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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Arab identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critics_of_Arab_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critics_of_Arab_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Critics of Arab nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critics_of_Arab_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Copts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_problems_of_Pharaonism_as_an_integrating_ideology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_problems_of_Pharaonism_as_an_integrating_ideology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The problems of Pharaonism as an integrating ideology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_problems_of_Pharaonism_as_an_integrating_ideology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020s_resurgence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020s_resurgence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>2020s resurgence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020s_resurgence-sublist" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraonisme" title="Faraonisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Faraonisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraonismo" title="Faraonismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Faraonismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Фараонизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фараонизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraonismi" title="Faraonismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Faraonismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firavunizm" title="Firavunizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Firavunizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%80%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="法老主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法老主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taha_Hussein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Taha_Hussein.jpg/220px-Taha_Hussein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Taha_Hussein.jpg/330px-Taha_Hussein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Taha_Hussein.jpg/440px-Taha_Hussein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>, one of the chief promulgators of Pharaonism.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Pharaonism</b> was an <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> that rose to prominence in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in the 1920s and 1930s. A version of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a>, it argued for the existence of an Egyptian national continuity from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a>, stressing the role of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and incorporating <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">anti-colonial</a> sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pharaonism's most notable advocate was <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>. The movement largely faded by the 1940s, having failed to resonate with most Egyptians, and was superseded by <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Egyptian_identity">Egyptian identity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Egyptian identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egyptian identity since the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Empire">Egyptian Empire</a> evolved for the longest period under the influence of native Egyptian culture, religion and identity (see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>). The Egyptians came subsequently under the influence of a succession of several foreign rulers, including Persians, Greco-Macedonians, Romans and Arab Caliphates. Under these foreign rulers, the Egyptians accommodated three new religions, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Islam</a>, and produced a new language, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>. By the 4th century, the majority of the Egyptians had converted to Christianity and in 535 the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> ordered the Temple of Isis at Philae closed, which marked the formal end of the ancient religion of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.194_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.194-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Middle Ages, the monuments of the ancient Egyptian civilization were sometimes destroyed as remnants of a time of <i><a href="/wiki/Jahiliyyah" title="Jahiliyyah">jahiliyyah</a></i> ("pre-Islamic ignorance").<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the destruction of the ruins occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries, a time of floods, famines and plagues in Egypt, leading some people to believe that <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> was punishing the Egyptians for the continued existence of these relics of a time of <i>jahiliyyah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable acts of destruction in the Middle Ages were the tearing down of a statue of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a> in 1311 in Fustat and the destruction of a temple in Memphis in 1350, which inspired much relief when it was discovered the "evil eye" (the <a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Horus" title="Eye of Horus">eye of Horus</a>) on the temple's walls did not cause the deaths of those destroying the temple as feared.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Quran singled out the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a> whose story is related in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> as an especially vicious tyrant opposed to Allah, and in general the Pharaohs are portrayed in Islamic tradition as depraved despots reveling in <i>jahiliyyah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Muslim leaders such as the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III</a> ordered the destruction of all the pharaonic monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is considerable evidence of popular local pride in monuments such as <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">the Giza Pyramids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Sphinx_of_Giza" title="Great Sphinx of Giza">the Sphinx</a>, so much that these monuments were never destroyed out of the fear of causing riots.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The monuments of Pharaonic Egypt were generally seen as possessing magical powers and were viewed as objects of respect by ordinary Egyptians, despite the fact that the Quran execrates ancient Egyptian beliefs (such as polytheism and the worship of Pharaohs) as an especially reprehensible period of <i>jahiliyyah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187-188_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-188-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as 1378, it was reported that nominally Muslim peasants would go burn incense at night in front of the Sphinx while uttering prayers which were said to empower the Sphinx to speak, which led a <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> holy man to attack the Sphinx.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local legends claimed the attack on the Sphinx led to a massive sand storm at Giza, which only ended with the holy man's lynching.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Egypt, the belief in the magical powers of the Pyramids and ancient ruins played a significant role in their preservation. Some even warned of dire consequences if they were destroyed, leading to the conclusion that leaving them untouched was the best option. These beliefs demonstrated a sense of pride and reverence for Egypt's ancient past. Additionally, in the Middle Ages, Egyptians created a story associating the Pharaoh mentioned in religious texts with Iran, aiming to salvage pride despite the condemnation in the Quran. To safeguard the ruins, they often attributed them to Islamic figures, making them quasi-Islamic sites that were protected from destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.187-188_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.187-188-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyphs</a> was lost from the 6th century until 1822 when <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion" title="Jean-François Champollion">Jean-François Champollion</a> deciphered the Rosetta Stone, the memory of ancient Egypt was that of an impressive civilization which built various monuments whose precise meaning had been long since been lost, limiting the extent of popular identification with it.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.194_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.194-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Mohammad Ali the Great</a>, the Albanian tobacco merchant turned Ottoman <i>vali</i> (governor) of Egypt and who ruled the country with an iron hand from 1805 until his death in 1849, had no interest in the ruins of ancient Egypt except as a source of gifts for foreign leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, Mohammad Ali had a permissive attitude towards Europeans taking ancient Egyptian relics with them, allowing much plundering of various sites such as by the Italian <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Belzoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Battista Belzoni">Giovanni Battista Belzoni</a> while a diplomatic posting in Cairo was highly sought after owing to opportunities for looting.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Mohammad Ali's officials, <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a>, persuaded him in 1836 to embark on preserving Egypt's heritage by ending the plundering of sites in Egypt and to create a museum to display Egypt's treasures instead of letting them be taken to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.180_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.180-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tahtawi later published a history of ancient Egypt in 1868, which took advantage of the discoveries of archaeologists and the deciphering of the hieroglyphs, which marked the first time that the heritage of ancient Egypt was used as a symbol of national pride in modern Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.180_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.180-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nationalism">Nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Questions of identity came to the fore in the 20th century as Egyptians sought to end the British occupation of Egypt, leading to the rise of ethno-territorial secular <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a> (also known as "Pharaonism"). Pharaonism became the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods, according to modern historian and University of Colorado professor James P. Jankowski; </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"What is most significant [about Egypt in this period] is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism. The thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an "Arab" orientation... This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for Egyptians and <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a>—if anything increased after 1900."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Pharaonism celebrated Egypt as a distinct geographic and political unit whose origins went back to the unification of <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Upper and Lower Egypt</a> in about 3100 BC, and which presented Egypt as more closely linked to Europe rather than to the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.181-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus on the ancient Egyptian past was used as a symbol of Egyptian distinctiveness, which was used to down-play Arab and Islamic identities, and was intended to brand Egypt as a European rather than a Near Eastern nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.181-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pharaonism first appeared in the early 20th century in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kamil_Pasha" title="Mustafa Kamil Pasha">Mustafa Kamil Pasha</a> who called Egypt the world's first state and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Lutfi_el-Sayed" title="Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed">Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed</a> who wrote about a "pharaonic core" surviving in modern Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.181-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a> remarked that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation."</p></blockquote><p><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later 1930s would become a formative period for <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, a year after the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">League of Arab States</a> in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford University</a> historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=H._S._Deighton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H. S. Deighton (page does not exist)">H. S. Deighton</a> was still writing: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Egyptians are not Arabs, and both they and the Arabs are aware of this fact. They are Arabic-speaking, and they are Muslim—indeed religion plays a greater part in their lives than it does in those either of the Syrians. But the Egyptian, during the first thirty years of the [twentieth] century, was not aware of any particular bond with the Arab East... Egypt sees in the Arab cause a worthy object of real and active sympathy and, at the same time, a great and proper opportunity for the exercise of leadership, as well as for the enjoyment of its fruits. But she is still Egyptian first and Arab only in consequence, and her main interests are still domestic.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>One of the most prominent Egyptian nationalists and critics of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabism</a> was Egypt's most notable writer of the 20th century, Taha Hussein. He expressed his disagreement with Arab unity and his beliefs in Egyptian nationalism on multiple occasions. In one of his most well known articles, written in 1933 in the magazine <i>Kawkab el Sharq</i>, he wrote saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Pharaonism is deeply rooted in the spirits of the Egyptians. It will remain so, and it must continue and become stronger. The Egyptian is Pharaonic before being Arab. Egypt must not be asked to deny its Pharaonism because that would mean: Egypt, destroy your Sphinx and your pyramids, forget who you are and follow us! Do not ask of Egypt more than it can offer. Egypt will never become part of some Arab unity, whether the capital [of this unity] were to be Cairo, Damascus, or Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>It has been argued that until the 1940s, Egypt was more in favour of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab ideology</a>. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader <a href="/wiki/Saad_Zaghlul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saad Zaghlul">Saad Zaghlul</a> met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1924 Zaghloul, now prime minister of Egypt, had all of the treasures found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun seized from the British archaeological team led by Howard Carter under the grounds that the treasures belonged to Egypt and to prevent Carter from taking them to Britain as he wanted.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.183-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zaghloul justified the seizure under the grounds that "it is the duty of the government to defend the rights and dignity of the nation".<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.183-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 March 1924, Zaghlul formally opened the tomb of King Tutankhamun to the Egyptian public in an elaborate ceremony held at night with the sky lit up by floodlights, which reportedly attracted the largest crowd ever seen in Luxor.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.183-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening of Tutankhamun tomb was turned into a nationalist demonstration when the British High Commissioner, Field Marshal Allenby arrived, and was loudly booed by the crowd, who started to demand immediate British evacuation of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.183-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The long dead Tutankhamun was turned by the Wafd Party into a symbol of Egyptian nationalism, which was why Carter's plans to take the treasures from his tomb aroused such opposition in Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the case of Tutankhamun's treasures were merely an opportunistic move by Zaghlul at asserting Egyptian independence, which had only been gained in February 1922, against Carter and his team, who were viewed as acting arrogantly towards the Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ahmed Hussein who founded the nationalistic and fascistic <a href="/wiki/Young_Egypt_Party_(1933)" title="Young Egypt Party (1933)">Young Egypt Society</a> in 1933 stated that he became interested in Egyptian nationalism after a scouting trip through the Valley of the Kings in 1928, which inspired him with the belief that if Egypt was great once, then it could be great again.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Young Egypt Society glorified the ancient Egyptian past, which was regularly mentioned in party rallies, and in reference to Egypt's Turco-Circassian aristocracy demanded that Egypt have "a leader of action, who is not of Turkish or Circassian blood, but of Pharanoic blood".<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the Young Egypt Society had very particularist interpretation of Egyptian nationalism, which emphasized that Egypt was not just another Muslim and/or Arab nation, but rather having a very distinctive identity owing to the heritage of ancient Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Young Egypt Society, which was closely modeled along the lines of the fascist movements of Italy and Germany, called for a British withdrawal from Egypt, the union of Egypt and the Sudan, and for Egypt under the banner of Arab nationalism to create an empire stretching from the Atlantic to the Indian oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invocation of the glories of ancient Egypt by the Young Egypt Society was used to explain why the Egyptians were to dominate the proposed pan-Arab state.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Hussein discovered that Pharaonism appealed only to middle class Egyptians, and limited his party's appeal to the Egyptian masses.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1940, the Young Egypt Society abandoned Pharaonism and sought to reinvent itself as an Islamic fundamentalist party.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.185_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.185-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Pharaonism" was condemned by <a href="/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna" title="Hassan al-Banna">Hassan al-Banna</a>, the founder and Supreme Guide of the fundamentalist <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>, as glorifying a period of <i>jahiliyyah</i>, which is the Islamic term for the pre-Islamic past.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.185_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.185-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 1937 article, Banna attacked Pharaonism for glorifying the "pagan reactionary Pharaohs" like Akhenaten, Ramesses the Great and Tutankhamun instead of Muhammad and his companions and for seeking to "annihilate" Egypt's Muslim identity.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Banna insisted that Egypt could only be part of the wider Islamic <i>ummah</i> ("community") and that any effort to mark Egyptian distinctiveness from the rest of Islamic world was going against the will of Allah.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arab_identity">Arab identity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arab identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></div> <p>However, Egypt under <a href="/wiki/King_Farouk" class="mw-redirect" title="King Farouk">King Farouk</a> was a founding member of the Arab League in 1945, and the first Arab state to declare war in support of the Palestinians in the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestine War">Palestine War</a> of 1948. This Arab nationalist sentiment increased exponentially after the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Revolution of 1952">Egyptian Revolution of 1952</a>. The primary leaders of the Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naguib" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Naguib">Muhammad Naguib</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, were staunch Arab nationalists who stressed that pride in Egypt's individual indigenous identity was entirely consistent with pride in an overarching Arab cultural identity. It was during Naguib's tenure as leader that Egypt adopted the Arab Liberation Flag to symbolize the country's links to the rest of the Arab World. </p><p>For a while Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>. When the union was dissolved, Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971, when Egypt adopted the current official name, the Arab Republic of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Egyptians' attachment to Arabism, however, was particularly questioned after the 1967 <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>. Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives and the country became disillusioned with Pan-Arab politics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasser's successor <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Al_Sadat" class="mw-redirect" title="Anwar Al Sadat">Anwar Al Sadat</a>, both through public policy and his peace initiative with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt and Egyptians were his responsibility. The terms "Arab," "Arabism," and "Arab unity," save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also <a href="/wiki/Egyptians#Liberal_age" title="Egyptians">Liberal age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptians#Republic" title="Egyptians">Republic</a> sections.) Sadat only engaged in Pharaonism for international consumption, such as when he arranged for the mummy of King Ramses the Great to go to Paris for restoration work in 1974; he insisted the French provide an honor guard at Charles de Gaulle airport to fire a 21 gun salute as befitting a head of state when the coffin containing King Ramses' corpse touched French soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.186_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.186-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Domestically, Pharaonism was discouraged under Sadat, who closed the mummy room in the Egyptian Museum for offending Muslim sensibilities, though in private Sadat was said to remark that "Egyptian kings are not be made a spectacle of" suggesting a degree of respect for the ancient past.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.186_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.186-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the overwhelming majority of Egyptians today continue to self-identify as Arabs in a linguistic sense,<sup id="cite_ref-theguardian.com_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a growing minority reject this,<sup id="cite_ref-theguardian.com_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pointing to the failures of Arab and pan-Arab nationalist policies, and even publicly voicing objection to the present official name of the country. </p><p>In late 2007, <i>el-Masri el-Yom</i> daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of <a href="/wiki/Imbaba" title="Imbaba">Imbaba</a> to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (<i>el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya</i>) represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance upon hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier."<sup id="cite_ref-Masry_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masry-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another felt that "Arab countries hate Egyptians", and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-Masry_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masry-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_Antiquities" title="Supreme Council of Antiquities">Supreme Council of Antiquities</a> <a href="/wiki/Zahi_Hawass" title="Zahi Hawass">Zahi Hawass</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> popular writer <a href="/wiki/Osama_Anwar_Okasha" title="Osama Anwar Okasha">Osama Anwar Okasha</a>, Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor <a href="/wiki/Leila_Ahmed" title="Leila Ahmed">Leila Ahmed</a>, Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in addition to different local groups and intellectuals.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as Neil DeRosa's novel <i>Joseph's Seed</i> in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critics_of_Arab_nationalism">Critics of Arab nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Critics of Arab nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Historically, Egyptians have considered themselves as distinct from 'Arabs' and even at present rarely do they make that identification in casual contexts; <i>il-'arab</i> [the Arabs] as used by Egyptians refers mainly to the inhabitants of the Gulf states... Egypt has been both a leader of pan-Arabism and a site of intense resentment towards that ideology. Egyptians had to be made, often forcefully, into "Arabs" [during the Nasser era] because they did not historically identify themselves as such. Egypt was self-consciously a nation not only before pan-Arabism but also before becoming a colony of the British Empire. Its territorial continuity since ancient times, its unique history as exemplified in its pharaonic past and later on its Coptic language and culture, had already made Egypt into a nation for centuries. Egyptians saw themselves, their history, culture and language as specifically Egyptian and not "Arab."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copts">Copts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Copts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coptic_identity" title="Coptic identity">Coptic identity</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Copt" class="mw-redirect" title="Copt">Coptic</a> intellectuals hold to a version of Pharaonism which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Ancient Egyptian culture. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. However, some Western scholars today see Pharaonism as a late development, arguing that it was shaped primarily by <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>, and they doubt its validity.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_problems_of_Pharaonism_as_an_integrating_ideology">The problems of Pharaonism as an integrating ideology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The problems of Pharaonism as an integrating ideology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely upon a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pharaonism" title="Talk:Pharaonism">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit">improve this article</a> by introducing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to additional sources at this section.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Canadian archaeologist Michael Wood argued that one of the principal problems of Pharaonism as an integrating ideology for the population is that it glorifies a period in time too remote for most Egyptians, and moreover, one that lacks visible signs of continuity for the Arabic speaking Muslim majority, such as a common language, culture, or alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.194_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.194-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood noted that the popular belief that ancient Egypt was a "slave state" has been questioned by archaeologists and historians, but this popular image held in both the Islamic and the Western nations of a "slave state" makes identification with this period problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.194_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.194-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The story told in the Book of Exodus of an unnamed Pharaoh whose cruelty led him to enslave the Israelites and whose hubris caused his death when he unwisely attempted to follow Moses across the parting of the Red Sea has led to the Pharaohs being portrayed across the ages as a symbol of tyranny. When President Sadat was assassinated on 6 October 1981 reviewing a military parade in Cairo, his Muslim fundamentalist assassins were heard to shout: "We have killed the Pharaoh!"<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Arabic, the verb <i>tafarʽana,</i> meaning to act tyrannically, literally translates as "acting Pharaohically".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wood wrote that even the surviving ruins of ancient Egypt, consisting mostly of "tombs, palaces and temples, the relics of a death-obsessed, aristocratic, pagan society," seem to confirm the popular image of a "slave state," while the "more sophisticated models of Egyptian history, developed mainly by foreign scholars, remain ignored".<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.194_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.194-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruins of ancient Egypt, with their pompous and grandiose bragging about the greatness of the god-kings who had them built, give the impression of a society slavishly devoted to serving the kings who proclaimed themselves to be living gods. Wood wrote that it is not certain if this was indeed the case, as Egyptologists know very little about the feelings and thoughts of ordinary people in ancient Egypt, but it is clear that ancient Egypt was a "highly stratified society", which makes it difficult for people today to identify with a society whose values were so different from the present.<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.194_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.194-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the principal reasons why Pharaonism went into decline starting in the 1940s was because the Quran condemns ancient Egypt so strongly, making it very difficult for Egyptian Muslims to use the symbols of ancient Egypt without causing accusations of abandoning their faith<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood wrote that a principal difference between Egypt and Mexico is that Mexicans can and do incorporate elements from Mesoamerican civilizations like the Olmecs, the Maya, and the Mexica (Aztecs), which are seen as part of a national continuity interrupted by the Spanish conquest of 1519–1521 and resumed with independence in 1821, whereas it is impossible for Egyptians to use pharaonic symbols "without being left open to the charges that such symbols were non-Islamic or anti-Islamic".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood wrote: "Islam and the Egypt of the Pharaohs could be reconciled only with great difficulty; in the end they could not but compete...Egyptian nationalists who wished to look for their ancient history for inspiration would have to start from scratch and would have to distance themselves from an Islamic identity with which the Pharaonic past could not really coexist with".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another problem was posed by the way in which almost all of the archaeological work on ancient Egypt in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century was done by foreign archaeologists who discouraged Egyptians from studying the period.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western archaeologists tended to see the study of ancient Egypt as having nothing to do with modern Egypt; even the very term Egyptology refers to the study of pre-Roman Egypt, not modern Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th century, various racial theories were devised to claim that the Egyptians were not the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, or alternatively, the history of ancient Egypt was a cycle of renewal caused by the conquests of racially superior invaders and decline caused by miscegenation with the racially inferior native population.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.191_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.191-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of such theories was to assert the West was the "true heirs" of ancient Egypt, whose people were viewed as "honorary Westerners" with no connection to modern Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.191_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.191-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of such efforts was to persuade many Egyptians that the pharaonic past was indeed not part of their heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.193_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.193-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, since the Coptic language is descended from the ancient Egyptian language, starting in the 19th century a number of Copts have identified with Pharaonism as a way of emphasizing that they are "purer" Egyptians than the Muslim majority.<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.195_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.195-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the purpose of building a national identity, an ideology that can be used to privilege a minority as being more authentic Egyptian than the majority presents problems, and generally, efforts to build an Egyptian national identity that embraces both Muslims and Copts have turned to the more recent periods of the past .<sup id="cite_ref-Egypt_p.195_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egypt_p.195-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood wrote that for the purposes of building national pride, "the Pharaonic past, for the Egyptian nationalist, was simply the wrong past."<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_p.193_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood_p.193-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2020s_resurgence">2020s resurgence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 2020s resurgence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A resurgence of Pharaonic depictions and discourse has been noted in today's Egypt, coming from both the state and the people. </p><p>The Egyptian government under president <a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi">Abdel Fattah el-Sisi</a> has openly embraced the ancient Egyptian aesthetic. In 2020, a 90-ton <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisk</a> depicting the pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramses II</a> was erected in <a href="/wiki/Tahrir_Square" title="Tahrir Square">Tahrir Square</a>. Throughout 2021, various extravagant parades were organized around the transportation of mummies and other artifacts to the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar spectacles, including musical performances in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">ancient Egyptian language</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Avenue_of_Sphinxes" title="Avenue of Sphinxes">Avenue of Sphinxes</a> later that year. The <a href="/wiki/First_lady" title="First lady">First Lady</a> <a href="/wiki/Entissar_Amer" title="Entissar Amer">Entissar Amer</a> declared that she felt proud of "belonging to an ancient civilization".<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, there was mass public anger in Egypt over the historically inaccurate depiction of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> as a black African in the Netflix docudrama series <i><a href="/wiki/African_Queens_(TV_series)" title="African Queens (TV series)">African Queens</a></i>. The actress in question, <a href="/wiki/Adele_James" title="Adele James">Adele James</a>, received a wave of abusive comments from Egyptians over social media. The backlash was represented through the use of the <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtag</a> #<i>مصر_للمصريين</i> (Egypt for the Egyptians). Young Egyptians shared photos online depicting their own faces juxtaposed against those of kings, queens or everyday figures from ancient Egypt, intending to show the physical similarities between modern Egyptians and their ancient counterparts, asserting a national continuity.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Egyptian government also commented on the controversy, with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Tourism_and_Antiquities_(Egypt)" title="Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)">Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities</a> stating that the series represented a "falsification of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egyptian history</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Archeology through the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities released a statement on the issue, claiming that Queen Cleopatra was "light-skinned and (had) Hellenic features."<sup id="cite_ref-timep.org_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timep.org-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_identity" title="Coptic identity">Coptic identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Revolution of 1919">Egyptian Revolution of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Egypt">Ethnic groups in Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic identity">Ethnic identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLietzelman2014–15" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Lietzelman, Harley (2014–15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/pastissues/14%E2%80%9315%20LITZEILMAN.pdf">"Pharaonism: Decolonizing Historical Identity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pharaonism%3A+Decolonizing+Historical+Identity&rft.date=2014%2F2015&rft.aulast=Lietzelman&rft.aufirst=Harley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprizedwriting.ucdavis.edu%2Fsites%2Fprizedwriting.ucdavis.edu%2Ffiles%2Fsitewide%2Fpastissues%2F14%25E2%2580%259315%2520LITZEILMAN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharaonism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.194-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.194_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.194_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1997 p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.187-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.187-188-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187-188_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.187-188_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 187–188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 189–190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.180-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.180_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.180_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Jankowski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Jankowski (page does not exist)">Jankowski, James</a>. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi" title="Rashid Khalidi">Rashid Khalidi</a>, ed. <i>The Origins of Arab Nationalism</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 1990, pp. 244–245</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.181-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.181_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism",  <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFDawisha2003">Dawisha 2003</a>, p. 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism", p. 246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deighton, H. 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"The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946), p. 519.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taha Hussein, "Kwakab el Sharq", August 12, 1933: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">إن الفرعونية متأصلة فى نفوس المصريين ، وستبقى كذلك بل يجب أن تبقى وتقوى ، والمصرى فرعونى قبل أن يكون عربياً ولا يطلب من مصر أن تتخلى عن فرعونيتها وإلا كان معنى ذلك : اهدمى يا مصر أبا الهول والأهرام، وانسى نفسك واتبعينا ... لا تطلبوا من مصر أكثر مما تستطيع أن تعطى ، مصر لن تدخل فى وحدة عربية سواء كانت العاصمة القاهرة أم دمشق أم بغداد</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Makropoulou, Ifigenia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html">Pan-Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181002224756/http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html">Archived</a> 2018-10-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.183-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.183_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism",  <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 35, 1998 p. 193–194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.184-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.184_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.185-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.185_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.185_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism", <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"1971 – Egypt's new constitution is introduced and the country is renamed the Arab Republic of Egypt." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/790978.stm">Timeline Egypt</a>. BBC News, Timeline: Egypt</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDawisha2003">Dawisha 2003</a>, p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDawisha2003">Dawisha 2003</a>, pp. 264–265, 267</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood_p.186-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.186_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood_p.186_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Michael "The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism",  <i>The Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i>, vol. 35, 1998 p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-theguardian.com-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-theguardian.com_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-theguardian.com_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/jul/08/egyptian-arab-cultural-identity">"An Egyptian, and an Arab | Baher Ibrahim"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. 2010-07-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'?". <i>Church History & Religious Culture</i>. <b>89</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">279–</span>290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F187124109X407934">10.1163/187124109X407934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History+%26+Religious+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Copts%3A+%27Modern+Sons+of+the+Pharaohs%27%3F&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E279-%3C%2Fspan%3E290&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F187124109X407934&rft.aulast=van+der+Vliet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharaonism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Malcolm_Reid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Malcolm Reid (page does not exist)">Reid, Donald Malcolm</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FeviPDy08e8C&pg=PA258"><i>Whose Pharaohs?: Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity from Napoleon to World War I</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Tahrir+Institute+for+Middle+East+Policy&rft.atitle=Egypt%E2%80%99s+Racial+Nationalism%3A+Neo-Pharaonism+as+a+Tool+of+the+State&rft.date=2023-09-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimep.org%2F2023%2F09%2F20%2Fegypts-racial-nationalism-neo-pharaonism-as-a-tool-of-the-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APharaonism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pharaonism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha2003" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, Adeed (2003). <i>Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century</i>. 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