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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>English translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Aristotelian_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Aristotelian_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Neo-Aristotelian theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Aristotelian_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_Book_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_Book_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Overview of Book I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_Book_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_Book_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_Book_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Overview of Book II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview_of_Book_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview of Book II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_Book_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chapter_1" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapter_1"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Chapter 1</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapter_1-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chapters_2–11" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters_2–11"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Chapters 2–11</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters_2–11-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chapters_12–17" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters_12–17"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Chapters 12–17</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters_12–17-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chapters_18–26" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters_18–26"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Chapters 18–26</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters_18–26-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_Book_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_Book_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Overview of Book III</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview_of_Book_III-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview of Book III subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_Book_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chapters_1–12:_style_(lexis)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters_1–12:_style_(lexis)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Chapters 1–12: style (<span><i>lexis</i></span>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters_1–12:_style_(lexis)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chapters_13–19:_parts_of_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chapters_13–19:_parts_of_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Chapters 13–19: parts of speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chapters_13–19:_parts_of_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance_of_deliberative_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_of_deliberative_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Importance of deliberative rhetoric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_of_deliberative_rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Rhetoric</i> (Aristotle)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_(%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88)" title="الخطابة (أرسطو) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الخطابة (أرسطو)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Rhetorica" title="Ars Rhetorica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ars Rhetorica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorik_(Aristoteles)" title="Rhetorik (Aristoteles) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rhetorik (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica_(Arist%C3%B3teles)" title="Retórica (Aristóteles) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Retórica (Aristóteles)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87_(%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8)" title="خطابه (کتاب) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خطابه (کتاب)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%A9torique_(Aristote)" title="Rhétorique (Aristote) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rhétorique (Aristote)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EC%82%AC%ED%95%99_(%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%86%A0%ED%85%94%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4)" title="수사학 (아리스토텔레스) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수사학 (아리스토텔레스)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_(%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81)" title="रेटोरिक (अरस्तु) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रेटोरिक (अरस्तु)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A6lskufr%C3%A6%C3%B0in" title="Mælskufræðin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mælskufræðin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica_(Aristotele)" title="Retorica (Aristotele) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Retorica (Aristotele)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Rhetorica_(Aristoteles)" title="Ars Rhetorica (Aristoteles) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars Rhetorica (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retorica_(Aristoteles)" title="Retorica (Aristoteles) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Retorica (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%81%E8%AB%96%E8%A1%93_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%86%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9)" title="弁論術 (アリストテレス) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="弁論術 (アリストテレス)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorica" title="Rhetorica – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rhetorica" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ret%C3%B3rica_(Arist%C3%B3teles)" title="Retórica (Aristóteles) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Retórica (Aristóteles)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C)" title="Риторика (Аристотель) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Риторика (Аристотель)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retoriikka_(Aristoteles)" title="Retoriikka (Aristoteles) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Retoriikka (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C)" title="Риторика (Арістотель) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Риторика (Арістотель)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%AD%E5%AD%B8_(%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7)" title="修辭學 (亞里斯多德) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="修辭學 (亞里斯多德)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(380 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 370 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(84 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(55 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(95)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(100–400)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(102)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(426)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1305)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1521)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1966)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><b>Rhetoric</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ῥητορική</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Rhētorikḗ</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Ars Rhetorica</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> treatise on the art of <a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">persuasion</a>, dating from the 4th century <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span>. The English title varies: typically it is <i>Rhetoric</i>, the <i>Art of Rhetoric</i>, <i>On Rhetoric</i>, or a <i>Treatise on Rhetoric</i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> is credited with developing the basics of a system of rhetoric that "thereafter served as [the] touchstone" of the discipline,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> influencing the development of rhetorical theory from ancient through modern times. The <i>Rhetoric</i> is regarded by most rhetoricians as "the most important single work on persuasion ever written."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alan_G._Gross" title="Alan G. Gross">Alan G. Gross</a> and Arthur Walzer concur, indicating that, just as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> considered all Western philosophy a footnote to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, "all subsequent rhetorical theory is but a series of responses to issues raised" by Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rereading_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rereading-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: ix–x
Quotation: "There is no comparable situation in any other discipline: No other discipline would claim that a single ancient text so usefully informs current deliberations on practice and theory."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">ix–x</span> </sup> This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions, dating back to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ramus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Ramus">Peter Ramus</a>' attacks on Aristotelian rhetoric in the late 16th century<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and continuing to the present.<sup id="cite_ref-Rereading_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rereading-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: ix">: ix </span></sup> </p><p>Like the other works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity, the <i>Rhetoric</i> seems not to have been intended for publication, being instead a collection of his students' notes in response to his lectures. The treatise shows the development of Aristotle's thought through two different periods while he was in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a>, and illustrates Aristotle's expansion of the study of rhetoric beyond <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s early criticism of it in the <i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 386</span> <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span>) as immoral, dangerous, and unworthy of serious study.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plato's final dialogue on rhetoric, the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 370</span> <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span>), offered a more moderate view of rhetoric, acknowledging its value in the hands of a true philosopher (the "midwife of the soul") for "winning the soul through discourse". This dialogue offered Aristotle, first a student and then a teacher at Plato's <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academy</a>, a more positive starting point for the development of rhetoric as an art worthy of systematic, scientific study. </p><p>Aristotle developed the <i>Rhetoric</i> during two periods when he was in Athens, the first, from 367–347 <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span> (when he was second to Plato in the academy); and the second, from 335–322 <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span> (when he was running his own school, the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a>). </p><p>The study of rhetoric was contested in classical Greece: on one side were the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophists</a>, and on the other were <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, Plato, and Aristotle. The trio saw rhetoric and poetry as tools that were too often used to manipulate others by <a href="/wiki/Appealing_to_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Appealing to emotion">appealing to emotion</a> and omitting facts. They accused the sophists in particular—including <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a>—of this sort of manipulation. Plato blamed sophistical rhetoric for the arrest and the death of Socrates. In contrast to the emotional rhetoric and poetry of the sophists was a type of rhetoric grounded in philosophy and the pursuit of enlightenment. </p><p>Aristotle identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>—of philosophy. The first line of the <i>Rhetoric</i> is: "Rhetoric is a counterpart (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Antistrophe" title="Antistrophe">antistrophe</a></i></span>) of dialectic."<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.1.1">: I.1.1 </span></sup> According to Aristotle, logic is concerned with reasoning to reach scientific certainty, while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with probability and, thus, are the branches of philosophy that are best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate; it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn. Rhetoric is a tool for practical debate; it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric partner to form a system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_translation">English translation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: English translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most English readers in the 20th century relied on four translations of the <i>Rhetoric</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The first, by Richard C. Jebb, was published in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next two translations were published in the 1920s. John H. Freese's translation was published as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while W. Rhys Roberts' was published as a part of the Oxford University series of works in the Classics.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roberts' translation was edited and republished in 1954, and is widely available online.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fourth standard translation, by Lane Cooper, came out in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not until the 1990s did another major translation of the <i>Rhetoric</i> appear. Published in 1991 and translated by <a href="/wiki/George_A._Kennedy_(classicist)" title="George A. Kennedy (classicist)">George A. Kennedy</a>, a leading classicist and rhetorician,<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this work is notable for the precision of its translation and for its extensive commentary, notes, and references to modern scholarship on Aristotle and the <i>Rhetoric.</i> It is generally regarded today as the standard scholarly resource on the <i>Rhetoric</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern translations are still being produced, such as the ones published in 2008 by Joe Sachs<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 2019 one by Robert C. Bartlett.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neo-Aristotelian_theory">Neo-Aristotelian theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neo-Aristotelian theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(rhetorical_criticism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (rhetorical criticism)">Neo-Aristotelianism (rhetorical criticism)</a></div> <p>Rhetorical theory and criticism in the first half of the 20th century was dominated by neo-Aristotelian criticism, the tenets of which were grounded in the <i>Rhetoric</i> and were summed up in 1925 by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Wichelns" title="Herbert Wichelns">Herbert Wichelns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="It's probably more important to summarize what "neo-aristotelian theory" is than to describe who deserves credit for summing it up best (May 2023)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (Forbes I. Hill argues that while Wichelns traditionally gets the credit for summing up neo-Aristotelian theory, Hoyt Hopewell Hudson is more deserving of this credit instead.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not"><span title=" (May 2023)">importance?</span></a></i>]</sup> The dominance of neo-Aristotelian criticism was "virtually unchallenged until the 1960s" and even now is considered not only as one of many approaches to criticism, but as fundamental for understanding other theoretical and critical approaches which "developed largely in response to [its] strengths and weaknesses."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_Book_I">Overview of Book I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Overview of Book I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Rhetoric</i> consists of three books. Book I offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working definition; it also offers a detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric. Book II discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on: those grounded in credibility (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a></i></span>), in the emotions and psychology of the audience (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a></i></span>), and in patterns of reasoning (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i></span>). Book III introduces the elements of style (word choice, metaphor, and sentence structure) and arrangement (organization). Some attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is referred to the <i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> for more information in that area.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many chapters in Book I cover typical deliberative argument varieties in Athenian culture. </p> <dl><dt>Chapter One</dt> <dd>Aristotle says rhetoric is the counterpart (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">antistrophe</i></span>) of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.1.1–2">: I.1.1–2 </span></sup> He explains the similarities between the two but fails to comment on the differences. Here he introduces the term <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymeme</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.1.3">: I.1.3 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Two</dt> <dd>Aristotle defines rhetoric as the ability in a particular case to see the available means of persuasion. He defines <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">pisteis</a></i></span> (plural of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:πίστις">πῐ́στῐς</a></span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pístis</i></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation"><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a></abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">'trust in others, <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>; means of persuasion'</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">atechnic</i></span> (inartistic) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">entechnic</i></span> (artistic). Of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pisteis</i></span> provided through speech there are three: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span>, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">logos</i></span>. He introduces <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a> as means of persuasion.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Three</dt> <dd>Aristotle introduces the three genres of rhetoric: <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">deliberative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">forensic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">epideictic rhetoric</a>. He also touches on which "ends" the orators in each of these genres hope to reach with their persuasions—which are discussed in further detail in later chapters.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.3.5–7">: I.3.5–7 </span></sup> Aristotle introduces these three genres by saying that "[t]he kinds of rhetoric are three in number, corresponding to the three kinds of hearers".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Four</dt> <dd>Aristotle discusses the types of political topics of deliberative rhetoric. The five most common are finance, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and the framing of laws.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Five</dt> <dd>Aristotle discusses the different ethical topics of deliberative rhetoric. Aristotle identifies the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">telos</a></i></span> (goal) of human action with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i></span> ("happiness" or "flourishing") and describes the many factors contributing to it.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.5.5–18">: I.5.5–18 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Six</dt> <dd>This explains in greater detail the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">stoikhea</i></span> (elements) of the "good" described in the previous chapter.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Seven</dt> <dd>Introduces the term <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">koinon</a></i></span> <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">of degree</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Discusses the "ends" of deliberative rhetoric in relation to the greater good or more advantageous.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Eight</dt> <dd>Aristotle defines and discusses the four forms of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Politeia" title="Politeia">politeia</a></i></span> useful in deliberative rhetoric: <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Nine</dt> <dd>This chapter discusses the virtues and concepts of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">to kalon</i></span> (the honorable) included in epideictic rhetoric. Aristotle describes what makes certain topics appropriate or worthy for praise or blame. He also states that it is important to highlight certain traits of the subject of praise.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Ten</dt> <dd>Aristotle discusses what syllogisms should be derived from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">kategoria</i></span> (accusations) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Apologia" title="Apologia">apologia</a></i></span> (defenses) for judicial rhetoric. He also introduces the wrongdoing, which is useful for judicial rhetoric.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Eleven</dt> <dd>This chapter discusses the many different types of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hedone" title="Hedone">hedone</a></i></span> (pleasure) useful in judicial rhetoric to describe the motives for people doing wrong.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Twelve</dt> <dd>This chapter, also about judicial rhetoric, discusses people's dispositions of mind and whom people wrong from motives of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">hedone</i></span> discussed in the previous chapter. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of willingness, or intentions, of wrongdoings.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Thirteen</dt> <dd>Aristotle classifies all acts that are just and unjust defined in judicial rhetoric. He also distinguishes what kinds of actions are fair and unfair with being just.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Fourteen</dt> <dd>This chapter parallels the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">koinon</i></span> described in chapter Seven. Aristotle <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">clarifies the magnitude in relation to questions</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of "wrongdoing" meant for judicial rhetoric.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter Fifteen</dt> <dd>Aristotle summarizes the arguments available to a speaker in dealing with evidence that supports or weakens a case. These atechnic <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pisteis</i></span> contain laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, and oaths.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_Book_II">Overview of Book II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Overview of Book II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Book II gives advice for all types of speeches. Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i> generally concentrates on <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span>, and—as noted by Aristotle—both affect judgment. Aristotle refers to the effect of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span> on an audience since a speaker needs to exhibit these <a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">modes of persuasion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapter_1">Chapter 1</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chapter 1"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Chapter 1, Aristotle notes that emotions cause men to change their opinions and judgments. As such, emotions have specific causes and effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.1.2–3">: II.1.2–3 </span></sup> A speaker can therefore employ this understanding to stimulate particular emotions from an audience. However, Aristotle states that along with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span>, the speaker must also exhibit <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span>, which for Aristotle encompasses <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a></i></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">arete</a></i></span>, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">eunoia</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.1.5–9">: II.1.5–9 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapters_2–11"><span id="Chapters_2.E2.80.9311"></span>Chapters 2–11</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chapters 2–11"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chapters 2–11 explore those emotions useful to a rhetorical speaker. Aristotle describes how to arouse these emotions in an audience so that a speaker might be able to produce the desired action successfully.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.2.27">: II.2.27 </span></sup> Aristotle arranges the discussion of the emotions in opposing pairs, such as anger and calmness or friendliness and enmity. For each emotion, Aristotle discusses the person's state of mind, against whom one directs the emotion, and for what reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.1.9">: II.1.9 </span></sup> It is pertinent to understand all the components in order to stimulate a certain emotion within another person. </p><p>For example, to Aristotle, anger results from the feeling of belittlement.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.2.3–4">: II.2.3–4 </span></sup> Those who become angry are distressed due to a foiling of their desires.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.2.9">: II.2.9 </span></sup> The angry direct their emotion towards those who insult them or that which those people value. These insults are the reasoning behind the anger.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.2.12–27">: II.2.12–27 </span></sup> </p><p>In this way, Aristotle defines each emotion, assesses the state of mind for those experiencing the emotion, determines to whom people direct the emotion, and reveals their reasoning behind the emotion. The significance of Aristotle's analysis stems from his idea that emotions have logical grounding and material sources. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapters_12–17"><span id="Chapters_12.E2.80.9317"></span>Chapters 12–17</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chapters 12–17"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/George_A._Kennedy_(classicist)" title="George A. Kennedy (classicist)">George A. Kennedy</a> in a note to <i>On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse</i> remarks that <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span> predominantly refers to the "moral character" of actions and mind. Kennedy reveals the purpose of chapters 12–17 as a demonstration to the speaker of "how his ethos must attend and adjust to the ethos of varied types of auditor if he is to address them successfully."<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 148">: 148 </span></sup> As seen in the chapters explaining the various emotions, in chapters 12–17 Aristotle focuses on the necessary means of successfully persuading an audience. Yet, in these<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag is ambiguous, and needs clarification. (May 2023)">ambiguous</span></a></i>]</sup> chapters, Aristotle analyzes the character of different groups of people so that a speaker might adjust his portrayed <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span> in order to influence the audience. </p><p>First, he describes the young as creatures of desire, easily changeable and swiftly satisfied. The young hate to be belittled because they long for superiority.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.12.1–15">: II.12.1–15 </span></sup> According to Aristotle, the old are distrustful, cynical, and small-minded, for unlike the young their past is long and their future short.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.13.1–5">: II.13.1–5 </span></sup> The old do not act on desire but rather act for profit.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.13.13–14">: II.13.13–14 </span></sup> Those in the prime of life represent the <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">mean</a> to Aristotle, possessing the advantages of both old and young without excess or deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.14.1">: II.14.1 </span></sup> One of good birth, wealth, or power has the character of a lucky fool, a character in which insolence and arrogance breed if these good fortunes are not used to one's advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.15–17">: II.15–17 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapters_18–26"><span id="Chapters_18.E2.80.9326"></span>Chapters 18–26</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chapters 18–26"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Book II primarily focuses on <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span>, Aristotle discusses <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a></i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymeme</a></i></span> as two common modes of persuasion. There are two kinds of paradigm: comparisons, referencing that which has happened before; and <a href="/wiki/Fables" class="mw-redirect" title="Fables">fables</a>, inventing an illustration.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.20.2–3">: II.20.2–3 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maxim_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxim (literature)">Maxims</a>, or succinct, clever statements about actions, serve as the conclusion of enthymemes.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.1–2">: II.1–2 </span></sup> In choosing a maxim, one should assess the audience views and employ a fitting maxim.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.21.15–16">: II.21.15–16 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amplification_(rhetoric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplification (rhetoric)">Amplification</a> and deprecation, although not elements of an enthymeme, can contribute to refuting an opponent's enthymeme or revealing a falsehood by exposing it as just or unjust, good or evil, etc. Aristotle also mentions the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">koina</i></span>, fallacious enthymemes, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Lysis" title="Lysis">lysis</a></i></span> (the refutation of an opponent's enthymeme). In all of these techniques, Aristotle considers popular wisdom and audiences as a central guide. Thus, the speaker's effect on the audience serves as a key theme throughout Book II. </p><p>Book II ends with a transition to Book III. The transition concludes the discussion of pathos, ethos, paradigms, enthymemes, and maxims so that Book III may focus on delivery, style, and arrangement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_Book_III">Overview of Book III</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Overview of Book III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Book III of Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i> is often overshadowed by the first two books. While Books I and II are more systematic and address <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">ethos</i></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">logos</i></span>, and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pathos</i></span>, Book III is often considered a conglomeration of Greek stylistic devices on rhetoric. However, Book III contains informative material on <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">lexis</a></i></span> (style) which refers to the "way of saying"<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.1–12">: III.1–12 </span></sup> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">taxis</i></span>, which refers to the arrangement of words.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.13–19">: III.13–19 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapters_1–12:_style_(lexis)"><span id="Chapters_1.E2.80.9312:_style_.28lexis.29"></span>Chapters 1–12: style (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">lexis</i></span>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chapters 1–12: style (lexis)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Chapter 1</dt> <dd>Summarizes Book I and Book II and introduces the term <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypokrisis</i></span> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">pronuntiatio</a></i></span>). Aristotle argues that voice should be used to most accurately represent the given situation as exemplified by poets.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.1:3–4">: III.1:3–4 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 2</dt> <dd>Highlights <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretê</a></i></span>, which is defined as virtue or excellence. When applied to rhetoric, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">aretê</i></span> means natural rather than forced or artificial.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.2:1-4">: III.2:1-4 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metaphors" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphors">Metaphors</a> are also addressed as a skill that cannot be taught and that should bestow "verbal beauty".<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.2:6–13">: III.2:6–13 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 3</dt> <dd>Deals with "frigid" language. This occurs when one uses elaborate double words, <a href="/wiki/Archaism" title="Archaism">archaic</a> and rare words, added descriptive words or phrases, and inappropriate metaphors.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.3:1–4">: III.3:1–4 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 4</dt> <dd>Discusses another figurative part of speech, the <a href="/wiki/Simile" title="Simile">simile</a> (also known as an <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">eikon</i></span>). Similes are only occasionally useful in speech due to their poetic nature and similarity to metaphor.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 5</dt> <dd>Addresses how to speak properly by using connectives, calling things by their specific name, avoiding terms with ambiguous meanings, observing the gender of nouns, and correctly using singular and plural words.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.5:1–6">: III.5:1–6 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 6</dt> <dd>Gives practical advice on how to amplify language by using <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">onkos</i></span> (expansiveness) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syntomia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syntomia (page does not exist)">syntomia</a></i></span> (conciseness). Not using the term circle, but giving its definition, would exemplify <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">onkos</i></span>, and using the word as the definition would exemplify <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">syntomia</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.5:1–3">: III.5:1–3 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 7</dt> <dd>Aristotle expands on the use of appropriate style in addressing the subject. "<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Lexis</i></span> will be appropriate if it expresses emotion and character and is proportional to the subject matter". Aristotle stresses emotion, credibility, genus (like age), and moral state as important considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.7:1–6">: III.7:1–6 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 8</dt> <dd>Rhythm should be incorporated into prose to make it well "rhythmed" but not to the extent of a poem.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.8:3–7">: III.8:3–7 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 9</dt> <dd>Looks at periodic style and how it should be seen as a rhythmical unit and used to complete a thought to help understand meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.9:3–4">: III.9:3–4 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 10</dt> <dd>Aristotle further highlights the metaphor and addresses how it brings about learning and enables visualization<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.10:1–6">: III.10:1–6 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 11</dt> <dd>Explains why devices of style can defamiliarize language. Aristotle warns that it is inappropriate to speak in <a href="/wiki/Hyperbole" title="Hyperbole">hyperbole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.11:15">: III.11:15 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 12</dt> <dd>The three genres of oral and written language are deliberative, judicial, and epideictic, all of which are written by <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Logographer_(legal)" title="Logographer (legal)">logographoi</a></i></span> (speech writers) who are each skilled at different types of speeches. This transitions into the next set of chapters on <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">taxis</i></span>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chapters_13–19:_parts_of_speech"><span id="Chapters_13.E2.80.9319:_parts_of_speech"></span>Chapters 13–19: parts of speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chapters 13–19: parts of speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Chapter 13</dt> <dd>Covers the necessary parts of a speech which include the prosthesis (which is the statement of the proposition) and then the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pistis</i></span> (which is the proof of the statement), along with the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prooemium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prooemium (page does not exist)">prooemium</a></i></span> (introduction) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Epilogue" title="Epilogue">epilogue</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.13:1–4">: III.13:1–4 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 14</dt> <dd>Discusses the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">prooemiun</i></span>, which demonstrates how the introduction should be used in both epideictic and judicial speeches. Both have the main goal of signaling the end of the speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.14:1–11">: III.14:1–11 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 15</dt> <dd>Handles <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prejudicial_attacks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prejudicial attacks (page does not exist)">prejudicial attacks</a> according to Aristotle which later on became part of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(argumentation_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stasis (argumentation theory)">stasis</a></i></span> which is "determining the question at issue in a trial".</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 16</dt> <dd><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Diegesis" title="Diegesis">Diēgēsis</a></i></span> or narration is discussed and how one must work through an argument by using <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">logos</i></span>. Narration differs between epideictic, judicial, and deliberative narratives.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 17</dt> <dd>Looks at the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">pistis</i></span> or the proof in an oration, and how it varies in each type of speech.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 18</dt> <dd><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Erotesis" title="Erotesis">Erotēsis</a></i></span>, also known as interrogation, referred to asking and demanding responses in trials during Aristotle's time. It is "most opportune when an opponent has said one thing and when if the right question is asked, an absurdity results".<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.19:1">: III.19:1 </span></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Chapter 19</dt> <dd><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Epilogues</i></span> are the conclusion of speeches and must include four things: "disposing the hearer favorably toward the speaker and unfavorably to the opponent, amplifying and minimizing, moving the hearer into emotional reactions, and giving reminder of the speech's main points".<sup id="cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.19:1–4">: III.19:1–4 </span></sup></dd></dl> <p>Scholars turn to Book III to develop theories about Greek style and its contemporary relevance.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance_of_deliberative_rhetoric">Importance of deliberative rhetoric</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Importance of deliberative rhetoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Rorty" title="Amélie Rorty">Amélie Oksenberg Rorty</a> discusses the structure and characteristics of deliberative rhetoric in her research. She cites Aristotle to persuade her audience of the characteristics of deliberative rhetoric's influential nature. "Aristotle marks as central to deliberative rhetoric: considerations of prudence and justice, the projected political and psychological consequences of the decision and the likelihood of encouraging—or entrenching—similar rebellious attitudes amongst allies."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outstanding characteristic of deliberative rhetoric is practicality, Rorty argues: "the deliberative rhetorician who wishes to retain his reputation as trustworthy must pay attention to what is, in fact, actually likely to happen."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Aristotle focuses on deliberative rhetoric so heavily because "it most clearly reveals the primary importance of truth as it functions within the craft of rhetoric itself."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A path to action is determined through deliberative rhetoric, since an individual following practical means is likely to foresee likely events and act accordingly. </p><p>In interpreting Aristotle's work on use of rhetoric, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Yack" title="Bernard Yack">Bernard Yack</a> discusses the vast need for public discourse and public reasoning. He states: "We deliberate together in political communities by making and listening to each other's attempts to persuade us that some future action will best serve the end that citizens share with each other... It is this shared goal that distinguishes deliberative rhetoric, and therefore public reasoning, from the other forms of rhetoric and political judgment that Aristotle examines."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shared goals are of utmost importance when deliberating on an issue that affects the common good. Without such a version of deliberative rhetoric, arguments would unfairly favor the interests of power and neglect the rights of the common people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Being_Right" title="The Art of Being Right">The Art of Being Right</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contra_principia_negantem_disputari_non_potest" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra principia negantem disputari non potest">Contra principia negantem disputari non potest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/War_from_the_Ground_Up" title="War from the Ground Up">War from the Ground Up</a></i>, book partially based on Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Rhetoric-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rhetoric_1-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus</a> (ed.). <i>Rhetoric</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBizzellHerzberg2001" class="citation book cs1">Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce, eds. (2001) [1989]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricaltradit0000unse"><i>The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312148393" title="Special:BookSources/9780312148393"><bdi>9780312148393</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetorical+Tradition%3A+Readings+from+Classical+Times+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780312148393&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricaltradit0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldenBerquistColemanSproule2010" class="citation book cs1">Golden, James L.; Berquist, Goodwin F.; Coleman, William E.; Sproule, J. Michael, eds. (2010) [1976]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricofwester0000unse"><i>The rhetoric of Western thought: From the Mediterranean world to the global setting</i></a> (10th ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780757579448" title="Special:BookSources/9780757579448"><bdi>9780757579448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rhetoric+of+Western+thought%3A+From+the+Mediterranean+world+to+the+global+setting&rft.place=Dubuque%2C+Iowa&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Kendall+Hunt&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780757579448&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricofwester0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rereading-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rereading_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rereading_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossWalzer2000" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Alan G.; Walzer, Arthur E., eds. (2000). <i>Rereading Aristotle's Rhetoric</i>. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rereading+Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.place=Carbondale%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamus1986" class="citation book cs1">Ramus, Peter (1986) [1549]. "Introduction". In Murphy, James J. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/argumentsinrheto0000ramu"><i>Arguments in Rhetoric against Quintilian</i></a>. Translated by Newlands, Carole. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875801131" title="Special:BookSources/9780875801131"><bdi>9780875801131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Arguments+in+Rhetoric+against+Quintilian&rft.place=DeKalb%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Northern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780875801131&rft.aulast=Ramus&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fargumentsinrheto0000ramu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriswold2003" class="citation web cs1">Griswold, Charles (December 22, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060914154809/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-rhetoric/">"Plato on Rhetoric and Poetry"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-rhetoric/">the original</a> on September 14, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Plato+on+Rhetoric+and+Poetry&rft.date=2003-12-22&rft.aulast=Griswold&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fplato-rhetoric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato" class="citation web cs1">Plato. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Gorg.+465a">"Gorgias"</a>. <i>Perseus Project</i>. 465a.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perseus+Project&rft.atitle=Gorgias&rft.pages=465a&rft.au=Plato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Flookup%3DPlat.%2BGorg.%2B465a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1909" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1909). Sandys, John Edwin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricaristot12sandgoog"><i>The Rhetoric</i></a>. Translated by Jebb, Richard Claverhouse. Cambridge: University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetoric&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricaristot12sandgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1926" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotleartofrh0000aris"><i>The "Art" of Rhetoric</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Freese, John Henry. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22Art%22+of+Rhetoric&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1926&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotleartofrh0000aris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1924" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yI-wG_6cExYC"><i>Rhetorica</i></a>. The Works of Aristotle. Vol. 11. Translated by Roberts, W. Rhys. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetorica&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+Works+of+Aristotle&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1924&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyI-wG_6cExYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation web cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/rhetoric.html">"Rhetoric"</a>. <i>the Internet Classics Archive</i>. Translated by Roberts, W. Rhys.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Internet+Classics+Archive&rft.atitle=Rhetoric&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Frhetoric.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1932" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1932) [1932]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricofaristo0000lane"><i>The Rhetoric</i></a>. Translated by Cooper, Lane. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetoric&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton-Century+Co.&rft.date=1932&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricofaristo0000lane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1991" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onrhetorictheory0000aris"><i>On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse</i></a>. Translated by Kennedy, George A. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Rhetoric%3A+A+Theory+of+Civic+Discourse&rft.place=New+York%2FOxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonrhetorictheory0000aris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Noorden1993" class="citation journal cs1">van Noorden, Sally (1993). "A translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric". <i>The Classical Review</i>. <b>43</b> (2): 251–252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=A+translation+of+Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-252&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=van+Noorden&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2009" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (2009). <i>Rhetoric</i>. Translated by Sachs, Joe. Indianapolis, Indiana: Focus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781585104680" title="Special:BookSources/9781585104680"><bdi>9781585104680</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Focus+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781585104680&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2019" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (2019). <i>Aristotle's Art of Rhetoric</i>. Translated by Bartlett, Robert C. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226591629" title="Special:BookSources/9780226591629"><bdi>9780226591629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Art+of+Rhetoric&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780226591629&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWichelns1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Wichelns" title="Herbert Wichelns">Wichelns, Herbert August</a> (1966) [1925]. "Literary Criticism of Oratory". In Bryant, Donald C. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricalidiome0000brya"><i>The Rhetorical Idiom: Essays in Rhetoric, Oratory, Language, and Drama</i></a>. New York: Russell & Russell. pp. 5–42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literary+Criticism+of+Oratory&rft.btitle=The+Rhetorical+Idiom%3A+Essays+in+Rhetoric%2C+Oratory%2C+Language%2C+and+Drama&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=5-42&rft.pub=Russell+%26+Russell&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Wichelns&rft.aufirst=Herbert+August&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricalidiome0000brya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2005" class="citation cs2">Hill, Forbes I. (2005), "The "Traditional" Perspective", in Kuypers, Jim A. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofrhetoricalc0000unse"><i>The Art of Rhetorical Criticism</i></a>, New York: Pearson, pp. 72–81</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%22Traditional%22+Perspective&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Rhetorical+Criticism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=72-81&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Forbes+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofrhetoricalc0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoss1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sonja_K._Foss" title="Sonja K. Foss">Foss, Sonja K.</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rhetoricalcritic0000foss"><i>Rhetorical criticism: Exploration and practice</i></a>. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press. pp. 71 & 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781577665861" title="Special:BookSources/9781577665861"><bdi>9781577665861</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetorical+criticism%3A+Exploration+and+practice&rft.place=Prospect+Heights%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=71+%26+75&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9781577665861&rft.aulast=Foss&rft.aufirst=Sonja+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frhetoricalcritic0000foss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1984" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1984). "Introduction". In Corbett, Edward P.J. (ed.). <i>The Rhetoric and the Poetics</i>. Translated by Roberts, Rhys; Bywater, Ingram. pp. v–xxvi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Rhetoric+and+the+Poetics&rft.pages=v-xxvi&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarver2009" class="citation journal cs1">Garver, Eugene (2009). "Aristotle on the Kinds of Rhetoric". <i>Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Frh.2009.27.1.1">10.1525/rh.2009.27.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154463634">154463634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetorica%3A+A+Journal+of+the+History+of+Rhetoric&rft.atitle=Aristotle+on+the+Kinds+of+Rhetoric&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Frh.2009.27.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154463634%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Garver&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span> [<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarver2009" class="citation journal cs1">Garver, Eugene (Winter 2009). "Aristotle on the Kinds of Rhetoric". <i>International Society for the History of Rhetoric</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Frh.2009.27.1.1">10.1525/rh.2009.27.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154463634">154463634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Society+for+the+History+of+Rhetoric&rft.atitle=Aristotle+on+the+Kinds+of+Rhetoric&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Frh.2009.27.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154463634%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Garver&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span>]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff2005" class="citation journal cs1">Graff, Richard (2005). "Prose versus Poetry in Early Greek Theories of Style". <i>Rhetorica</i>. <b>23</b> (4). University of California Press: 303–335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Frh.2005.23.4.303">10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20135896">20135896</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144730853">144730853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhetorica&rft.atitle=Prose+versus+Poetry+in+Early+Greek+Theories+of+Style&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=303-335&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144730853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20135896%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Frh.2005.23.4.303&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRorty1996" class="citation book cs1">Rorty, Amelie (1996). "Exemplary Rhetorical Speeches". <i>Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric</i>. Berkeley: University of California. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exemplary+Rhetorical+Speeches&rft.btitle=Essays+on+Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Rorty&rft.aufirst=Amelie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYack2006" class="citation book cs1">Yack, Bernard (2006). "Rhetoric and Public Reasoning: An Aristotelian Understanding of Political Deliberation". <i>Political Theory</i>. p. 421.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhetoric+and+Public+Reasoning%3A+An+Aristotelian+Understanding+of+Political+Deliberation&rft.btitle=Political+Theory&rft.pages=421&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Yack&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristot.+Rh.+1.1.1">Rh.1.1.1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapp" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rapp, Christof. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/">"Aristotle's Rhetoric"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Rhetoric&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Rapp&rft.aufirst=Christof&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faristotle-rhetoric%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARhetoric+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Allen, Danielle S. <i>Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education.</i> Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.</li> <li>Bizzell, P. and Bruce Herzberg. (2000). <i>The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present.</i> NY: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 3.</li> <li>Garver, Eugene. <i>Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character</i>. The University of Chicago Press, 1995.</li> <li>Golden, James L., Goodwin F. Berquist, William E. Coleman, Ruth Golden and J. Michael Sproule (eds.). (2007). <i>The rhetoric of Western thought: From the Mediterranean world to the global setting</i>, 9th ed. Dubuque, IA (USA).</li> <li>Kennedy, George A. <i>Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse</i>. NY/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhetoric_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a 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href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" 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