hardt, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a> (2001). <a href="/wiki/Empire_(Negri_and_Hardt_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire (Negri and Hardt book)">Empire</a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00671-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00671-2"><bdi>0-674-00671-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-674-00671-2&rft.aulast=Hardt&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Antonio+Negri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409064117/http://www.infoshop.org/texts/empire.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Hudson, Michael</a> (2021). Super Imperialism. The Economic Strategy of American Empire (Third ed.). Islet. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3981826098" title="Special:BookSources/978-3981826098"><bdi>978-3981826098</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Super+Imperialism.+The+Economic+Strategy+of+American+Empire&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Islet&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3981826098&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Immerwahr" title="Daniel Immerwahr">Immerwahr, Daniel</a>, "Everything in Hand: the C.I.A.'s covert ops have mattered – but not in the way that it hoped", <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>, 17 June 2024, pp. 53-57. "After the Second World War, the United States set out to direct politics on a global scale. This mission was unpopular, hence the cloak-and-dagger secrecy, and difficult, hence the regular fiascoes. [...] 'We knew nothing,' the onetime <a href="/wiki/C.I.A." class="mw-redirect" title="C.I.A.">C.I.A.</a> director <a href="/wiki/Richard_Helms" title="Richard Helms">Richard Helms</a> remembered. [...] <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a> professors were tasked with steering top students toward intelligence careers. [Particularly] literature students. [...] Something about sorting through ambiguity, paradox, and hidden meanings equipped students for espionage." (p. 54.) "[In the 1950s] hundreds of the CIA's foreign agents were sent to their deaths in [Albania,] Russia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and the Baltic states... [I]ntelligence officers [then] shifted their attention to [...] the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>, today more often called the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>. [But t]he U.S. lacked the generations-deep, place-based colonial knowledge that Britain and France had." (p. 55.) "The <a href="/wiki/T.E._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="T.E. Lawrence">Lawrencian</a> fantasy was that U.S. agents would embed themselves in foreign lands. In reality [...] ambitious foreigners infiltrat[ed] the United States. [A long] list of world leaders [...] trained Stateside [...[. [...] The C.I.A. interfered constantly in foreign politics, but its typical mode wasn't micromanaging; it was subcontracting. [...] For all the heady talk of promoting democracy, more than two-thirds of U.S. covert interventions during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> were in support of authoritarian regimes..." (p. 56.) "As the [1990s] wore on, U.S. leaders grew increasingly alarmed about [Iraq dictator] <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam</a>'s continued military capacities. But intelligence was wanting. [...] The combination of scant knowledge and overweening concern created demand, and [Ahmad] <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Chalabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad Chalabi">Chalabi</a> arrange[d] the supply. He promoted sources who [falsely] claimed that Saddam was stockpiling <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapon">biological weapons</a> and had kept working toward <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear ones</a>. [...] In the end, the C.I.A. has the power to break things, but not the skill to build them. [...] The heart of the issue is the United States' determination to control global affairs." (p. 57.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Immerwahr" title="Daniel Immerwahr">Immerwahr, Daniel</a>, "Fort Everywhere: How did the United States become entangled in a cycle of endless war?" (review of David Vine, The United States of War: A Global History of America's Endless Conflicts, from Columbus to the Islamic State, University of California Press, 2020, 464 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a>, 14/21 December 2020, pp. 34–37.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmerwahr2019" class="citation book cs1">Immerwahr, Daniel (2019). How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-17214-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-17214-5"><bdi>978-0-374-17214-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Hide+an+Empire%3A+A+History+of+the+Greater+United+States&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-374-17214-5&rft.aulast=Immerwahr&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Johnson, Chalmers</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blowback00chal">Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire</a>. New York: Holt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-6239-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-6239-4"><bdi>0-8050-6239-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blowback%3A+The+Costs+and+Consequences+of+American+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holt&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8050-6239-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Chalmers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblowback00chal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chalmers_Johnson" title="Chalmers Johnson">Johnson, Chalmers</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sorrowsofempirem00john_0">The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic</a>. New York: Metropolitan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7004-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7004-4"><bdi>0-8050-7004-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sorrows+of+Empire%3A+Militarism%2C+Secrecy%2C+and+the+End+of+the+Republic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8050-7004-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Chalmers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsorrowsofempirem00john_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerry1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Kerry" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard J. Kerry">Kerry, Richard J.</a> (1990). The Star-Spangled Mirror: America's Image of Itself and the World. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-7649-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-7649-8"><bdi>0-8476-7649-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Star-Spangled+Mirror%3A+America%27s+Image+of+Itself+and+the+World&rft.place=Savage%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8476-7649-8&rft.aulast=Kerry&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a>, "The American Way of Economic War: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Farrell_(political_scientist)" title="Henry Farrell (political scientist)">Henry Farrell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_L._Newman" title="Abraham L. Newman">Abraham Newman</a>, Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy, Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.), <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, vol. 103, no. 1 (January/February 2024), pp. 150–156. "The [U.S.] dollar is one of the few currencies that almost all major banks will accept, and... the most widely used... As a result, the dollar is the currency that many companies must use... to do international business." (p. 150.) "[L]ocal banks facilitating that trade... normally... buy U.S. dollars and then use dollars to buy [another local currency]. To do so, however, the banks must have access to the U.S. financial system and... follow rules laid out by Washington." (pp. 151–152.) "But there is another, lesser-known reason why the [U.S.] commands overwhelming economic power. Most of the world's <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cables" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic cables">fiber-optic cables</a>, which carry data and messages around the planet, travel through the United States." (p. 152.) "[T]he U.S. government has installed 'splitters': <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prisms</a> that divide the beams of light carrying information into two streams. One... goes on to the intended recipients, ... the other goes to the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Security Administration">National Security Agency</a>, which then uses high-powered <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to analyze the data. As a result, the [U.S.] can monitor almost all international communication." (p. 154) This has allowed the U.S. "to effectively cut <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> out of the world financial system... Iran's economy stagnated... Eventually, Tehran agreed to cut back its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear</a> programs in exchange for relief." (pp. 153–154.) "[A] few years ago, American officials... were in a panic about [the Chinese company] <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a>... which... seemed poised to supply <a href="/wiki/5G" title="5G">5G</a> equipment to much of the planet [thereby possibly] giv[ing] China the power to eavesdrop on the rest of the world – just as the [U.S.] has done.... The [U.S.] learned that Huawei had been dealing surreptitiously with Iran – and therefore violating U.S. sanctions. Then, it... used its special access to information on international bank data to [show] that [Huawei]'s <a href="/wiki/Chief_financial_officer" title="Chief financial officer">chief financial officer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meng_Wanzhou" title="Meng Wanzhou">Meng Wanzhou</a> (... the founder's daughter), had committed <a href="/wiki/Bank_fraud" title="Bank fraud">bank fraud</a> by falsely telling the British <a href="/wiki/Financial_services_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial services company">financial services company</a> <a href="/wiki/HSBC" title="HSBC">HSBC</a> that her company was not doing business with Iran. Canadian authorities, acting on a U.S. request, arrested her... in December 2018. After... almost three years under house arrest... Meng... was allowed to return to China... But by [then] the prospects for Chinese dominance of 5G had vanished..." (pp. 154–155.) Farrell and Newman, writes Krugman, "are worried about the possibility of [U.S. Underground Empire] overreach. [I]f the [U.S.] weaponizes the dollar against too many countries, they might... band together and adopt alternative methods of international payment. If countries become deeply worried about U.S. spying, they could lay fiber-optic cables that bypass the [U.S.]. And if Washington puts too many restrictions on American exports, foreign firms might turn away from U.S. technology." (p. 155.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Lears" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackson Lears">Lears, Jackson</a>, "The Forgotten Crime of War Itself" (review of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Moyn" title="Samuel Moyn">Samuel Moyn</a>, Humane: How the United States Abandoned Peace and Reinvented War, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021, 400 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXIX, no. 7 (April 21, 2022), pp. 40–42. "After September 11 [2001] no politician asked whether the proper response to a <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist attack">terrorist attack</a> should be a US war or an international police action. [...] Debating <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> or other abuses, while indisputably valuable, has diverted Americans from 'deliberating on the deeper choice they were making to ignore constraints on starting war in the first place.' [W]ar itself causes far more suffering than violations of its rules." (p. 40.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundestad1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Lundestad, Geir</a> (1998). Empire by Integration: The United States and European Integration, 1945–1997. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-878212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-878212-8"><bdi>0-19-878212-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+by+Integration%3A+The+United+States+and+European+Integration%2C+1945%E2%80%931997&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-878212-8&rft.aulast=Lundestad&rft.aufirst=Geir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdomRobert_Dujarric2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Eldridge_Odom" title="William Eldridge Odom">Odom, William</a>; Robert Dujarric (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americasinadvert00will_0">America's Inadvertent Empire</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10069-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10069-8"><bdi>0-300-10069-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Inadvertent+Empire&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-300-10069-8&rft.aulast=Odom&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Robert+Dujarric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericasinadvert00will_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Shaw, Tamsin, "Ethical Espionage" (review of Calder Walton, Spies: The Epic Intelligence War Between East and West, Simon and Schuster, 2023, 672 pp.; and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_Fabre" title="Cécile Fabre">Cécile Fabre</a>, Spying Through a Glass Darkly: The Ethics of Espionage and Counter-Intelligence, Oxford University Press, 251 pp., 2024), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no. 2 (8 February 2024), pp. 32, 34–35. "[I]n Walton's view, there was scarcely a US <a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">covert action</a> that was a long-term strategic success, with the possible exception of intervention in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Afghan War">Soviet-Afghan War</a> (a disastrous military fiasco for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a>) and perhaps support for the anti-Soviet <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>." (p. 34.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Shawn" title="Wallace Shawn">Shawn, Wallace</a>, "The End of a Village", <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no 15 (3 October 2024), pp. 16–17. "[In 1967] <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Schell" title="Jonathan Schell">Jonathan Schell</a> published 'The Village of Ben Suc' in... <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>, [describing U.S. troops' destruction of that <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnamese</a> village]. [p. 16.] [The soldiers had] been dropped... into a land that for them was alien [and] strange... where they were surrounded by people whose words, gestures, and expressions they couldn't interpret.... [T]hey had no idea why they were there, and they didn't really know what they were supposed to do there... The Vietnamese revolutionaries were fighting for their own country, for their own families. The Americans were not.... Schell's [subsequent] book could have... led American policymakers to realize that quasi-imperial American interventions [like this] could not succeed in the contemporary world... [M]aybe a million... Vietnamese lives could have been saved, along with the lives of 50,000 American soldiers, along with countless lives in Afghanistan and Iraq." (p. 17.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9ctor_Tobar" title="Héctor Tobar">Tobar, Héctor</a>, "The Truths of Our American Empire" (review of <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Blitzer" title="Jonathan Blitzer">Jonathan Blitzer</a>, Everyone Who Is Gone Is Here: The United States, Central America, and the Making of a Crisis, Penguin Press, 523 pp.), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no. 7 (18 April 2024), pp. 43–44, 46. "Blitzer... illustrates the timidity and opportunism of the US political class, which has repeatedly blocked reforms that would allow an orderly and safe flow of workers and their families across the border. After all, our postpandemic economy remains desperately short of workers.... [E]ven if every unemployed person in [the US] found work, roughly three million jobs would go unfilled." (p. 44, 46.) "The use and abuse of immigrant labor as tools of nation building and race engineering is a long-established element of the American normal. Only if you step outside of history does it look like a 'crisis.'" (p. 46.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodd2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Todd" title="Emmanuel Todd">Todd, Emmanuel</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cup.columbia.edu/book/978-0-231-13102-5/after-the-empire">After the Empire: The Breakdown of the American Order</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13103-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13103-2"><bdi>978-0-231-13103-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Empire%3A+The+Breakdown+of+the+American+Order&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13103-2&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcup.columbia.edu%2Fbook%2F978-0-231-13102-5%2Fafter-the-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Tooze" title="Adam Tooze">Tooze, Adam</a>, "Is This the End of the American Century?", <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 41, no. 7 (4 April 2019), pp. 3, 5–7.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTremblay2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodrigue_Tremblay" title="Rodrigue Tremblay">Tremblay, Rodrigue</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/The_New_American_Empire" title="The New American Empire">The New American Empire</a>. Haverford, PA: Infinity Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7414-1887-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7414-1887-8"><bdi>0-7414-1887-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+American+Empire&rft.place=Haverford%2C+PA&rft.pub=Infinity+Pub&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7414-1887-8&rft.aulast=Tremblay&rft.aufirst=Rodrigue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Wertheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Wertheim (page does not exist)">Wertheim, Stephen</a>, "The Price of Primacy: Why America Shouldn't Dominate the World", <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, vol. 99, no. 2 (March/April 2020), pp. 19–22, 24–29. "The United States should abandon the quest for armed primacy in favor of protecting the planet and creating more opportunity for more people." (p. 20.) "The United States should [...] rally the industrialized world to provide <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> with technology and financing to bypass <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>." (p. 24.) "[T]he United States should cease acting as a partisan in disputes such as <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemen's civil war</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Israeli-Palestinian_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli-Palestinian conflict">Israeli-Palestinian conflict</a> [...]." (p. 27.)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Wertheim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Wertheim (page does not exist)">Wertheim, Stephen</a>, "Iraq and the Pathologies of Primacy: The Flawed Logic That Produced the War Is Alive and Well", <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, vol. 102, no. 3 (May/June 2023), pp. 136–52. "Washington is still in thrall to primacy and caught in a doom loop, lurching from self-inflicted problems to even bigger self-inflicted problems, holding up the latter while covering up the former. In this sense, the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq war">Iraq war</a> remains unfinished business for the United States." (p. 152.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZepezauer2002" class="citation book cs1">Zepezauer, Mark (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boomeranghowourc0000zepe">Boomerang!: How Our Covert Wars Have Created Enemies Across the Middle East and Brought Terror to America</a>. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56751-222-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56751-222-4"><bdi>1-56751-222-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boomerang%21%3A+How+Our+Covert+Wars+Have+Created+Enemies+Across+the+Middle+East+and+Brought+Terror+to+America&rft.place=Monroe%2C+Maine&rft.pub=Common+Courage+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56751-222-4&rft.aulast=Zepezauer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboomeranghowourc0000zepe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+imperialism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=American_imperialism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="North_America_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topics" title="Template:North America topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topics" title="Template talk:North America topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="North_America_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_the_Americas" title="Peopling of the Americas">Peopling of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island_(Indigenous_North_American_folklore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turtle Island (Indigenous North American folklore)">Turtle Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">American Declaration of Independence</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States of America</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">U.S. Bill of Rights</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">Canadian Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market_crash" title="Stock market crash">Stock market crash</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> (1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> (1947–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_miracle" title="Mexican miracle">Mexican miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> (1969)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">Oil crisis</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a> (1990s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA agreement</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">9/11 attacks</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> (2001–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_North_America" title="COVID-19 pandemic in North America">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2020–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_North_America" title="Geography of North America">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_North_America" title="List of cities in North America">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_North_America" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in North America">Countries and dependent territories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_population" title="List of North American countries by population">by population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_North_America" title="Extreme points of North America">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_North_America" title="Geology of North America">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_North_America" title="List of islands of North America">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes#North_America" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_North_America" title="List of mountain peaks of North America">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_North_America_by_country" title="Category:Rivers of North America by country">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_America#Politics" title="North America">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">American imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Union" title="North American Union">North American Union (NAU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States (OAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Americanism" title="Pan-Americanism">Pan-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_relations" title="Transatlantic relations">Transatlantic relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_North_America" title="Economy of North America">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_in_North_America_by_country" title="Category:Agriculture in North America by country">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_in_North_America" title="Category:Energy in North America">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_North_America" title="Tourism in North America">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_North_America" title="Transportation in North America">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Countries by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of North American countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">GDP (per capita)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of North American countries by GDP (PPP)">PPP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of North American countries by GDP (PPP) per capita">per capita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index#Americas" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_Internet_users" title="List of countries by number of Internet users">Internet users</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_minimum_wage" title="List of countries by minimum wage">Minimum wages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_North_America" title="Languages of North America">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endangered_languages_in_North_America" title="List of endangered languages in North America">endangered</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_universities_and_colleges_in_North_America" title="Category:Lists of universities and colleges in North America">Universities and colleges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_North_America" title="Culture of North America">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:North_American_art" title="Category:North American art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#The_Americas" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture#North_America" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_cuisine" title="North American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_North_America" title="Etiquette in North America">Etiquette</a></li> <li>Mass media <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="North American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_television_stations_in_North_America" title="Lists of television stations in North America">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_North_America_by_media_market" title="List of radio stations in North America by media market">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Newspapers_published_in_North_America" title="Category:Newspapers published in North America">Newspapers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Magazines_published_in_North_America" title="Category:Magazines published in North America">magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_North_America" title="Sports in North America">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Symbols_of_North_America" title="Category:Symbols of North America">Symbols</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Indigenous" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America" title="Indigenous music of North America">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of North America">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_population" title="List of North American countries by population">Countries by population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density" title="List of countries and dependencies by population density">density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_globalization" title="Outline of globalization">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alter-globalization" title="Alter-globalization">Alter-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics / sociology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_George_(political_scientist)" title="Susan George (political scientist)">Susan George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Held" title="David Held">David Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hirst" title="Paul Hirst">Paul Hirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._M._Ling" title="L. H. M. Ling">L. H. M. Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saskia_Sassen" title="Saskia Sassen">Saskia Sassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Urry_(sociologist)" title="John Urry (sociologist)">John Urry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non–academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Friedman" title="Thomas Friedman">Thomas Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Naomi Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ralston_Saul" title="John Ralston Saul">John R. Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandana_Shiva" title="Vandana Shiva">Vandana Shiva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Globalization" title="Category:Globalization">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" 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