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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Truthmaker gaps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truthmaker_gaps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truthmaking_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truthmaking_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Truthmaking principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truthmaking_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_correspondence_theory_of_truth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_correspondence_theory_of_truth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relation to the correspondence theory of truth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_correspondence_theory_of_truth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Presentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Presentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenomenalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenomenalism"> <div 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<a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> and what <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">exists</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic intuition behind truthmaker theory is that truth depends on <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a>. For example, a perceptual experience of a green tree may be said to be true because there actually is a green tree. But if there were no tree there, it would be false. So the experience by itself does not ensure its truth or falsehood, it depends on something else. Expressed more generally, truthmaker theory is the thesis that "the truth of <a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">truthbearers</a> depends on the existence of truthmakers". A perceptual experience is the <i>truthbearer</i> in the example above. Various representational entities, like beliefs, thoughts or assertions can act as truthbearers. Truthmaker theorists are divided about what type of entity plays the role of <i>truthmaker</i>; popular candidates include states of affairs and tropes. </p><p><i>Truthmaker maximalism</i> is the thesis that every truth has a truthmaker. An alternative view is <i>truthmaker atomism</i>, the thesis that only atomic sentences have truthmakers. Truthmaker atomism remains true to the basic intuition that truth depends on being by holding that the truth of molecular sentences depends on the truth of atomic sentences, whose truth in turn depends on being. All non-maximalist positions accept that there are <i>truthmaker gaps</i>: truths without truthmakers. Opponents have tried to disprove truthmaker theory by showing that there are so-called <i>deep truthmaker gaps</i>: truthbearers that not only lack a truthmaker but whose truths do not even depend on being. Various principles governing the truthmaking relation have been proposed in order to make the intuitions about the role and nature of truthmaking explicit. Truthmaker theory is closely related to the <i>correspondence theory of truth</i>, but not identical to it. Truthmaker theory has been applied to various fields in metaphysics, often with the goal of exposing <i>ontological cheaters</i>: theorists who are committed to certain beliefs but do not or cannot account for the existence of a truthmaker for these beliefs. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <i>Truth-Makers</i> (1984), <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Mulligan" title="Kevin Mulligan">Kevin Mulligan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simons_(academic)" title="Peter Simons (academic)">Peter Simons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Smith_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Smith (academic)">Barry Smith</a> introduced the truth-maker idea as a contribution to the <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logically atomic empirical sentences such as "John kissed Mary" have truthmakers, typically events or <a href="/wiki/Trope_(philosophy)" title="Trope (philosophy)">tropes</a> corresponding to the main verbs of the sentences in question. Mulligan et al. explore extensions of this idea to sentences of other sorts, but they do not embrace any position of truthmaker maximalism, according to which every <a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">truthbearer</a> has a truthmaker. </p><p>This maximalist position leads to philosophical difficulties, such as the question of what the truthmaker for an <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> truthbearer could be. Someone who is deeply enough committed to truthmakers and who simultaneously doubts that a truthmaker could be found for a certain kind of truthbearer will simply deny that that truthbearer could be true. Those who find the Parmenidean insight sufficiently compelling often take it to be a particularly enlightening metaphysical pursuit to search for truthmakers of these kinds of propositions. </p><p>Another difficulty for the claim that every truthbearer has a truthmaker is with negations of <a href="/wiki/Existential_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential proposition">existential propositions</a> (or, equivalently, <a href="/wiki/Universal_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal proposition">universal propositions</a>). In the example of asking if unicorns exist, proposals include the <i>totality</i> of all things,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or some worldly state of affairs such as x1's not being a unicorn, x2's not being a unicorn, ..., and everything's being x1, or x2, or ... (the latter suggestion is due to Richard M. Gale). </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a> has proposed a more moderate version of the truthmaker theory on which truthmakers are only required for positive propositions (e.g., there must be a truthmaker for the proposition that there are horses, but not for the equally true proposition that there are no unicorns). What makes a negative proposition <i>p</i> true is the <i>lack</i> of a <a href="/wiki/Falsemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsemaker">falsemaker</a> for it, i.e., the lack of a truthmaker for the negation of <i>p</i>. Thus what makes it true that there are no unicorns is the lack of a truthmaker for the proposition that there <i>are</i> unicorns, i.e., the lack of unicorns.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Truthmaker theorists differ as to what entities are the truthmakers of various truthbearers. Some say that the truthmaker of the proposition that Socrates is sitting (assuming he is) is "Socrates' being seated" (whatever exactly that might turn out to be on the correct ontology) and in general the truthmaker of the truthbearer expressed by a sentence <i>s</i> can be denoted by the <a href="/wiki/Participial_nominalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Participial nominalization">participial nominalization</a> of <i>s</i>. Others will say that the truthmaker of the proposition that Socrates is sitting is just "Socrates" himself. In any case, the truthmaker is supposed to be something <i>concrete</i>, and on the first view is that whose existence is reported by the truthbearer and on the second view is that which the truthbearer is <i>about</i>. </p><p>While the existence of truthmakers may seem an abstruse question, concrete instances are at the heart of a number of philosophical issues. Thus, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a> has argued that the truthmakers of moral claims would be "queer entities", too strange to exist, and hence all moral claims are false.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, a <a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">divine command</a> <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethicist</a> may insist that the only possible candidate for a truthmaker of a moral claim is a command from a perfect God, and hence if moral claims are true and a truthmaker theory holds, then God exists. Thus the disagreement between various <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethical</a> schools is in part a disagreement over what kinds of truthmakers moral claims would have if these claims were true and over whether such truthmakers exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Truthmaker_gaps">Truthmaker gaps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Truthmaker gaps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>truthmaker gap</b> is a truth that lacks a truthmaker. Truthmaker maximalists hold that there are no truthmaker gaps: every truth has a truthmaker.<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truthmaker non-maximalists, on the other hand, allow that some truths lack a truthmaker. Truthmaker non-maximalists still count as truthmaker theorists in the sense that they hold onto the core intuition of truthmaker theory that truth depends on being.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atomic truthmaker theories, which have their root in <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a>, are examples of such a position. According to them, only <a href="/wiki/Atomic_sentences" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic sentences">atomic sentences</a> have truthmakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Koons_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koons-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A sentence is atomic or simple if it does not have other sentences as proper parts.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, "The sun is shining" is an atomic sentence while "The sun is shining and the wind is blowing" is a non-atomic or molecular sentence since it is made up of two sentences linked by the conjunction "and". In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional calculus</a> molecular sentences are composed through truth-functional <a href="/wiki/Logical_connectives" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical connectives">logical connectives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular sentences lack truthmakers according to atomic truthmaker theories and therefore constitute truthmaker gaps. But the fact that the truth values of molecular sentences depends on the truth values of its constituents (if only truth-functional connectives are allowed) ensures that truth still depends on being.<sup id="cite_ref-Koons_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koons-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This type of truthmaker gap has been called a "shallow" truthmaker gap. Shallow truthmaker gaps are contrasted with "deep" truthmaker gaps. Deep truthmaker gaps are truths that do not depend on being.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They therefore pose a challenge to any type of truthmaker theory. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Possible_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible worlds">possible worlds</a>, a deep truthmaker gap is a proposition that is true in one possible world and false in another where there is no difference between these two worlds beside the truth value of this proposition. Critics of truthmaker theory have tried to find deep truthmaker gaps in order to refute truthmaker theory in general.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Truthmaking_principles">Truthmaking principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Truthmaking principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various <b>principles</b> governing the truthmaking relation have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They aim to make our intuitions about the role and nature of truthmaking explicit. </p><p>The <i>entailment principle</i> states that if entity <i>e</i> is a truthmaker for proposition <i>p</i> and <i>p</i> entails proposition <i>q</i> then <i>e</i> is also a truthmaker for <i>q</i>. </p><p>The <i>conjunction principle</i> states that if entity <i>e</i> is a truthmaker for the conjunction of proposition <i>p</i> and proposition <i>q</i> then <i>e</i> is also a truthmaker for <i>p</i>. </p><p>The <i>disjunction principle</i> states that if entity <i>e</i> is a truthmaker for the disjunction of proposition <i>p</i> and proposition <i>q</i> then <i>e</i> is either a truthmaker of <i>p</i> or a truthmaker of <i>q</i>. </p><p>These principles seem intuitively to be true but it has been shown that they lead to implausible conclusions when combined with other plausible principles.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_the_correspondence_theory_of_truth">Relation to the correspondence theory of truth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relation to the correspondence theory of truth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theory of truth</a> states that <i>truth</i> consists in <i>correspondence</i> with <i>reality</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koons_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koons-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Or in the words of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>: "A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truthmaker theory is closely related to correspondence theory; some authors see it as a modern version of correspondence theory.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The similarity between the two can be seen in the following example definitions: </p> <ul><li><i>Correspondence theory</i>: David's belief that the sky is blue is true if and only if this belief stands in a correspondence-relation to the fact that the sky is blue.</li> <li><i>Truthmaker theory</i>: David's belief that the sky is blue is true if and only if this belief stands in a truthmaking-relation to the fact that the sky is blue.</li></ul> <p>But despite the obvious similarities there are a few important differences between truthmaker theory and correspondence theory. For one, correspondence theory aims to give a <i>substantive account</i> or a <i>definition</i> of what truth is. Truthmaker theory, on the other hand, has the goal of <i>determining</i> how truth depends on being.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So it presupposes the notion of truth instead of defining it. While it seems natural to combine truthmaker theory with a correspondence-conception of truth, this is not necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another difference between the two theories is that correspondence is a <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_relation" title="Symmetric relation">symmetric relation</a> while the truthmaking relation is <i>asymmetric</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-MacBride_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacBride-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arguments based on truthmaker theory have been used in various fields to criticize so-called "ontological cheaters".<sup id="cite_ref-MacBride_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacBride-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koons_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koons-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <i>ontological cheater</i> is someone who is committed to a certain belief but does not or cannot account for the existence of a truthmaker for this belief. If such a belief was true then its truth would be brute or free-floating: it would be disconnected from any underlying reality. This is opposed to the basic intuition behind truthmaker theory that truth depends on being.<sup id="cite_ref-Sider_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sider-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Defense strategies open to theorists accused of ontological cheating include denying that the proposition in question is true, denying the legitimacy of truthmaker theory as a whole or finding a so-called "proxy" or "trace" within their preferred ontology.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A proxy or trace, in this context, is an entity that can act as a truthmaker for the proposition in question even though it is not obvious that this proposition is about this entity. An example of such a strategy in <a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">actualism</a> is to use actual but <a href="/wiki/Abstract_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract object">abstract objects</a> as proxies for propositions about possible objects, whose existence is denied by actualism.<sup id="cite_ref-Actualism_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Actualism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presentism">Presentism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Presentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One such criticism has been leveled against <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">presentism</a>. Presentism is the view that only the present exists, i.e. that past entities or events lack existence.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism</a> is the opposite of presentism. It holds that past, present and future existents are equally real. Beliefs about the past and the future are very common, for example the belief that dinosaurs existed. Providing a truthmaker for this belief is quite straightforward for eternalists: they may claim that the dinosaurs themselves or facts about dinosaurs act as truthmakers. This is unproblematic since, for eternalists, past entities have regular existence. This strategy is not available to the presentists since they deny that past entities have existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But there seem to be no obvious truthmaker candidates for this belief among the present entities. The presentist would have to be labeled an <i>ontological cheater</i> unless he can find a truthmaker within his ontology.<sup id="cite_ref-Sider_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sider-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phenomenalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a> has been subjected to a similar criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phenomenalism is the view that only phenomena exist. It is opposed to the common sense intuition that the material objects we perceive exist independently of our perceptual experiences of them and that they even exist when not perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes for example the belief that valuables locked inside a safe do not cease to exist despite the fact that no one observes them in there, which would, of course, defeat the purpose of locking them inside in the first place. The phenomenalist faces the problem of how to account for the truth of this belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A well-known solution to this problem comes from <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>. He claimed that we can account for unperceived objects in terms of <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditionals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactual conditionals">counterfactual conditionals</a>: It is true that the valuables are in the safe because if someone looked inside then this person would have a corresponding sensory impression. But this solution does not satisfy the truthmaker theorist since it still leaves open what the truthmaker for this counterfactual conditional is. It is not clear how such a truthmaker could be found within the phenomenalist ontology.<sup id="cite_ref-Asay_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Actualism">Actualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Actualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a> is the view that everything there is, is actual, i.e. that only actual things have existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Actualism_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Actualism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Actualism</i> contrasts with <i>possibilism</i>, the view that there are some entities that are merely possible. Actualists face the problem of how to account for the truthmakers of modal truths, like "it was possible for the Cuban Missile Crisis to escalate into a full-scale nuclear war", "there could have been purple cows" or "it is necessary that all cows are animals". Actualists have proposed various solutions, but there is no consensus as to which one is the best solution.<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vetter_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vetter-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A well-known account relies on the notion of possible worlds, conceived as actual abstract objects, for example as maximal consistent sets of propositions or of states of affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A set of propositions is maximal if, for any statement <i>p</i>, either <i>p</i> or <i>not-p</i> is a member.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possible worlds act as truthmakers for modal truths. For example, there is a possible world which is inhabited by purple cows. This world is a truthmaker for "there could have been purple cows". Cows are animals in all possible worlds that are inhabited by cows. So all worlds are the truthmaker of "it is necessary that all cows are animals". This account relies heavily on a logical notion of modality, since possibility and necessity are defined in terms of consistency. This dependency has prompted some philosophers to assert that no truthmakers at all are needed for modal truths, that modal truths are true "by default".<sup id="cite_ref-Cameron_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This position involves abandoning truthmaker maximalism. </p><p>An alternative solution to the problem of truthmakers for modal truths is based on the notion of "essence".<sup id="cite_ref-Vetter_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vetter-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Objects have their properties either essentially or accidentally. The essence of an object involves all the properties it has essentially. The essence of a thing defines its nature: what it fundamentally is. On this type of account, the truthmaker for "it is necessary that all cows are animals" is that it belongs to the essence of cows to be animals. The truthmaker for "there could have been purple cows" is that color is not essential to cows. Some essentialist theories focus on object essences, i.e. that certain properties are essential to a specific object. Other essentialist theories focus on kind essences, i.e. that certain properties are essential to the kind or species of the object in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Vetter_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vetter-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slingshot_argument" title="Slingshot argument">Slingshot argument</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Asay-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asay_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAsay" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analysis&rft.atitle=Recent+Work%3A+Modality+Without+Possible+Worlds&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=742-754&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanalys%2Fanr077&rft.aulast=Vetter&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FVETRWM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruthmaker+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1976" class="citation journal cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/PLAAAP">"Actualism and Possible Worlds"</a>. <i>Theoria</i>. <b>42</b> (1–3): 139–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1755-2567.1976.tb00681.x">10.1111/j.1755-2567.1976.tb00681.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoria&rft.atitle=Actualism+and+Possible+Worlds&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=139-160&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1755-2567.1976.tb00681.x&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FPLAAAP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruthmaker+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParent" class="citation web cs1">Parent, Ted. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/mod-meta/">"Modal Metaphysics"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Modal+Metaphysics&rft.aulast=Parent&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fmod-meta%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruthmaker+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMellor2003" class="citation book cs1">Mellor, D. H. (2003). "Real Metaphysics: Replies". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/MELRMR"><i>Real Metaphysics: Essays in honour of D. H. Mellor</i></a>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Real+Metaphysics%3A+Replies&rft.btitle=Real+Metaphysics%3A+Essays+in+honour+of+D.+H.+Mellor&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Mellor&rft.aufirst=D.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FMELRMR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruthmaker+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine1994" class="citation journal cs1">Fine, Kit (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/FINEAM-2">"Essence and Modality"</a>. <i>Philosophical Perspectives</i>. <b>8</b>: 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2214160">10.2307/2214160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2214160">2214160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Essence+and+Modality&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2214160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2214160%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=Kit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FFINEAM-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATruthmaker+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Armstrong, D. M. (2004). <i>Truth and truthmakers.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54723-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54723-7">0-521-54723-7</a></li> <li>Beebee, H., & Dodd, J. (Eds.). (2005). <i>Truthmakers: The contemporary debate.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-928356-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-928356-7">0-19-928356-7</a></li> <li>Fine, Kit (2018) Truthmaking and the is–Ought Gap. <i>Synthese</i>, 1-28.</li> <li>Lewis, David (2001) Truthmaking and Difference-Making, <i>Noûs</i> 35 (4):602–615.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truthmakers/">MacBride, Fraser. (2013). “Truthmakers.” <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a></li> <li>Mulligan, K., Simons, P. M. and Smith B. (1984). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/truthmakers/tm.pdf">Truth-Makers</a>", <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i>, 44, 287–321.</li> <li>Mulligan, K. (2007). Two dogmas of truthmaking, <i>Metaphysics and Truthmakers</i> Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag, 51–66.</li> <li>Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo. (2006). “Truthmakers.” <i>Philosophy Compass</i> (1), 186–200.</li> <li>Smith, B. (1999). “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/tm(ajp).pdf">Truthmaker Realism</a>”, <i>Australasian Journal of Philosophy</i>, 77 (3), 274–291.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/1525">Truthmaker theory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060620061009/http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/truthmakers/tm.html">"Truth-makers", by Kevin Mulligan, Barry Smith, & Peter Simons</a>, <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i>, 44 (1984), 287–321.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&oldid=1185988607">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truthmaker_theory&oldid=1185988607</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_truth" title="Category:Theories of truth">Theories of truth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ontology" title="Category:Ontology">Ontology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Semantics" title="Category:Semantics">Semantics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_generic_name" title="Category:CS1 errors: generic name">CS1 errors: generic name</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_in-text_citations_from_November_2020" title="Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from November 2020">Articles lacking in-text citations from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_in-text_citations" title="Category:All articles lacking in-text citations">All articles lacking in-text citations</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2023, at 06:13<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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