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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <p>The origins of the <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a> peoples is a major issue of controversy in the histories of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rwanda" title="History of Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Burundi" title="History of Burundi">Burundi</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">Great Lakes region of Africa</a>. The relationship among the three modern populations is thus, in many ways, derived from the perceived origins and claim to "Rwandan-ness". The largest conflicts related to this question were the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>, the Burundian genocide (<a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">Hutu</a> and <a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">Tutsi</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo Wars</a>. </p><p>Ugandan scholar <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Mamdani" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmoud Mamdani">Mahmoud Mamdani</a> identifies at least four distinct foundations for studies that support the "distinct difference between Hutu and Tutsi" school of thought: <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>, cultural memory of inhabitants of Rwanda, <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. </p><p>Most Tutsis and Hutus both carry the <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E1b1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E1b1a">Haplogroup E1b1a</a> paternal haplogroup which is common among Bantu and most other <a href="/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo languages">Niger-Congo</a>-speaking populations.<sup id="cite_ref-J.R._1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.R.-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Origin_myths"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Origin myths</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Hamitic_hypothesis_of_Tutsi_origin"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Hamitic hypothesis of Tutsi origin</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Migration_hypothesis_of_Tutsi_origin"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Migration hypothesis of Tutsi origin</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Local_divergence"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Local divergence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Genetic_studies"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Genetic studies</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Y-DNA_(paternal)"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Y-DNA (paternal)</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Autosomal_DNA_(overall_ancestry)"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>When Europeans arrived in Rwanda to begin documenting traditions, Rwandan society consisted of three ethnicities that also serve as social castes. The largest group is the Hutu, consisting mostly of farmers. The second largest group is the Tutsi, mostly pastoralists, warriors and aristocrats. The smallest group is the Twa, which is a group of pygmy that hunt game to trade for agricultural products from the farmers. All three groups speak <a href="/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda">Kinyarwanda</a>, which is a Bantu language. </p><p>There is disagreement as to when and how each group appeared in Rwanda. Some suggest the three groups diverged from each other while others suggest each group arriving in separate migration waves, first Twa, then Hutu, and finally Tutsi. In the separate arrival story, there is dispute in where the groups came from, when and how they arrived, and whether the arrival of some groups brought with them certain social development. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Origin_myths">Origin myths</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin myths" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Starkly contrasted, the Tutsi origin myth holds that <a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_I_Gahima_I" title="Kanyarwanda I Gahima I">Kanyarwanda</a> had several sons, including Gatutsi and Gahutu, ancestors of the Tutsi and Hutu who are therefore brothers. The Hutu origin myth holds that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kigwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kigwa (page does not exist)">Kigwa</a> (patrilineal ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Ruhanga" title="Ruhanga">Ruhanga</a> and the first Tutsi) fell from the sky on an earth inhabited by Hutu.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 65">: 65 </span></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Hamitic_hypothesis_of_Tutsi_origin">Hamitic hypothesis of Tutsi origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hamitic hypothesis of Tutsi origin" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>The colonial scholars who found complex societies in sub-Saharan Africa developed the <a href="/wiki/Hamitic_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic hypothesis">Hamitic hypothesis</a>. The now rejected hypothesis posits that the Tutsi were of <a href="/wiki/Hamitic_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic race">Hamitic stock</a> whom originated from the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, and subsequently conquered Rwanda and brought civilization to the region.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Migration_hypothesis_of_Tutsi_origin">Migration hypothesis of Tutsi origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Migration hypothesis of Tutsi origin" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>Supporters of the migration theory also support the idea that Tutsi came from the Horn of Africa, a later theory proposed that the Tutsi had instead migrated from nearby interior <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, and that the physical differences were the result of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in an arid climate over millennia. Among the most detailed theories was one put forward by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Hiernaux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Hiernaux (page does not exist)">Jean Hiernaux</a>, based on studies of blood factors and archeology. Noting the fossil record of a tall people with narrow facial features several thousand years ago in East Africa, including locations such as Gambles Cave in the <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Rift_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenya Rift Valley">Kenya Rift Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge" title="Olduvai Gorge">Olduvai Gorge</a> in northern Tanzania, Hiernaux argues that while there was a migration, it was not as dramatic as some sources have proposed. He explicitly attacks the Hamitic theory that migrants from Ethiopia brought civilization to other Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mamdani2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46–47">: 46–47 </span></sup> </p><p>However, in light of recent genetic studies, Hiernaux's theory on the origin of Tutsis in East Africa appears doubtful.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsis</a> harbor little to no Northeastern African genetic influence on their paternal line.<sup id="cite_ref-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, there is currently no mtDNA data available for the Tutsi, which might help shed light on their background. </p><p>One school of thought<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> noted that the influx of pastoralists around the fifteenth century may have taken place over an extended period of time and been gradual and peaceful, rather than sudden and violent. The key distinction made was that migration was not the same as conquest. Other scholars delinked the arrival of Tutsi from the development of pastoralism and the beginning of the period of state building. It appears clear that pastoralism was practiced in Rwanda prior to the fifteenth century immigration, while the dates of state formation and pastoralist influx do not entirely match. This argument thus attempts to downplay the importance of the pastoralist migrations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Local_divergence">Local divergence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Local divergence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <p>Still other studies point out that cultural transmission can occur without actual human migration. This raises the question of how much of the changes around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was the result of an influx of people as opposed to the existing population being exposed to new ideas. Studies that approach the subject of racial purity are among the most controversial. These studies point out that the pastoralist migrants and pre-migration Rwandans lived side by side for centuries and practiced extensive intermarriage. The notion that current Rwandans can claim exclusively Tutsi or Hutu bloodlines is thus questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mamdani2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 48–49">: 48–49 </span></sup> </p><p>Roger Blench has proposed that Twa originated as a <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> like they are today, which became <a href="/wiki/Endogamous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogamous">endogamous</a> and consequently developed into separate ethnic groups with their own languages. A mismatch in language between patron and client could later occur from population displacements. The short stature of the "forest people" could have developed in the millennia since the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a>, as happened also with Bantu domestic animals in the rainforest. Perhaps there was additional selective pressure from farmers removing the tallest women from the pygmy population by taking them back to their villages as wives.<sup id="cite_ref-Blench_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Genetic_studies">Genetic studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Genetic studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p>More recent studies have de-emphasized physical appearance, such as height and <a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">nose</a> width, in favor of examining blood factors, the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_trait" title="Sickle cell trait">sickle cell trait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactose_intolerance" title="Lactose intolerance">lactose intolerance</a> in adults, and other genotype expressions. Excoffier <i>et al.</i> (1987) claimed that the Tutsi and <a href="/wiki/Hima_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hima people">Hima</a>, despite being surrounded by Bantu populations, are "closer genetically to <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethio-Semitic_languages" title="Ethio-Semitic languages">Ethiosemites</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fage120_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fage120-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study concluded that, while the sickle cell trait among the Rwandan Hutu was comparable to that of neighboring people, it was almost non-existent among Rwandan Tutsi. Presence of the sickle cell trait is evidence of survival in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> over many centuries, suggesting differing origins. Regional studies of the ability to digest <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a> are also supportive. The ability to digest lactose among African adults is widespread only among desert-dwelling nomadic groups that have depended upon <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> for millennia. Three quarters of the adult Tutsi of Rwanda and Burundi have a high ability to digest lactose, while only 5% of the adults of the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Shi_language" title="Shi language">Shi people</a> of eastern Congo can. Among Hutu, one in three adults has a high capacity for lactose digestion, a surprisingly high number for an agrarian people, which Mamdani suggests may be the result of centuries of intermarriage with Tutsi.<sup id="cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mamdani2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1988 <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <i>General History</i>, <a href="/wiki/Bethwell_Ogot" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethwell Ogot">Bethwell Ogot</a> says that the number of pastoralists in Rwanda increased sharply around the fifteenth century. Although Luis <i>et al.</i> (2004) in a more general study on bi-allelic markers in many African countries found a statistically significant genetic difference between Tutsi and Hutu, the overall difference were not large.<sup id="cite_ref-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to data from 1969, the Tutsi and Hima groups possessed the enzyme of milk sugar lactose tolerance, which is highly prevalent in European populations, but the Bantu tribes were lactose deficient,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> similar results and conclusions were reached by the geneticist Sarah A. Tishkoff in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Y-DNA_(paternal)"><span id="Y-DNA_.28paternal.29"></span>Y-DNA (paternal)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Y-DNA (paternal)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Modern-day genetic studies of the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y-chromosome</a> generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> extraction (80% <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E1b1a_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E1b1a (Y-DNA)">E1b1a</a>, 10% <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_B_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup B (Y-DNA)">B</a>, 4% <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E1b1_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E1b1 (Y-DNA)">E3</a>). Paternal genetic influences associated with the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> are few (less than 10% <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E1b1b_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)">E1b1b</a>), and are ascribed to assimilated southern Cushites. However, the Tutsi have considerably more haplogroup B paternal lineages (14.9% B) than do the Hutu (4.3% B).<sup id="cite_ref-J.R._1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J.R.-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trombetta <i>et al.</i> (2015) found 22.2% of E1b1b in a sample of Tutsis from Burundi, but no bearers of the haplogroup among the local Hutu and Twa populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Trombetta,_2015_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trombetta,_2015-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subclade was of the <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E-Z827#E-M293" title="Haplogroup E-Z827">E-M293</a> variety, which suggests that the ancestors of Tutsis in this area may have been remnants of South Cushitic pastoralists.<sup id="cite_ref-Henn,_2008b_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henn,_2008b-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autosomal_DNA_(overall_ancestry)"><span id="Autosomal_DNA_.28overall_ancestry.29"></span>Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Nilotic populations, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Maasai_people" title="Maasai people">Maasai</a>. It is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from common origins. </p> <blockquote><p>... generations of <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a> obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Tishkoff <i>et al.</i> (2009) found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, with the Tutsi having only minor gene flow from <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> communities.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_Hutu,_Tutsi_and_Twa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-J.R.-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J.R._1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.R._1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLuis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216123633/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf">"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 532–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F382286">10.1086/382286</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182266">1182266</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14973781">14973781</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-02-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Levant+versus+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+Evidence+for+Bidirectional+Corridors+of+Human+Migrations&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=532-544&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182266%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14973781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F382286&rft.aulast=Luis&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhpgl.stanford.edu%2Fpublications%2FAJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1985" class="citation book cs1">Vansina, Jan (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oraltraditionash0000vans/mode/2up?q=tutsi"><i>Oral tradition as history</i></a>. Internet Archive. Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10213-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10213-5"><bdi>978-0-299-10213-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+tradition+as+history&rft.pub=Madison%2C+Wis.+%3A+University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-299-10213-5&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foraltraditionash0000vans%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dtutsi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mamdani2001-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mamdani2001_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMamdani2001" class="citation book cs1">Mamdani, Mahmood (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7027.html"><i>When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400851720" title="Special:BookSources/9781400851720"><bdi>9781400851720</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906175325/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7027.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Victims+Become+Killers%3A+Colonialism%2C+Nativism%2C+and+the+Genocide+in+Rwanda&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781400851720&rft.aulast=Mamdani&rft.aufirst=Mahmood&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F7027.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 45–46">: 45–46 </span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavalli-Sforza1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Luca_Cavalli-Sforza" title="Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza">Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca</a> (1994). <i>The History and Geography of Human Genes</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 171 and 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691087504" title="Special:BookSources/0691087504"><bdi>0691087504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Geography+of+Human+Genes&rft.pages=171+and+183&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0691087504&rft.aulast=Cavalli-Sforza&rft.aufirst=Luigi+Luca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraceTracerYarochRobb1993" class="citation journal cs1">Brace, C. L.; Tracer, David P.; Yaroch, Lucia Allen; Robb, John; Brandt, Kari; Nelson, A. Russell (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360603">"Clines and clusters versus 'Race:' a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile"</a>. <i>Yearbook of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>36</b> (S17): 1–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360603">10.1002/ajpa.1330360603</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yearbook+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Clines+and+clusters+versus+%27Race%3A%27+a+test+in+ancient+Egypt+and+the+case+of+a+death+on+the+Nile&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=S17&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360603&rft.aulast=Brace&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rft.au=Tracer%2C+David+P.&rft.au=Yaroch%2C+Lucia+Allen&rft.au=Robb%2C+John&rft.au=Brandt%2C+Kari&rft.au=Nelson%2C+A.+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fajpa.1330360603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luis,_J._R._2004_PMC_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuisRowoldRegueiroCaeiro2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luis, J. R.; Rowold, D.J.; Regueiro, M.; Caeiro, B.; Cinnioğlu, C.; Roseman, C.; Underhill, P.A.; Cavalli-Sforza, L.L.; Herrera, R.J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216123633/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf">"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a></i>. <b>74</b> (3): 532–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F382286">10.1086/382286</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182266">1182266</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14973781">14973781</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-02-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Levant+versus+the+Horn+of+Africa%3A+Evidence+for+Bidirectional+Corridors+of+Human+Migrations&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=532-544&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182266%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14973781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F382286&rft.aulast=Luis&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft.au=Rowold%2C+D.J.&rft.au=Regueiro%2C+M.&rft.au=Caeiro%2C+B.&rft.au=Cinnio%C4%9Flu%2C+C.&rft.au=Roseman%2C+C.&rft.au=Underhill%2C+P.A.&rft.au=Cavalli-Sforza%2C+L.L.&rft.au=Herrera%2C+R.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhpgl.stanford.edu%2Fpublications%2FAJHG_2004_v74_p000-0130.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_errata.pdf">Errata</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216124036/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_errata.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-02-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blench-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blench_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench1999" class="citation cs2">Blench, Roger (1999), "Are the African Pygmies an Ethnographic Fiction?", in Biesbrouck; Elders; Rossel (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126111442/http://www.rogerblench.info/Anthropology%20data/Text/Pygmies%20an%20ethnographic%20fiction.pdf"><i>Challenging Elusiveness: Central African Hunter-Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary Perspective</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Universiteit Leiden, pp. 41–60, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9057890186" title="Special:BookSources/9057890186"><bdi>9057890186</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Anthropology/Africa/Pygmies%20an%20ethnographic%20fiction.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 26, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Are+the+African+Pygmies+an+Ethnographic+Fiction%3F&rft.btitle=Challenging+Elusiveness%3A+Central+African+Hunter-Gatherers+in+a+Multidisciplinary+Perspective&rft.pages=41-60&rft.pub=Universiteit+Leiden&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9057890186&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FAnthropology%2FAfrica%2FPygmies%2520an%2520ethnographic%2520fiction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrigins+of+Hutu%2C+Tutsi+and+Twa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFExcoffierPellegriniSanchez-MazasSimon1987" class="citation journal cs1">Excoffier, Laurent; Pellegrini, B.; Sanchez-Mazas, A.; Simon, C.; Langaney, A. 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