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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoplatonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Neoplatonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoplatonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_soul_as_substance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_soul_as_substance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticism of soul as substance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_soul_as_substance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irreducible_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irreducible_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Irreducible concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Irreducible_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Irreducible concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Irreducible_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bare_particular" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bare_particular"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Bare particular</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bare_particular-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inherence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inherence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Inherence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inherence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_supporting_the_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_supporting_the_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Arguments supporting the theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_supporting_the_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments supporting the theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_supporting_the_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argument_from_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Argument from grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_conception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_conception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Argument from conception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_conception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bundle_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bundle_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bundle theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bundle_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bundle theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bundle_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Identity_of_indiscernibles_counterargument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identity_of_indiscernibles_counterargument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Identity of indiscernibles counterargument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identity_of_indiscernibles_counterargument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Religious philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Jainism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance theory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حركة جوهرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة جوهرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substansiya" title="Substansiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Substansiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Субстанция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Субстанция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subst%C3%A0ncia" title="Substància – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Substància" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podstata" title="Podstata – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Podstata" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substans" title="Substans – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Substans" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substanz" title="Substanz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Substanz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substants" title="Substants – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Substants" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustancia_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Sustancia (filosofía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sustancia (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substanco" title="Substanco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Substanco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantzia_(filosofia)" title="Substantzia (filosofia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Substantzia (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="حرکت جوهری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حرکت جوهری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_(philosophie)" title="Substance (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Substance (philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substancia_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Substancia (filosofía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Substancia (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EC%B2%B4" title="실체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="실체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A2%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81" title="Սուբստանց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սուբստանց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supstancija" title="Supstancija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Supstancija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substanco" title="Substanco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Substanco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zat" title="Zat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umumbu" title="Umumbu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umumbu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sostanza_(filosofia)" title="Sostanza (filosofia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sostanza (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Субстанция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Субстанция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Субстанция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Субстанция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantia" title="Substantia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Substantia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substancijos-akcidencijos_perskyra" title="Substancijos-akcidencijos perskyra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Substancijos-akcidencijos perskyra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szubsztancia" title="Szubsztancia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szubsztancia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantie" title="Substantie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Substantie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%9F%E4%BD%93" title="実体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="実体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modda" title="Modda – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Modda" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substancja_(filozofia)" title="Substancja (filozofia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Substancja (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subst%C3%A2ncia_(filosofia)" title="Substância (filosofia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Substância (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Субстанция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Субстанция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustanza" title="Sustanza – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sustanza" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance" title="Substance – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Substance" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substancia_(filozofia)" title="Substancia (filozofia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Substancia (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%D9%88%DA%BE%DB%95%D8%B1" title="جەوھەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جەوھەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zat" title="Zat – Sundanese" lang="su" 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class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Basic ontological concept</div> <p><b>Substance theory</b>, or <b>substance–attribute theory</b>, is an <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> theory positing that <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> are constituted each by a <i>substance</i> and <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> borne by the substance but distinct from it. In this role, a substance can be referred to as a <i>substratum</i> or a <i><a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benovsky_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benovsky-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Langton_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langton-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Substances</i> are <a href="/wiki/Particulars" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulars">particulars</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Ontology#Ontological_dependence" title="Ontology">ontologically independent</a>: they are able to exist all by themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-kim_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kim-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Borchert2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another defining feature often attributed to substances is their ability to <i>undergo changes</i>. Changes involve something existing <i>before</i>, <i>during</i> and <i>after</i> the change. They can be described in terms of a persisting substance gaining or losing properties.<sup id="cite_ref-kim_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kim-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Attributes</i> or <i>properties</i>, on the other hand, are entities that can be exemplified by substances.<sup id="cite_ref-Orilia_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orilia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Properties characterize their bearers; they express what their bearer is like.<sup id="cite_ref-Borchert2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchert2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Substance</i> is a key concept in <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the latter in turn part of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, which may be classified into <a href="/wiki/Monist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monist">monist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dualism">dualist</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralist</a> varieties according to how many substances or individuals are said to populate, furnish, or exist in the world. According to monistic views, there is only one substance. <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, for example, hold monistic views, that <a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">pneuma</a> or <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, respectively, is the one substance in the world. These modes of thinking are sometimes associated with the idea of <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanence</a>. Dualism sees the world as being composed of two fundamental substances (for example, the Cartesian <a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">substance dualism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mental_substance" title="Mental substance">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Res_extensa" title="Res extensa">matter</a>). Pluralist philosophies include <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylomorphic">hylomorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">categories</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Greek_philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">Ousia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> used the term "substance" (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">οὐσία</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>) in a secondary sense for <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> understood as <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphic forms</a>. Primarily, however, he used it with regard to his <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">category</a> of substance, the specimen ("this person" or "this horse") or <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">individual</a>, <i>qua</i> individual, who survives <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accidental change</a> and in whom the <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essential properties</a> inhere that define those <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">universals</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A substance—that which is called a substance most strictly, primarily, and most of all—is that which is neither said of a subject nor in a subject, e.g. the individual man or the individual horse. The species in which the things primarily called substances are, are called secondary substances, as also are the genera of these species. For example, the individual man belongs in a species, man, and animal is a genus of the species; so these—both man and animal—are called secondary substances.<sup id="cite_ref-Ackrill1988_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ackrill1988-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aristotle, <i><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></i> 2a13 (trans. <a href="/wiki/J._L._Ackrill" title="J. L. Ackrill">J. L. Ackrill</a>)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In chapter 6 of book I the <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> Aristotle argues that any change must be analysed in reference to the property of an invariant subject: as it was before the change and thereafter. Thus, in his hylomorphic account of change, <i>matter</i> serves as a relative substratum of transformation, i.e., of changing (substantial) form. In the <i>Categories</i>, properties are predicated only of substance, but in chapter 7 of book I of the <i>Physics</i>, Aristotle discusses substances coming to be and passing away in the "unqualified sense" wherein <b>primary substances</b> (πρῶται οὐσίαι; <i>Categories</i> 2a35) are generated from (or perish into) a material substratum by having gained (or lost) the essential property that formally defines substances of that kind (in the secondary sense). Examples of such a substantial change include not only conception and dying, but also metabolism, e.g., the bread a man eats becomes the man. On the other hand, in <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accidental</a> change, because the essential property remains unchanged, by identifying the substance with its formal essence, substance may thereby serve as the relative subject matter or property-bearer of change in a qualified sense (i.e., barring matters of life or death). An example of this sort of accidental change is a change of color or size: a tomato becomes red, or a juvenile horse grows. </p><p>Aristotle thinks that in addition to primary substances (which are particulars), there are <b>secondary substances</b> (δεύτεραι οὐσίαι), which are universals (<i>Categories</i> 2a11–a18).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neither the "bare particulars" nor "property bundles" of modern theory have their antecedent in Aristotle, according to whom all matter exists in some form. There is no <i>prime matter</i> or pure <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">elements</a>, there is always a mixture: a ratio weighing the four potential combinations of primary and secondary properties and analysed into discrete one-step and two-step abstract transmutations between the elements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>However, according to <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian view of God">Aristotle's theology</a>, a form of invariant form exists without matter, beyond the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>, powerless and oblivious, in the eternal substance of the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_movers" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmoved movers">unmoved movers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pyrrhonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a> rejected the idea that substances exist. <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> put this as: </p> <blockquote><p>"Whoever wants to live well (<a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>) must consider these three questions: First, how are <i>pragmata</i> (ethical matters, affairs, topics) by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them? Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?" Pyrrho's answer is that "As for <i>pragmata</i> they are all <a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">adiaphora</a> (undifferentiated by a logical differentia), <i>astathmēta</i> (unstable, unbalanced, not measurable), and <i>anepikrita</i> (unjudged, unfixed, undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our <i>doxai</i> (views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly should not rely on them. Rather, we should be <i>adoxastoi</i> (without views), <i>aklineis</i> (uninclined toward this side or that), and <i>akradantoi</i> (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not or it neither is nor is not.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stoicism">Stoicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stoicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stoic_categories" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoic categories">Stoic categories</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> rejected the idea that <a href="/wiki/Incorporeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporeal">incorporeal</a> beings inhere in matter, as taught by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. They believed that all being is <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">corporeal</a> infused with a creative fire called <a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">pneuma</a>. Thus they developed a scheme of <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Stoic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Categories (Stoic)">categories</a> different from <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Aristotle's</a> based on the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a>. The fundamental basis of Stoicism in this context was a universally consistent <a href="/wiki/Ethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical">ethical</a> and moral <a href="/wiki/Code" title="Code">code</a> that should be maintained at all time, the physical belief of beings as matter is an important philosophical <a href="/wiki/Footnote" class="mw-redirect" title="Footnote">footnote</a>, as it marked the start of thinking as beings as inherently linked to <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, instead of to some <a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">abstract</a> heaven.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neoplatonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonists">Neoplatonists</a> argue that beneath the surface phenomena that present themselves to our senses are three higher spiritual principles or <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">hypostases</a>, each one more sublime than the preceding. For <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, these are the soul or <a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">world-soul</a>, being/intellect or divine mind (<i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>), and "the one".<sup id="cite_ref-Paula_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paula-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_philosophy">Early modern philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> means by a substance an entity which exists in such a way that it needs no other entity in order to exist. Therefore, only God is a substance in this strict sense. However, he extends the term to created things, which need only the concurrence of God to exist. He maintained that two of these are mind and body, each being distinct from the other in their attributes and therefore in their essence, and neither needing the other in order to exist. This is Descartes' <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">substance dualism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> denied Descartes' "real distinction" between mind and matter. Substance, according to Spinoza, is one and indivisible, but has multiple "attributes". He regards an attribute, though, as "what we conceive as constituting the [single] essence of substance". The single essence of one substance can be conceived of as material and also, consistently, as mental. What is ordinarily called the natural world, together with all the individuals in it, is <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a> in God: hence his famous phrase <i>deus sive natura</i> ("<a href="/wiki/God_or_Nature" class="mw-redirect" title="God or Nature">God or Nature</a>"). </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> views substance through a corpuscularian lens where it exhibits two types of qualities which both stem from a source. He believes that humans are born <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a></i> or "blank slate" – without innate knowledge. In <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i> Locke writes that "first essence may be taken for the very being of anything, whereby it is, what it is." If humans are born without any knowledge, the way to receive knowledge is through perception of a certain object. But, according to Locke, an object exists in its primary qualities, no matter whether the human perceives it or not; it just exists. For example, an apple has qualities or properties that determine its existence apart from human perception of it, such as its mass or texture. The apple itself is also "pure substance in which is supposed to provide some sort of 'unknown support' to the observable qualities of things"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="Is it Millican or Locke we are quoting? (June 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> that the human mind perceives.<sup id="cite_ref-Locke_and_Leibniz_on_Substance_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke_and_Leibniz_on_Substance-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The foundational or support qualities are called primary essences which "in the case of physical substances, are the underlying physical causes of the object's observable qualities".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke_on_Real_Essence_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke_on_Real_Essence-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But then what is an object except "the owner or support of other properties"? Locke rejects Aristotle's category of the forms, and develops mixed ideas about what substance or "first essence" means. Locke's solution to confusion about first essence is to argue that objects simply are what they are – made up of microscopic particles existing because they exist. According to Locke, the mind cannot completely grasp the idea of a substance as it "always falls beyond knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke:_A_Very_Short_Introduction_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke:_A_Very_Short_Introduction-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a gap between what first essence truly means and the mind's perception of it that Locke believes the mind cannot bridge, objects in their primary qualities must exist apart from human perception. </p><p>The molecular combination of atoms in first essence then forms the solid base that humans can perceive and add qualities to describe - the only way humans can possibly begin to perceive an object. The way to perceive the qualities of an apple is from the combination of the primary qualities to form the secondary qualities. These qualities are then used to group the substances into different categories that "depend on the properties [humans] happen to be able to perceive".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke:_A_Very_Short_Introduction_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke:_A_Very_Short_Introduction-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taste of an apple or the feeling of its smoothness are not traits inherent to the fruit but are the power of the primary qualities to produce an idea about that object in the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason that humans can not sense the actual primary qualities is the <a href="/wiki/Mental_distance" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental distance">mental distance</a> from the object; thus, Locke argues, objects remain <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominal</a> for humans.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the argument then returns to how "a philosopher has no other idea of those substances than what is framed by a collection of those simple ideas which are found in them."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mind's conception of substances "[is] complex rather than simple" and "has no (supposedly innate) clear and distinct idea of matter that can be revealed through intellectual abstraction away from sensory qualities".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke_and_Leibniz_on_Substance_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke_and_Leibniz_on_Substance-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the article</a>. There might be a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:Substance_theory" title="Talk:Substance theory">the talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The last quality of substance is the way the perceived qualities seem to begin to change – such as a candle melting; this quality is called the tertiary quality. Tertiary qualities "of a body are those powers in it that, by virtue of its primary qualities, give it the power to produce observable changes in the primary qualities of other bodies"; "the power of the sun to melt wax is a tertiary quality of the sun".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke_on_Real_Essence_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke_on_Real_Essence-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are "mere powers; qualities such as flexibility, ductility; and the power of sun to melt wax". This goes along with<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (June 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> "passive power: the capacity a thing has for being changed by another thing".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any object, at the core are the primary qualities (unknowable by the human mind), the secondary quality (how primary qualities are perceived), and tertiary qualities (the power of the combined qualities to make a change to the object itself or to other objects). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>'s corpuscularian hypothesis states that "all material bodies are composites of ultimately small<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="indivisibly small? infinitesimally small? (June 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> particles of matter" that "have the same material qualities<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (June 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> as the larger composite bodies do".<sup id="cite_ref-Sheridan_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheridan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this basis, Locke defines his first group, primary qualities, as "the ones that a body doesn't lose, however much it alters."<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-8-9_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-8-9-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The materials retain their primary qualities even if they are broken down because of the unchanging nature of their atomic particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheridan_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheridan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If someone is curious about an object and they<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (June 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> say it is solid and extended, these two descriptors are primary qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-Stumpf_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stumpf-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second group consists of secondary qualities which are "really nothing but the powers to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities."<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-8-10_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-8-10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke argues that the impressions our senses perceive from the objects (i.e. taste, sounds, colors, etc.) are not natural properties of the object itself, but things they induce in us by means of the "size, shape, texture, and motion of their imperceptible parts."<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-8-10_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-8-10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bodies send insensible particles to our senses which let us perceive the object through different faculties; what we perceive is based on the object's composition. With these qualities, people can achieve the object through bringing "co-existing powers and sensible qualities to a common ground for explanation".<sup id="cite_ref-Constantin_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Constantin-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke supposes that one wants to know what "binds these qualities" into an object, and argues that a "substratum" or "substance" has this effect, defining "substance" as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]he idea of ours to which we give the general name <i>substance</i>, being nothing but the supposed but unknown support of those qualities we find existing and which we imagine can't exist <i>sine re substante</i> — that is, without some thing to support them — we call that support <i>substantia</i>; which, according to the true meaning of the word, is in plain English <i>standing under</i> or <i>upholding</i>. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John Locke, <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>; book 2, chapter 23<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-23-2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>This substratum is a construct of the mind in an attempt to bind all the qualities seen together; it is only "a supposition of an unknown support of qualities that are able to cause simple ideas in us."<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-23-2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without making a substratum, people would be at a loss as to how different qualities relate. Locke does, however, mention that this substratum is an unknown, relating it to the story of the world on the turtle's back and how the believers eventually had to concede that the turtle just rested on "something he knew not what".<sup id="cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locke-2-23-2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is how the mind perceives all things and from which it can make ideas about them; it is entirely relative, but it does provide a "regularity and consistency to our ideas".<sup id="cite_ref-Stumpf_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stumpf-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substance, overall, has two sets of qualities — those that define it, and those related to how we perceive it. These qualities rush to our minds, which must organize them. As a result, our mind creates a substratum (or <i>substance</i>) for these objects, into which it groups related qualities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_soul_as_substance">Criticism of soul as substance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism of soul as substance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> observed that the assertion of a spiritual soul as substance could be a synthetic proposition which, however, was unproved and completely arbitrary.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introspection does not reveal any diachronic substrate remaining unchanged throughout life. The temporal structure of consciousness is retentive-perceptive-prognostic. The selfhood arises as result of several informative flows: (1) signals from our own body; (2) retrieved memories and forecasts; (3) the affective load: dispositions and aversions; (4) reflections in other minds.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mental acts have the feature of appropriation: they are always attached to some pre-reflective consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As visual perception is only possible from a definite point of view, so inner experience is given together with self-consciousness. The latter is not an autonomous mental act, but a formal way how the first person has their experience. From the pre-reflective consciousness, the person gains conviction of their existence. This conviction is immune to false reference.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of person is prior to the concepts of subject and body.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reflective self-consciousness is a conceptual and elaborate cognition. Selfhood is a self-constituting effigy, a task to be accomplished.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans are incapable of comprising all their experience within the current state of consciousness; overlapping memories are critical for personal integrity. Appropriated experience can be recollected. At stage B, we remember the experience of stage A; at stage C, we may be aware of the mental acts of stage B. The idea of self-identity is enforced by the relatively slow changes of our body and social situation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personal identity may be explained without accepting a spiritual agent as subject of mental activity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Associative connection between life episodes is necessary and sufficient for the maintenance of a united selfhood. Personal character and memories can persist after radical mutation of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Irreducible_concepts">Irreducible concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Irreducible concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">Phenomenon</a></div> <p>Two irreducible concepts encountered in substance theory are the <i>bare particular</i> and <i>inherence</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bare_particular">Bare particular</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bare particular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In substance theory, a bare particular of an <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">object</a> is the element without which the object would not exist, that is, its substance, which exists independently from its properties, even if it is impossible for it to lack properties entirely. It is "bare" because it is considered without its properties and "particular" because it is not <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract</a>. The properties that the substance has are said to inhere in the substance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inherence">Inherence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inherence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another primitive concept in substance theory is the <a href="/wiki/Inherence" title="Inherence">inherence</a> of properties within a substance. For example, in the sentence, "The apple is red" substance theory says that red inheres in the apple. Substance theory takes the meaning of an apple having the property of redness to be understood, and likewise that of a property's inherence in substance, which is similar to, but not identical with, being part of the substance. </p><p>The inverse relation is <a href="/wiki/Participation_(philosophy)" title="Participation (philosophy)">participation</a>. Thus in the example above, just as red inheres in the apple, so the apple participates in red. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_supporting_the_theory">Arguments supporting the theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arguments supporting the theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two common <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> supporting substance theory are the argument from grammar and the argument from conception. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_grammar">Argument from grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Argument from grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The argument from grammar uses <a href="/wiki/Traditional_grammar" title="Traditional grammar">traditional grammar</a> to support substance theory. For example, the sentence "Snow is white" contains a grammatical subject "snow" and the predicate "is white", thereby asserting <i>snow is white</i>. The argument holds that it makes no grammatical sense to speak of "whiteness" disembodied, without asserting that snow or something else <i>is</i> white. Meaningful assertions are formed by virtue of a grammatical subject, of which properties may be predicated, and in substance theory, such assertions are made with regard to a substance. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">Bundle theory</a> rejects the argument from grammar on the basis that a grammatical subject does not necessarily refer to a metaphysical subject. Bundle theory, for example, maintains that the grammatical subject of a statement refers to its properties. For example, a bundle theorist understands the grammatical subject of the sentence, "Snow is white", to be a bundle of properties such as white. Accordingly, one can make meaningful statements about bodies without referring to substances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_conception">Argument from conception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Argument from conception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another argument for the substance theory is the argument from conception. The argument claims that in order to conceive of an object's properties, like the redness of an apple, one must conceive of the object that has those properties. According to the argument, one cannot conceive of redness, or any other property, distinct from the substance that has that property. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The idea of substance was famously critiqued by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who held that since substance cannot be perceived, it should not be assumed to independently exist.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, and after him <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> also rejected the notion of "substance", and in the same movement the concept of <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> - seeing both concepts as holdovers from <a href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</a>. For this reason, <a href="/wiki/Althusser" class="mw-redirect" title="Althusser">Althusser</a>'s "anti-humanism" and Foucault's statements were criticized, by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> and others, for misunderstanding that this led to a fatalist conception of <a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">social determinism</a>. For Habermas, only a subjective form of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> could be conceived, to the contrary of Deleuze who talks about "<i>a</i> life", as an impersonal and <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a> form of liberty. </p><p>For Heidegger, Descartes means by "substance" that by which "we can understand nothing else than an entity which <i>is</i> in such a way that it need no other entity in order to <i>be</i>." Therefore, only God is a substance as <i>Ens perfectissimus</i> (most perfect being). Heidegger showed the inextricable relationship between the concept of substance and of subject, which explains why, instead of talking about "man" or "humankind", he speaks about the <i><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i>, which is not a simple subject, nor a substance.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> has argued that the concept of substance has only a limited applicability in everyday life and that metaphysics should rely upon the <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">concept of process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman Catholic theologian <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Karl Rahner</a>, as part of his critique of <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a>, rejected substance theory and instead proposed the doctrine of <i>transfinalization</i>, which he felt was more attuned to modern philosophy. However, this doctrine was rejected by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> in his encyclical <i><a href="/wiki/Mysterium_fidei_(encyclical)" title="Mysterium fidei (encyclical)">Mysterium fidei</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bundle_theory">Bundle theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bundle theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">Bundle theory</a></div> <p>In direct opposition to substance theory is bundle theory, whose most basic premise is that all concrete particulars are merely constructions or 'bundles' of attributes or qualitative properties: </p> <dl><dd>Necessarily, for any concrete entity, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span>, if for any entity, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span> is a constituent of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span>, then <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span> is an attribute.<sup id="cite_ref-Loux2002_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loux2002-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The bundle theorist's principal objections to substance theory concern the <a href="/wiki/Bare_particular" class="mw-redirect" title="Bare particular">bare particulars</a> of a substance, which substance theory considers independently of the substance's properties. The bundle theorist objects to the notion of a thing with no properties, claiming that such a thing is inconceivable and citing John Locke, who described a substance as "a something, I know not what." To the bundle theorist, as soon as one has any notion of a substance in mind, a property accompanies that notion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identity_of_indiscernibles_counterargument">Identity of indiscernibles counterargument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Identity of indiscernibles counterargument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indiscernible" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiscernible">indiscernibility</a> argument from the substance theorist targets those bundle theorists who are also metaphysical realists. Metaphysical realism uses the identity of <i>universals</i> to compare and identify particulars. Substance theorists say that bundle theory is incompatible with metaphysical realism due to the <a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">identity of indiscernibles</a>: particulars may differ from one another only with respect to their attributes or relations. </p><p>The substance theorist's indiscernibility argument against the metaphysically realistic bundle theorist states that numerically different concrete particulars are discernible from the self-same concrete particular only by virtue of qualitatively different attributes. </p> <dl><dd>Necessarily, for any complex objects, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, if for any entity, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span> is a constituent of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> if and only if <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span> is a constituent of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, then <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> is numerically identical with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loux2002_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loux2002-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The indiscernibility argument points out that if bundle theory and discernible concrete particulars theory explain the relationship between attributes, then the identity of indiscernibles theory must also be true: </p> <dl><dd>Necessarily, for any concrete objects, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, if for any attribute, Φ, Φ is an attribute of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> if and only if Φ is an attribute of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, then <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> is numerically identical with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loux2002_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loux2002-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The indiscernibles argument then asserts that the identity of indiscernibles is violated, for example, by identical sheets of paper. All of their qualitative properties are the same (e.g. white, rectangular, 9 x 11 inches...) and thus, the argument claims, bundle theory and metaphysical realism cannot both be correct. </p><p>However, bundle theory combined with <a href="/wiki/Trope_(philosophy)#Trope_theory_in_philosophy_(metaphysics)" title="Trope (philosophy)">trope theory</a> (as opposed to metaphysical realism) avoids the indiscernibles argument because each attribute is a trope if can only be held by only one concrete particular. </p><p>The argument does not consider whether "position" should be considered an attribute or relation. It is after all through the differing positions that we in practice differentiate between otherwise identical pieces of paper. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_philosophy">Religious philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Religious philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Christian writers of antiquity adhered to the Aristotelian conception of substance. Their peculiarity was the use of this idea for the discernment of theological nuances. <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> considered both material and spiritual substances: blood and milk; mind and soul, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> may be the first theologian expressing Christ's similarity with the Father as <a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">consubstantiality</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> professed the same view in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ecclesiastics of the Cappadocian group (<a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil of Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a>) taught that the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> had a single substance in three hypostases individualized by the relations among them. In later ages, the meaning of "substance" became more important because of the dogma of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hildebert" title="Hildebert">Hildebert of Lavardin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Tours" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishop of Tours">archbishop of Tours</a>, introduced the term <i><a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a></i> about 1080; its use spread after the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a> in 1215. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, beings may possess substance in three different modes. Together with other Medieval philosophers, he interpreted God's epithet "<a href="/wiki/El_Shaddai" title="El Shaddai">El Shaddai</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Genesis_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis 17">Genesis 17</a>:1) as self-sufficient and concluded that God's essence was identical with existence.<sup id="cite_ref-AquinasV_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AquinasV-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquinas also deemed the substance of spiritual creatures identical with their essence (or form); therefore he considered each <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a> to belong to its own distinct species.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Aquinas' view, composite substances consist of form and matter. Human substantial form, i.e. soul, receives its individuality from body.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Jainism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">Svabhava</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> rejects the concept of substance. Complex structures are comprehended as an aggregate of components without any essence. Just as the junction of parts is called cart, so the collections of elements are called things.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All formations are unstable (<i>aniccā</i>) and lacking any constant core or "self" (<i>anattā</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical objects have no metaphysical substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arising entities hang on previous ones conditionally: in the notable teaching on interdependent origination, effects arise not as caused by agents but conditioned by former situations. Our senses, perception, feelings, wishes and consciousness are flowing, the view <i>satkāya-dṛṣṭi</i> of their permanent carrier is rejected as fallacious. The school of <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a>, namely <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāgārjuna">Nāgārjuna</a>, introduced the idea of the ontological void (<i>śūnyatā</i>). The Buddhist metaphysics <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> presumes particular forces which determine the origin, persistence, aging and decay of everything in the world. <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> added a special force making a human, called "<i>aprāpti</i>" or "<i>pṛthagjanatvam</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the absence of a substantial soul, the belief in personal immortality loses foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of deceased beings, new ones emerge whose fate is destined by the <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karmic law</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> admitted the empirical identity of persons testified by their birth, name, and age. He approved the authorship of deeds and responsibility of performers.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disciplinary practice in the <a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a> including reproaches, confession and expiation of transgressions,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> requires continuing personalities as its justification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">History of molecular theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">Hypokeimenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherence" title="Inherence">Inherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sortal" title="Sortal">Sortal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentals" title="Transcendentals">Transcendentals</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Benovsky-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Benovsky_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBenovsky2008" class="citation journal cs1">Benovsky, Jiri (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BENTBT-2">"The Bundle Theory and the Substratum Theory: Deadly Enemies or Twin Brothers?"</a>. <i>Philosophical Studies</i>. <b>141</b> (2): 175–190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11098-007-9158-0">10.1007/s11098-007-9158-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18712931">18712931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Bundle+Theory+and+the+Substratum+Theory%3A+Deadly+Enemies+or+Twin+Brothers%3F&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-190&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11098-007-9158-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18712931%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Benovsky&rft.aufirst=Jiri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBENTBT-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Langton-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Langton_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRae_Langton2001" class="citation book cs1">Rae Langton (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DpHUgZzu0EkC&pg=PA28"><i>Kantian humility: our ignorance of things in themselves</i></a>. 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Translated by Jonathan Bennett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+II%2C+chapter+8%2C+paragraph+9&rft.btitle=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.date=2007-08&rft.au=John+Locke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlymoderntexts.com%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Flocke1690book2_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stumpf-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stumpf_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stumpf_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stumpf, S. E. (1999). <i>Socrates to Sartre: a history of philosophy</i>. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Locke-2-8-10-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Locke-2-8-10_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locke-2-8-10_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Locke2007" class="citation book cs1">John Locke (August 2007) [1690]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1690book2_3.pdf">"Book II, chapter 8, paragraph 10"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>. Translated by Jonathan Bennett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+II%2C+chapter+8%2C+paragraph+10&rft.btitle=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.date=2007-08&rft.au=John+Locke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlymoderntexts.com%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Flocke1690book2_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constantin-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Constantin_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Constantin, Ion (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=201519">"Philosophy of substance: a historical perspective"</a>. <i>Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations</i>. <b>11</b>: 135–140. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1030745650">1030745650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+and+Philosophical+Investigations&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+substance%3A+a+historical+perspective&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=135-140&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Constantin&rft.aufirst=Ion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D201519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Locke-2-23-2-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locke-2-23-2_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Locke2007" class="citation book cs1">John Locke (August 2007) [1690]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1690book2_3.pdf">"Book II, chapter 23, paragraph 2"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>. Translated by Jonathan Bennett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+II%2C+chapter+23%2C+paragraph+2&rft.btitle=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.date=2007-08&rft.au=John+Locke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlymoderntexts.com%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Flocke1690book2_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant. Immanuel. <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, ed. Paul Guyer, Allen Wood. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge (UK), New York, Melbourne, 1998, p.422-425. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-35402-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-35402-1">0-521-35402-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seth, Anil K. <i>The hard problem of consciousness is a distraction from the real one.</i> Retrieved 14.01.2017 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://aeon.co/essays/the-hard-problem-of-consciousness-is-a-distraction-from-the-real">https://aeon.co/essays/the-hard-problem-of-consciousness-is-a-distraction-from-the-real</a> one</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes. Routledge: London, [1996], p. XXVI-XXXII. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04029-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04029-9">0-415-04029-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wittgenstein, Ludwig. The Blue and Brown Books. Blackwell: [Oxford], [1958], p. 67. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-14660-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-14660-1">0-631-14660-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strawson P. Individuals. Methuen: London., 1959, p.98-103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWisdo2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wisdo, David (28 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31979%2F2151-6014%282017%29.080209">"The Self: Kierkegaard and Buddhism in Dialogue"</a>. <i>Comparative Philosophy</i>. <b>8</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31979%2F2151-6014%282017%29.080209">10.31979/2151-6014(2017).080209</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Self%3A+Kierkegaard+and+Buddhism+in+Dialogue&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2017-07-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31979%2F2151-6014%282017%29.080209&rft.aulast=Wisdo&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.31979%252F2151-6014%25282017%2529.080209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer A.J. Language, Truth and Logic. Penguin Books: [s.l.], 1946, p. 166-168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gallagher, Shaun and Zahavi, Dan, "Phenomenological Approaches in Self-Consciousness", <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL= <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/self-consciousness-phenomenological/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/self-consciousness-phenomenological/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinton1962" class="citation journal cs1">Quinton, Anthony (1962). "The Soul". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>59</b> (15): 393–409. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2022957">10.2307/2022957</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2022957">2022957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Soul&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=393-409&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2022957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2022957%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Quinton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockney2015" class="citation book cs1">Hockney, Mike (2015). <i>The Forbidden History of Science</i>. Hyperreality Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forbidden+History+of+Science&rft.pub=Hyperreality+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hockney&rft.aufirst=Mike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Howard, "Substance", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming URL = <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/substance/">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/substance/</a>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Kadir_Cucen2002" class="citation web cs1">A. Kadir Cucen (2002-01-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www20.uludag.edu.tr/~kadir/Roma.pdf">"Heidegger's Critique of Descartes' Metaphysics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Uludag University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Heidegger%27s+Critique+of+Descartes%27+Metaphysics&rft.pub=Uludag+University&rft.date=2002-01-18&rft.au=A.+Kadir+Cucen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww20.uludag.edu.tr%2F~kadir%2FRoma.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Ronny Desmet and Michel Weber (edited by), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279940/Whitehead._The_Algebra_of_Metaphysics">Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum</a></i>, Louvain-la-Neuve, Éditions Chromatika, 2010 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-930517-08-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-930517-08-7">978-2-930517-08-7</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Loux2002-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loux2002_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loux2002_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loux2002_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoux2002" class="citation book cs1">Loux, M.J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vgxkGIgPlooC&pg=PA106"><i>Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction</i></a>. Routledge Contemporary Introductions to Philosophy Series. Taylor & Francis. pp. 106–107, 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415140348" title="Special:BookSources/9780415140348"><bdi>9780415140348</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/97011036">97011036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metaphysics%3A+A+Contemporary+Introduction&rft.series=Routledge+Contemporary+Introductions+to+Philosophy+Series&rft.pages=106-107%2C+110&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F97011036&rft.isbn=9780415140348&rft.aulast=Loux&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvgxkGIgPlooC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clemens Alexandrinus, <i>Stromata</i>, VIII, 6; IV, 32; VI, 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tertulianus adversus Marcionem, lib. IV, 9, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AquinasV-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AquinasV_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Aquinas1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/aquinas-esse.asp">"V"</a>. <i>De ente et essentia</i>. Translated by Robert T. Miller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=V&rft.btitle=De+ente+et+essentia&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Thomas+Aquinas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fbasis%2Faquinas-esse.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Aquinas, <i>De ente et essentia</i>, VI; <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, q.29, a.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Collection of Connected Discourses (Saṁyutta Nikāya), Translated from the Pāli by Bikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publications, [2000]. Part 1, 525–526; Part 2, 61 (1). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86171-168-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-86171-168-8">0-86171-168-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aṅguttara Nikāya (The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha). A complete translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012, III, 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stcherbatsky Th. The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word "Dharma". London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1923, p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L'Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu. Traduit et annoté par Louis de la Vallée Poussin. Tome I. Paris: Paul Geithner, 1923, p. 179–191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikāya). Translated by Bhikkhu Nāṇamoli, Boston (MA): Wisdom Publications, 1995, Part 1, 22 (25)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aṅguttara Nikāya, VI, 63 (5); III, 36 (1)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Book of Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka). Vol. II (Sutta-Vibhanga). Translated by I. B. Horner. London: Luzac, 1957, <i>passim</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_theory&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robinson, Howard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/substance/">"Substance"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Substance&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fsubstance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robinson, Tad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/substanc">"17th Century Theories of Substance"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17th+Century+Theories+of+Substance&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Tad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fsubstanc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Weir, Ralph. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu//substance/">"Substance theory"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Substance+theory&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2F%2Fsubstance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstance+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friesian.com/essence.htm">Friesian School on Substance and Essence</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aristotelianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td 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