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id="toc-The_Kingdom_of_Kongo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Kingdom_of_Kongo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 The Kingdom of Kongo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Kingdom_of_Kongo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Start_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Start_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Start of slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Start_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smaller_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smaller_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Smaller kingdoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smaller_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Colonial era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_and_demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Language and demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_and_demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_and_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_and_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Creation and cosmology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_and_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Society and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Nationalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Personalities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personalities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personalities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politics,_army_and_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics,_army_and_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Politics, army and resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics,_army_and_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_entertainment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_entertainment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Arts and entertainment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_entertainment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Kongo people</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" > 44 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(volk)" title="Kongo (volk) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kongo (volk)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%88" title="شعب الكونغو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شعب الكونغو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%82%D9%88_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%DB%8C" title="کنقو خالقی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کنقو خالقی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Конга (народ) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Конга (народ)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Конго (народ) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конго (народ)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(grup_hum%C3%A0)" title="Kongo (grup humà) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kongo (grup humà)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongov%C3%A9" title="Kongové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kongové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakongo" title="Vakongo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Vakongo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo-folket" title="Kongo-folket – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongo-folket" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakongo" title="Bakongo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bakongo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5)" title="Конго (раське) – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Конго (раське)" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(etnia)" title="Kongo (etnia) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kongo (etnia)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongoj" title="Kongoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kongoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(herria)" title="Kongo (herria) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kongo (herria)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85_%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="مردم کنگو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مردم کنگو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongos" title="Kongos – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kongos" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_congo" title="Pobo congo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo congo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%A9%EA%B3%A0%EC%A1%B1" title="콩고족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콩고족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suku_Kongo" title="Suku Kongo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Suku Kongo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(popolo)" title="Kongo (popolo) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Kongo (popolo)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95_(%D7%A7%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA)" title="קונגו (קבוצה אתנית) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קונגו (קבוצה אתנית)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B)" title="Конго (халық) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Конго (халық)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bak%C3%B4ngo" title="Bakôngo – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Bakôngo" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakongo" title="Bakongo – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bakongo" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakongai" title="Bakongai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bakongai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bak%C9%94%CC%81ng%C9%94" title="Bakɔ́ngɔ – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Bakɔ́ngɔ" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bak%C3%B4ng%C3%B4_(vahoaka)" title="Bakôngô (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Bakôngô (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B" title="ബകോംഗോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബകോംഗോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88" title="شعب كونجو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شعب كونجو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(volk)" title="Kongo (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kongo (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E4%BA%BA" title="コンゴ人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンゴ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(folk)" title="Kongo (folk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongo (folk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo" title="Kongo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kongo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(plemi%C4%99)" title="Kongo (plemię) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kongo (plemię)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congos" title="Congos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Congos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Конго (народ) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конго (народ)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakongo" title="Bakongo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bakongo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongot" title="Kongot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kongot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_(folk)" title="Kongo (folk) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kongo (folk)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81" title="காங்கோ இனக்குழு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="காங்கோ இனக்குழு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_halk%C4%B1" title="Kongo halkı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kongo halkı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Конго (народ) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конго (народ)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%AF" title="کانگو لوگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کانگو لوگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E4%BA%BA" title="刚果人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="刚果人" data-language-autonym="中文" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Liberian ethnic group known as the Congo, see <a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberian people</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Bakongo</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories,_anecdotes,_and_descriptive_notes_(1910)_(14597123707).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg/220px-A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg/330px-A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg/440px-A_voice_from_the_Congo_-_comprising_stories%2C_anecdotes%2C_and_descriptive_notes_%281910%29_%2814597123707%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="2464" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A Kongo woman's cast from 1910 by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Ward_(sculptor)" title="Herbert Ward (sculptor)">Herbert Ward</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">18,904,000<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/23px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/35px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/45px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/20px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/31px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/40px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /> <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/46px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Native languages: <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kituba_language" title="Kituba language">Kituba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Lingala</a> (minority) Second languages: <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>) <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>) </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Predominantly <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Suku_people" title="Suku people">Basuku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaka_people" title="Yaka people">Yaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teke_people" title="Teke people">Téké</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">other Bantu peoples</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Kongo</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data">Musi Kongo, Muisi Kongo, Mwisi Kongo, Mukongo, Nkongo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data">Bisi Kongo, Esikongo, Besi Kongo, Bakongo, Akongo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Kongo dia Ntotila (or Ntotela), Loango, Ngoyo and Kakongo</td></tr></tbody></table> The Kongo people (<a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo</a>: Bisi Kongo, EsiKongo, singular: Musi Kongo; also Bakongo, singular: Mukongo or M'kongo)<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2000-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Bantu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu people">Bantu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> primarily defined as the speakers of <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a> Subgroups include the <a href="/wiki/Beembe_tribe_(Kongo)" title="Beembe tribe (Kongo)">Beembe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bwende" class="mw-redirect" title="Bwende">Bwende</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vili_people" title="Vili people">Vili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sundi" title="Sundi">Sundi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yombe_people" title="Yombe people">Yombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dondo_people" title="Dondo people">Dondo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lari_people_(Congo)" title="Lari people (Congo)">Lari</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> They have lived along the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, in a region that by the 15th century was a centralized and well-organized <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a>, but is now a part of three countries.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> Their highest concentrations are found south of <a href="/wiki/Pointe-Noire" title="Pointe-Noire">Pointe-Noire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>, southwest of <a href="/wiki/Pool_Malebo" title="Pool Malebo">Pool Malebo</a> and west of the <a href="/wiki/Kwango_River" title="Kwango River">Kwango River</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and southwest <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a> They are the largest ethnic group in the Republic of the Congo, and one of the major ethnic groups in the other two countries they are found in.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> In 1975, the Kongo population was reported as 4,040,000.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The Kongo people were among the earliest indigenous Africans to welcome Portuguese traders in 1483 CE, and began converting to Catholicism in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> They were among the first to protest slave capture in letters to the King of Portugal in the 1510s and 1520s,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shillington2013p1379-10">[10]</a> then succumbed to the demands for slaves from the Portuguese through the 16th century. The Kongo people were a part of the major slave raiding, capture and export trade of African slaves to the European colonial interests in 17th and 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> The slave raids, colonial wars and the 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> split the Kongo people into Portuguese, Belgian and French parts. In the early 20th century, they became one of the most active ethnic groups in the efforts to decolonize Africa, helping liberate the three nations to self-governance.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> The origin of the name Kongo is unclear, and several theories have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-fp273-11">[11]</a> According to the colonial era scholar Samuel Nelson, the term Kongo is possibly derived from a local verb for gathering or assembly.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Alisa_LaGamma" title="Alisa LaGamma">Alisa LaGamma</a>, the root may be from the regional word Nkongo which means "hunter" in the context of someone adventurous and heroic.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> It may be derived from the proto-bantu word for hunter, similar to the IsiZulu term khonto, which means spear as in "umkhonto we sizwe", Spear of the Nation, the name for the military wing of the African National Congress (ANC) during its struggle against apartheid. Douglas Harper states that the term means "mountains" in a Bantu language, which the Congo river flows down from.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The Kongo people have been referred to by various names in the colonial French, Belgian and Portuguese literature, names such as Esikongo (singular Mwisikongo), Mucicongo, Mesikongo, Madcongo and Moxicongo.<a href="#cite_note-fp273-11">[11]</a> Christian missionaries, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, originally applied the term Bafiote (singular M(a)fiote) to the slaves from the Vili or Fiote coastal Kongo people, but later this term was used to refer to any "black man" in Cuba, St Lucia and other colonial era Islands ruled by one of the European colonial interests.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The group is identified largely by speaking a cluster of mutually intelligible dialects rather than by large continuities in their history or even in culture. The term "Congo" was more widely deployed to identify Kikongo-speaking people enslaved in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Since the early 20th century, Bakongo (singular Mkongo or Mukongo) has been increasingly used, especially in areas north of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a>, to refer to the Kikongo-speaking community, or more broadly to speakers of the closely related <a href="/wiki/Kongo_languages" title="Kongo languages">Kongo languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2000-3">[3]</a> This convention is based on the Bantu languages, to which Kongo language belongs. The prefix "mu-" and "ba-" refer to "people", singular and plural respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Vansina1990pxix-17">[17]</a> Ne in Kikongo designates a title, it is incorrect to call Kongo people by Ne Kongo or a Kongo person by Ne Kongo.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongo_people_in_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kongo_people_in_Africa.png/200px-Kongo_people_in_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kongo_people_in_Africa.png/300px-Kongo_people_in_Africa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Kongo_people_in_Africa.png/400px-Kongo_people_in_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of the Kongo people in Africa (approx)</figcaption></figure> The ancient history of the Kongo people has been difficult to ascertain. The region is close to East Africa, considered to be a key to the prehistoric human migrations. This geographical proximity, states <a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Jan Vansina</a>, suggests that the Congo River region, home of the Kongo people, was populated thousands of years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Vansina1990p52-19">[19]</a> Ancient archeological evidence linked to Kongo people has not been found, and <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a> – or the estimation of ethnic group chronologies based on language evolution – has been applied to the Kongo. Based on this, it is likely the Kongo language and Gabon-Congo language split about 950 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Vansina1990p52-19">[19]</a> The earliest archeological evidence is from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tchissanga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tchissanga (page does not exist)">Tchissanga</a> (now part of modern <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>), a site dated to about 600 BCE. However, the site does not prove which ethnic group was resident at that time.<a href="#cite_note-Vansina1990p52-19">[19]</a> The Kongo people had settled into the area well before the fifth century CE, begun a society that utilized the diverse and rich resources of region and developed farming methods.<a href="#cite_note-Vansina1990p146-20">[20]</a> According to James Denbow, social complexity had probably been achieved by the second century CE.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> According to Vansina small kingdoms and Kongo principalities appeared in the current region by the 1200 CE, but documented history of this period of Kongo people if it existed has not survived into the modern era. Detailed and copious description about the Kongo people who lived next to the Atlantic ports of the region, as a sophisticated culture, language and infrastructure, appear in the 15th century, written by the Portuguese explorers.<a href="#cite_note-vansina152-22">[22]</a> Later anthropological work on the Kongo of the region come from the colonial era writers, particularly the French and Belgians (Loango, Vungu, and the Niari Valley), but this too is limited and does not exhaustively cover all of the Kongo people. The evidence suggests, states Vansina, that the Kongo people were advanced in their culture and socio-political systems with multiple kingdoms well before the arrival of first Portuguese ships in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-vansina152-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Kingdom_of_Kongo">The Kingdom of Kongo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Kingdom of Kongo">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angola_tribes_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Angola_tribes_1970.jpg/200px-Angola_tribes_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Angola_tribes_1970.jpg/300px-Angola_tribes_1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Angola_tribes_1970.jpg/400px-Angola_tribes_1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>A map of Angola showing majority ethnic groups (Bakongo area is north, dark green).</figcaption></figure> Kongo <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> suggests that the Kingdom of Kongo was founded before the 14th century and the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The kingdom was modeled not on hereditary succession as was common in Europe, but based on an election by the court nobles from the Kongo people. This required the king to win his legitimacy by a process of recognizing his peers, consensus building as well as regalia and religious ritualism.<a href="#cite_note-Fromont2014p2-25">[25]</a> The kingdom had many trading centers both near rivers and inland, distributed across hundreds of kilometers and <a href="/wiki/Mbanza_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbanza Kongo">Mbanza Kongo</a> – its capital that was about 200 kilometers inland from the Atlantic coast.<a href="#cite_note-Fromont2014p2-25">[25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> arrived on the Central African coast north of the Congo River, several times between 1472 and 1483 searching for a sea route to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fromont2014p2-25">[25]</a> but they failed to find any ports or trading opportunities. In 1483, south of the Congo river they found the Kongo people and the Kingdom of Kongo, which had a centralized government, a currency called nzimbu, and markets, ready for trading relations.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The Portuguese found well developed transport infrastructure inlands from the Kongo people's Atlantic port settlement. They also found exchange of goods easy and the Kongo people open to ideas. The Kongo king at that time, named Nzinga a Nkuwu allegedly willingly accepted Christianity, and at his baptism in 1491 changed his name to João I, a Portuguese name.<a href="#cite_note-Fromont2014p2-25">[25]</a> Around the 1450s, a prophet, Ne Buela Muanda, predicted the arrival of the Portuguese and the spiritual and physical enslavement of many Bakongo.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The trade between Kongo people and Portuguese people thereafter accelerated through 1500. The kingdom of Kongo appeared to become receptive of the new traders, allowed them to settle an uninhabited nearby island called <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a>, and sent Bakongo nobles to visit the royal court in Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> Other than the king himself, much of the Kongo people's nobility welcomed the cultural exchange, the Christian missionaries converted them to the Catholic faith, they assumed Portuguese court manners, and by early 16th-century Kongo became a Portugal-affiliated Christian kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Start_of_slavery">Start of slavery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Start of slavery">edit</a>]</div> Initially, the Kongo people exchanged ivory and copper objects they made with luxury goods of Portuguese.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> But, after 1500, the Portuguese had little demand for ivory and copper, they instead demanded slaves in exchange. The settled Portuguese in São Tomé needed slave labor for their sugarcane plantations, and they first purchased labor. Soon thereafter they began kidnapping people from the Kongo society and after 1514, they provoked military campaigns in nearby African regions to get slave labor.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> Along with this change in Portuguese-Kongo people relationship, the succession system within Kongo kingdom changed under Portuguese influence,<a href="#cite_note-ks2013p773-29">[29]</a> and in 1509, instead of the usual election among the nobles, a hereditary European-style succession led to the African king Afonso I succeeding his father, now named João I.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The slave capture and the export of slaves caused major social disorder among the Kongo people, and the Kongo king Afonso I wrote letters to the king of Portugal protesting this practice. Finally, he succumbed to the demand and accepted an export of those who willingly accepted slavery, and for a fee per slave. The Portuguese procured 2,000 to 3,000 slaves per year for a few years, from 1520, a practice that started the slave export history of the Kongo people. However, this supply was far short of the demand for slaves and the money slave owners were willing to pay.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The Portuguese operators approached the traders at the borders of the Kongo kingdom, such as the <a href="/wiki/Malebo_Pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Malebo Pool">Malebo Pool</a> and offered luxury goods in exchange for captured slaves. This created, states Jan Vansina, an incentive for border conflicts and slave caravan routes, from other ethnic groups and different parts of Africa, in which the Kongo people and traders participated.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The slave raids and volume of trade in enslaved human beings increased thereafter, and by the 1560s, over 7,000 slaves per year were being captured and exported by Portuguese traders to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The Kongo people and the neighboring ethnic groups retaliated, with violence and attacks, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jaga_(Kongo)" title="Jaga (Kongo)">Jaga invasion</a> of 1568 which swept across the Kongo lands, burnt the Portuguese churches, and attacked its capital, nearly ending the Kingdom of Kongo.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stapleton2016p377-30">[30]</a> The Kongo people also created songs to warn themselves of the arrival of the Portuguese, one of the famous songs is " Malele " (Translation: "Tragedy", song present among the 17 Kongo songs sung by the Massembo family of <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> during the Grap a Kongo <a href="#cite_note-RFO-31">[31]</a>). The Portuguese brought in military and arms to support the Kingdom of Kongo, and after years of fighting, they jointly defeated the attack. This war unexpectedly led to a flood of captives who had challenged the Kongo nobility and traders, and the coastal ports were flooded with "war captives turned slaves".<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> The other effect of this violence over many years was making the Kongo king heavily dependent on the Portuguese protection,<a href="#cite_note-ks2013p773-29">[29]</a> along with the dehumanization of the African people, including the rebelling Kongo people, as cannibalistic pagan barbarians from "Jaga kingdom". This caricature of the African people and their dehumanization was vociferous and well published by the slave traders, the missionaries and the colonial era Portuguese historians, which helped morally justify mass trading of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stapleton2016p377-30">[30]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercator_Congo_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mercator_Congo_map.jpg/200px-Mercator_Congo_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mercator_Congo_map.jpg/300px-Mercator_Congo_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Mercator_Congo_map.jpg/400px-Mercator_Congo_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption>A 1595 map of Congo, printed in 1630. The map emphasizes the rivers and Portuguese churches. It marks the capital of Kongo people as <a href="/wiki/M%27banza-Kongo" title="M'banza-Kongo">Citta de São Salvador</a>.</figcaption></figure> Modern scholars such as Estevam Thompson have shown that there is much confusion between the "original" Jagas, who left the land of Yaka on the eastern bank of the Kwango River and invaded Mbata and mbanza Kongo, and other later references to "Jaga warriors" roaming the interior of West Central Africa who were, indeed, different Mbangala groups.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton2016p377-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-miller121-32">[32]</a> There are other scholars, such as Joseph Miller, that believed this 16th and 17th centuries' one-sided dehumanization of the African people was a fabrication and myth created by the missionaries and slave trading Portuguese to hide their abusive activities and intentions.<a href="#cite_note-miller121-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> From the 1570s, the European traders arrived in large numbers and the slave trading through the Kongo people territory dramatically increased. The weakened Kingdom of Kongo continued to face internal revolts and violence that resulted from the raids and capture of slaves, and the Portuguese in 1575 established the port city of <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a> (now in Angola) in cooperation with a Kongo noble family to facilitate their military presence, African operations and the slave trade thereof.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The Kingdom of Kongo and its people ended their cooperation in the 1660s. In 1665, the Portuguese army invaded the Kingdom, killed the Kongo king, disbanded his army, and installed a friendly replacement in his place.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smaller_kingdoms">Smaller kingdoms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Smaller kingdoms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango" title="Kingdom of Loango">Kingdom of Loango</a></div> The 1665 Kongo-Portuguese war and the killing of the hereditary king by the Portuguese soldiers led to a political vacuum. The Kongo kingdom disintegrated into smaller kingdoms, each controlled by nobles considered friendly by the Portuguese.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> One of these kingdoms was the kingdom of Loango. Loango was in the northern part, above the Congo River, a region which long before the war was already an established community of the Kongo people.<a href="#cite_note-vansina200-26">[26]</a> New kingdoms came into existence in this period, from the disintegrated parts in the southeast and the northeast of the old Kongo kingdom. The old capital of the Kongo people called São Salvador was burnt down, and was in ruins and abandoned in 1678.<a href="#cite_note-lagamma104-38">[38]</a> The fragmented new kingdoms of the Kongo people disputed each other's boundaries and rights, as well as those of other non-Kongo ethnic groups bordering them, leading to steady wars and mutual raids.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The wars between the small kingdoms created a steady supply of captives that fed the Portuguese demand for slaves and the small kingdoms' need for government income to finance the wars.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-lagamma103-41">[41]</a> In the 1700s, a baptized teenage Kongo woman named <a href="/wiki/Dona_Beatriz_Kimpa_Vita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita">Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita</a> claimed to be possessed by Saint <a href="/wiki/Anthony_of_Padua" title="Anthony of Padua">Anthony of Padua</a> and that she had been visiting heaven to speak with God.<a href="#cite_note-lagamma103-41">[41]</a> She started preaching that Mary and Jesus were not born in <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a> but in Africa among the Kongo people. She created a movement among the Kongo people which historians call as Kongo <a href="/wiki/Antonianism" title="Antonianism">Antonianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Dona Beatriz questioned the wars devastating the Kongo people, asked all Kongo people to end the wars that fed the trading in humans, and unite under one king.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-thornton214-43">[43]</a> She attracted a following of thousands of Kongo people into the ruins of their old capital. She was declared a false saint by the Portuguese-appointed Kongo king Pedro IV, with the support of Portuguese Catholic missionaries and Italian Capuchin monks then resident in Kongo lands. The 22 year old Dona Beatriz was arrested, then burnt alive at the stake on charges of being a witch and a heretic.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thornton1998p1-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Colonial era">edit</a>]</div> After the death of Dona Beatriz in 1706 and another three years of wars with the help of the Portuguese, Pedro IV was able to get back much of the old Kongo kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> The conflicts continued through the 18th century, however, and the demand for and the caravan of Kongo and non-Kongo people as captured slaves kept rising, headed to the Atlantic ports.<a href="#cite_note-lagamma104-38">[38]</a> Although, in Portuguese documents, all of Kongo people were technically under one ruler, they were no longer governed that way by the mid-18th century. The Kongo people were now divided into regions, each headed by a noble family. Christianity was growing again with new chapels built, services regularly held, missions of different Christian sects expanding, and church rituals a part of the royal succession. There were succession crises, ensuing conflicts when a local royal Kongo ruler died and occasional coups such as that of Andre II by Henrique III, typically settled with Portuguese intervention, and these continued through the mid 19th-century.<a href="#cite_note-lagamma104-38">[38]</a> After Henrique III died in 1857, competitive claims to the throne were raised by his relatives. One of them, Pedro Elelo, gained the trust of Portuguese military against Alvero XIII, by agreeing to be vassal of the colonial Portugal. This effectively ended whatever sovereignty had previously been recognized and the Kongo people became a part of colonial Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption style="text-align: center;">Slave shipment between 1501 and 1867, by region<a href="#cite_note-eltis2015-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[note 1]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="background: silver;">Region</th> <th scope="col">Total embarked</th> <th scope="col">Total disembarked </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: #F4A460;">West central Africa </th> <td>5.69 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Bight of Biafra </th> <td>1.6 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Bight of Benin </th> <td>2.00 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Gold Coast </th> <td>1.21 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Windward Coast </th> <td>0.34 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Sierra Leone </th> <td>0.39 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Senegambia </th> <td>0.76 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Mozambique </th> <td>0.54 million</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: silver;">Brazil (South America) </th> <td></td> <td>4.7 million </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: silver;">Rest of South America </th> <td></td> <td>0.9 million </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: silver;">Caribbean </th> <td></td> <td>4.1 million </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: silver;">North America </th> <td></td> <td>0.4 million </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background: silver;">Europe </th> <td></td> <td>0.01 million </td></tr></tbody></table> In concert with the growing import of Christian missionaries and luxury goods, the slave capture and exports through the Kongo lands grew. With over 5.6 million human beings kidnapped in Central Africa, then sold and shipped as slaves through the lands of the Kongo people, they witnessed the largest exports of slaves from Africa into the Americas by 1867.<a href="#cite_note-eltis2015-46">[46]</a> According to Jan Vansina, the "whole of Angola's economy and its institutions of governance were based on the slave trade" in 18th and 19th century, until the slave trade was forcibly brought to an end in the 1840s. This ban on lucrative trade of slaves through the lands of Kongo people was bitterly opposed by both the Portuguese and Luso-Africans (part Portuguese, part African), states Vansina.<a href="#cite_note-vansina11-49">[48]</a> The slave trade was replaced with ivory trade in the 1850s, where the old caravan owners and routes replaced hunting human beings with hunting elephants for their tusks with the help of non-Kongo ethnic groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people" title="Chokwe people">Chokwe people</a>, which were then exported with the labor of Kongo people.<a href="#cite_note-vansina11-49">[48]</a> Swedish missionaries entered the area in the 1880s and 1890, converting the northeast section of Kongo to Protestantism in the early twentieth century. The Swedish missionaries, notably <a href="/wiki/Karl_Edvard_Laman" title="Karl Edvard Laman">Karl Laman</a>, encouraged the local people to write their history and customs in notebooks, which then became the source for Laman's famous and widely cited ethnography and their dialect became well established thanks to Laman's dictionary of Kikongo.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> The fragmented Kongo people in the 19th century were annexed by three European colonial empires, during the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a>, the northernmost parts went to France (now the Republic of Congo and Gabon), the middle part along river Congo along with the large inland region of Africa went to Belgium (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) and the southern parts (now <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>) remained with Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The Kongo people in all three colonies (Angola, the Republic of Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo) became one of the most active ethnic groups in the efforts to decolonize Africa, and worked with other ethnic groups in Central Africa to help liberate the three nations to self governance.<a href="#cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">[7]</a> The French and Belgium regions became independent in 1960. Angolan independence came in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-porwithdraw-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-safricainvasion-53">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_and_demographics">Language and demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Language and demographics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo language</a></div><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png/240px-LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png/360px-LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png/480px-LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption> Map of the area where Kongo and Kituba as the lingua franca are spoken. NB:<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Kisikongo (also called Kisansala by some authors) is the Kikongo spoken in Mbanza Kongo. Kisikongo is not the protolanguage of the Kongo language cluster.</figcaption></figure> The language of the Kongo people is called Kikongo (Guthrie: Bantu <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages#Zone_H" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Zone H</a>.10). It is a macrolanguage and consists of <a href="/wiki/Bembe_language_(Kibembe)" title="Bembe language (Kibembe)">Beembe</a>, Doondo, Koongo, Laari, Kongo-San-Salvador, Kunyi, Vili and Yombe sub-languages.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> The Kongo language is divided into many dialects which are sufficiently diverse that people from distant dialects, such as speakers of Kivili dialect (on the northern coast) and speakers of Kisansolo (the central dialect) would have trouble understanding each other. In Angola, there are a few who did not learn to speak Kikongo because Portuguese rules of assimilation during the colonial period was directed against learning native languages, though most Bakongo held on to the language. Most Angolan Kongo also speak <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and those near the border of the Democratic Republic of Congo also speak <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> most also speak French and others speak either <a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Lingala</a>, a common <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> in Western Congo, or Kikongo ya Leta (generally known as <a href="/wiki/Kituba_language" title="Kituba language">Kituba</a> particularly in the Republic of the Congo), a creole form of Kikongo spoken widely in the Republic of the Congo and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_and_cosmology">Creation and cosmology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Creation and cosmology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png/220px-Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png/330px-Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png/440px-Kongo_Cosmogram_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The Yowa, or Dikenga Cross, is a symbol in Bakongo spirituality that depicts the physical world, the spiritual (ancestral) world, the <a href="/wiki/Kal%C3%BBnga_Line" title="Kalûnga Line">Kalûnga line</a> that runs between the two worlds, and the four moments of the sun.</figcaption></figure> The Bakongo believe that in the beginning, the world was circular void, called mbûngi, with no life. Then <a href="/wiki/Nzambi_a_Mpungu" title="Nzambi a Mpungu">Nzambi Mpungu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">creator god</a>, summoned a great force of fire, called Kalûnga, which filled this empty circle. Then Kalûnga heated up the contents of mbûngi, and when it cooled, it formed the earth. The Earth, the starting point of the fire, then became a green planet after it went through four stages.<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a> The first stage is the emergence of the fire. The second stage is the red stage where the planet is still burning and has not formed. The third stage is the grey stage where the planet is cooling, but has not produced life. These planets are naked, dry, and covered with dust. The final stage is green stage is when the planet is fully mature because it breathes and carries life. As the Bakongo believe is part of the universal order, all planets must go through this process.<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a>, "Another important characteristic of Bakongo cosmology is the sun and its movements. The rising, peaking, setting, and absence of the sun provide the essential pattern for Bakongo religious culture. These “four moments of the sun” equate with the four stages of life: conception, birth, maturity, and death. For the Bakongo, everything transitions through these stages: planets, plants, animals, people, societies, and even ideas. This vital cycle is depicted by a circle with a cross inside. In this cosmogram or dikenga, the meeting point of the two lines of the cross is the most powerful point and where the person stands."<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-59">[58]</a> The creation of a Bakongo person, or muntu, is also believed to follow the four moments of the sun, which play a significant role in their development.<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a> Musoni is the time when a muntu is conceived both in the spiritual realm and in the womb of a Bakongo woman. Kala is the time when a muntu is born into the physical world. This time is also seen as the rise of the sun. Tukula is the time of maturity, where a muntu learns to master all aspects of life from spirituality to purpose to personality. The last period of time is luvemba, when a muntu physically dies and enters the spiritual world, or Nu Mpémba, with of the ancestors, or bakulu.<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Because Bakongo people have a "dual soul-mind," or mwèla-ngindu, they are able to exist and live in both realms during the different moments of their lives. Even while in Nu Mpémba, a muntu still lives a full life as they prepare for Kala time once again.<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a> The right side of the body is also believed to be male, while the left side is believed to be female, creating an additional layer to the dual identity of a muntu.<a href="#cite_note-:1-59">[58]</a> For the Bakongo, a person is a kala-zimikala, which means a "living-dying-living being."<a href="#cite_note-:02-58">[57]</a> A simbi (pl. bisimbi) is a water spirit that is believed to inhabit bodies of water and rocks, having the ability to guide the bakulu, or the ancestors, along the Kalûnga River to the spiritual world after they pass away. They are also present during the <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptisms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">African American Christians</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo tradition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo religion</a></div> The religious history of the Kongo is complex, particularly after the ruling class of the Kingdom of Kongo accepted Christianity at the start of the 16th century. According to historian <a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">John K. Thornton</a>, "Central Africans have probably never agreed among themselves as to what their cosmology is in detail, a product of what I called the process of continuous revelation and precarious priesthood."<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> The Kongo people had diverse views, with traditional religious ideas best developed in the small northern Kikongo-speaking area, and this region neither converted to Christianity nor participated in slave trade until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> There is abundant description about Kongo religious concepts in the Catholic missionary and colonial era records, but states Thornton, these are written with a hostile bias and their reliability is problematic.<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> The Kongo people believed in the Creator God <a href="/wiki/Nzambi_a_Mpungu" title="Nzambi a Mpungu">Nzambi Mpungu</a>, his female counterpart <a href="/wiki/Nzambici" title="Nzambici">Nzambici</a>, and a host of nature spirits that were referred to as <a href="/wiki/Simbi" title="Simbi">simbi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">nkisi</a>, nkita and kilundu spirits.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> In an attempt to convince Kongo people to convert to Catholicism, Portuguese missionaries often stressed that Nzambi was the <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christian God</a>. Similarly, the early missionaries used Kongo language words to integrate Christian ideas, such as using the words "nkisi" to mean "holy". Thus, church to Kongo people was nzo a nkisi, which means "another shrine," and the Bible was mukanda nkisi, which means "a consecrated charm."<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> Kongo people maintained both churches and shrines, which they called Kiteki. Their smaller shrines were dedicated to the smaller deities, even after they had converted to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> These deities were guardians of water bodies, crop lands and high places to the Kongo people, and they were very prevalent both in capital towns of the Christian ruling classes, as well as in the villages.<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg/200px-Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg/300px-Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg/400px-Bowl_by_the_Kongo_peoples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="778" /></a><figcaption>Kongo bowl in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_Art" title="National Museum of African Art">National Museum of African Art</a>, Washington, DC</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statuette_protectrice_nkisi,_71.1892.52.2,_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg/250px-Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg/375px-Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg/500px-Statuette_protectrice_nkisi%2C_71.1892.52.2%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption>Nkisi nkondi of the Kongo people; Nkisi means holy.<a href="#cite_note-thornton84-65">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> The later Portuguese missionaries and <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin" title="Order of Friars Minor Capuchin">Capuchin monks</a> upon their arrival in Kongo were baffled by these practices in the late 17th century (nearly 150 years after the acceptance of Christianity as the state religion in the Kingdom of Kongo). Some threatened to burn or destroy the shrines. However, the Kongo people credited these shrines for abundance and defended them.<a href="#cite_note-thornton73-63">[62]</a> The Kongo people's conversion was based on different assumptions and premises about what Christianity was, and syncretic ideas continued for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> The Kongo people, state the colonial era accounts, included a reverence for their ancestors and spirits.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Some BaKongo people shaved their heads to keep it smooth “for spirits that might want to land there.”<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> However, some anthropologists report regional differences. According to Dunja Hersak, for example, the Vili and Yombe do not believe in the power of ancestors in the same degree as to those living farther south. Furthermore, she and John Janzen state that religious ideas and emphasis have changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> The slaves brought over by the European ships into the Americas carried with them their traditional ideas. Vanhee suggests that the Afro-Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a> religion is a new world manifestation of Bantu religion and spirituality, and Kongo Christianity played a role in the formation of Voudou in Haiti.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg/170px-Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg/255px-Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg/340px-Raccolte_Extraeuropee_-_Passar%C3%A9_00139_-_Statua_Bakongo_-_Rep.Dem.Congo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A Kongo artwork</figcaption></figure> The large Bakongo society features a diversity of occupations. Some are farmers who grow staples and cash crops. Among the staples are <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potatoes</a>. Other crops include <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a> (groundnuts) and <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a> The cash crops were introduced by the colonial rulers, and these include <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cacao</a> for the chocolate industry. Palm oil is another export commodity, while the traditional <a href="/wiki/Urena" title="Urena">urena</a> is a famine food. Some Kongo people fish and hunt, but most work in factories and trade in towns.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a> The Kongo people have traditionally recognized their descent from their mother (<a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineality</a>), and this lineage links them into kinship groups.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morris2006p153-72">[71]</a> They are culturally organized as ones who cherish their independence, so much so that neighboring Kongo people's villages avoid being dependent on each other. There is a strong undercurrent of messianic tradition among the Bakongo, which has led to several politico-religious movements in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-britkongo-5">[5]</a> This may be linked to the premises of dualistic cosmology in Bakongo tradition, where two worlds exist, one visible and lived, another invisible and full of powerful spirits. The belief that there is an interaction and reciprocal exchange between these, to Bakongo, means the world of spirits can possess the world of flesh.<a href="#cite_note-Morris2006p153-72">[71]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_about_Kongo_clans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Article about Kongo clans (page does not exist)">Article about Kongo clans</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clans_du_peuple_kongo" class="extiw" title="fr:Clans du peuple kongo">fr</a>] <a href="/w/index.php?title=Article_about_Vili_clans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Article about Vili clans (page does not exist)">Article about Vili clans</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_clans_Vili" class="extiw" title="fr:Liste des clans Vili">fr</a>] <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg/170px-WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg/255px-WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg/340px-WLA_brooklynmuseum_Kongo_Figure_of_Mother_and_Child.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Mother and Child (Phemba)</figcaption></figure> The Kongo <a href="/wiki/Week" title="Week">week</a> was a four-day week: Konzo, Nkenge, Nsona and Nkandu.<a href="#cite_note-Conrad2008p133-73">[72]</a> These days are named after the four towns near which traditionally a farmer's market was held in rotation.<a href="#cite_note-Conrad2008p133-73">[72]</a> This idea spread across the Kongo people, and every major district or population center had four rotating markets locations, each center named after these days of the week. Larger market gatherings were rotated once every eight days, on Nsona Kungu.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L2_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)">Haplogroup L2a</a> is a mtdna clade that was found to be common in the Democratic Republic of Congo amongst Bantu groups, including the Bakongo.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E-M2" title="Haplogroup E-M2">Haplogroup E1b1a8</a> was the most commonly observed y-chromosome clade.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg/170px-WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg/255px-WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg/340px-WLA_metmuseum_Commemorative_Figure_Seated_Male_Kongo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>A seated man</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nationalism">Nationalism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nationalism">edit</a>]</div> The idea of a Bakongo unity, actually developed in the early twentieth century, primarily through the publication of newspapers in various dialects of the language. In 1910 Kavuna Kafwandani (Kavuna Simon) published an article in the Swedish mission society's Kikongo language newspaper Misanü Miayenge (Words of Peace) calling for all speakers of the Kikongo language to recognize their identity.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> The Bakongo people have championed ethnic rivalry and nationalism through sports such as football. The game is organized around ethnic teams, and fans cheer their teams along ethnic lines, such as during matches between the Poto-Poto people and the Kongo people. Further, during international competitions, they join across ethnic lines, states Phyllis Martin, to "assert their independence against church and state".<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personalities">Personalities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Personalities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics,_army_and_resistance">Politics, army and resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Politics, army and resistance">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nzinga_Nkuwu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nzinga Nkuwu">Nzinga Nkuwu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_II_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre II of Kongo (page does not exist)">Pierre II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfonso_I_Nzinga_Mvemba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfonso I Nzinga Mvemba (page does not exist)">Alfonso I Nzinga Mvemba</a>, 1st Christian king of <a href="/wiki/Kongo_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongo kingdom">Kongo kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_I_of_Kongo" title="Garcia I of Kongo">Garcia I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimpa_Vita" title="Kimpa Vita">Kimpa Vita</a>, prophetess of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kimbangu" title="Simon Kimbangu">Simon Kimbangu</a>, national prophet and resistant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Matswa" class="mw-redirect" title="André Matswa">André Matswa</a>, independentist leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a>, 1st President of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulbert_Youlou" title="Fulbert Youlou">Fulbert Youlou</a>, 1st President of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo Republic">Congo Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a>, independentist leader in <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justine_Kasa-Vubu" title="Justine Kasa-Vubu">Justine Kasa-Vubu</a>, 1st president's daughter <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9opold_Massiala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Léopold Massiala (page does not exist)">Léopold Massiala</a>, ex general in DRC</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcellin_Lukama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcellin Lukama (page does not exist)">Marcellin Lukama</a>, ex army general in DRC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ange_Diawara" title="Ange Diawara">Ange Diawara</a>, Congolese soldier</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_Lembe_di_Sita" title="Olive Lembe di Sita">Olive Lembe di Sita</a>, wife of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kanza" title="Daniel Kanza">Daniel Kanza</a>, independentist leader, politician and first Governor of the city of <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Kanza" title="Sophie Kanza">Sophie Kanza</a>, first woman minister of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kanza" title="Thomas Kanza">Thomas Kanza</a>, Congolese politician</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Safu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Safu (page does not exist)">Daniel Safu</a>, politician and national deputy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Massamba-D%C3%A9bat" title="Alphonse Massamba-Débat">Alphonse Massamba-Débat</a>, second President of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo Republic">Congo Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaston_Diomi_Ndongala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaston Diomi Ndongala (page does not exist)">Gaston Diomi Ndongala</a>, First Mayor of the <a href="/wiki/Ngiri-Ngiri" title="Ngiri-Ngiri">Ngiri-Ngiri</a> municipality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Diomi_Ndongala" title="Eugène Diomi Ndongala">Eugène Diomi Ndongala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christelle_Vuanga" title="Christelle Vuanga">Christelle Vuanga</a>,national deputy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdoulaye_Yerodia_Ndombasi" title="Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi">Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi</a>, ex Vice Prime Minister of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Panda_Farnana" title="Paul Panda Farnana">Paul Panda Farnana</a>, first academic and agronomist of Congo</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Fabrice_Puela&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Fabrice Puela (page does not exist)">Albert Fabrice Puela</a>, politician and Congolese minister</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundu_dia_Kongo" title="Bundu dia Kongo">Bundu dia Kongo</a>, political and religious movement</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marie-Madeleine_Mienze_Kiaku&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marie-Madeleine Mienze Kiaku (page does not exist)">Marie-Madeleine Mienze Kiaku</a>, Congolese woman politician</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luzolo_Bambi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luzolo Bambi (page does not exist)">Luzolo Bambi</a>, ex adviser of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_des_Bakongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance des Bakongo">Alliance des Bakongo</a>, political party</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_entertainment">Arts and entertainment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arts and entertainment">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenio_Rodriguez" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenio Rodriguez">Arsenio Rodriguez</a>, Afro-Cuban musician, creator of modern rumba music</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benny_Mor%C3%A9" title="Benny Moré">Benny Moré</a>, Afro-Cuban musician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jossart_N%27Yoka_Longo" title="Jossart N'Yoka Longo">Jossart N'Yoka Longo</a>, Congolese singer-songwriter, band leader of <a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AFko_Langa_Langa" title="Zaïko Langa Langa">Zaïko Langa Langa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wifredo_Lam" title="Wifredo Lam">Wifredo Lam</a>, Cuban artist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> This slave trade volume excludes the slave trade by Swahili-Arabs in East Africa and North African ethnic groups to the Middle East and elsewhere. The exports and imports do not match, because of the large number of deaths en route<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> and violent retaliation by captured people on the ships involved in the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-eltis2015-46">[46]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kongo_people&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://joshuaproject.net/clusters/345">"People Cluster - Bantu, Kongo | Joshua Project"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=People+Cluster+-+Bantu%2C+Kongo+%26%23124%3B+Joshua+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjoshuaproject.net%2Fclusters%2F345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> 40,5% of Rep of the Congo's population, 13% of Angola's population, 12% of DRC's population and 20 000 inhabitants of Gabon (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldometers.info/">Worldometers</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/">CIA.gov</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton2000-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2000_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2000_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2000" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, J. K. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0IwMwBVfr0sC&pg=PA79">"Mbanza Kongo / São Salvador"</a>. In Anderson (ed.). Africa's Urban Past. James Currey Publishers. p. 79, note 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852557617" title="Special:BookSources/9780852557617"><bdi>9780852557617</bdi></a>. <q>...since about 1910 it is not uncommon for the term Bakongo (singular Mukongo) to be used, especially in areas north of the Zaire river, and by intellectuals and anthropologists adopting a standard nomenclature for Bantu-speaking peoples.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mbanza+Kongo+%2F+S%C3%A3o+Salvador&rft.btitle=Africa%27s+Urban+Past&rft.pages=79%2C+note+2&rft.pub=James+Currey+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780852557617&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=J.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0IwMwBVfr0sC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Wyatt MacGaffey, Kongo Political Culture: The Conceptual Challenge of the Particular, Indiana University Press, 2000, p.62 </li> <li id="cite_note-britkongo-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britkongo_5-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kongo-people">"Bakongo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bakongo&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FKongo-people&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Republic-of-the-Congo/People">"Republic of the Congo - People | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-02-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Republic+of+the+Congo+-+People+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRepublic-of-the-Congo%2FPeople&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gates2010p14-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gates2010p14_7-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiah,_AnthonyHenry_Louis_Gates2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Appiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Anthony</a>; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Henry Louis Gates</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC">Encyclopedia of Africa</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9"><bdi>978-0-19-533770-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Africa&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533770-9&rft.au=Appiah%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Henry+Louis+Gates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA0XNvklcqbwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedinha1975" class="citation book cs1">Redinha, José (1975). Etnias e culturas de Angola. Luanda: Instituto de Investigação Científica de Angola.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etnias+e+culturas+de+Angola&rft.place=Luanda&rft.pub=Instituto+de+Investiga%C3%A7%C3%A3o+Cient%C3%ADfica+de+Angola&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Redinha&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage2003" class="citation book cs1">Page, Melvin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC">Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 773. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-335-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-335-3"><bdi>978-1-57607-335-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism%3A+An+International+Social%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Political+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=773&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-335-3&rft.aulast=Page&rft.aufirst=Melvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqFTHBoRvQbsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shillington2013p1379-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Shillington2013p1379_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Shillington" title="Kevin Shillington">Shillington, Kevin</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA1379">Encyclopedia of African History (3-Volume Set)</a>. Routledge. p. 1379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2"><bdi>978-1-135-45670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History+%283-Volume+Set%29&rft.pages=1379&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45670-2&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumyHqvAErOAC%26pg%3DPA1379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fp273-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fp273_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fp273_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilippo_PigafettaDuarte_Lopes2002" class="citation book cs1">Filippo Pigafetta; Duarte Lopes (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp9r6tlC5iAC&pg=PA273">Le Royaume de Congo & les contrées environnantes</a>. Chandeigne. pp. 273 note Page82.1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-906462-82-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-906462-82-3"><bdi>978-2-906462-82-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Royaume+de+Congo+%26+les+contr%C3%A9es+environnantes&rft.pages=273+note+Page82.1&rft.pub=Chandeigne&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-906462-82-3&rft.au=Filippo+Pigafetta&rft.au=Duarte+Lopes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDp9r6tlC5iAC%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> "It is probable that the word 'Kongo' itself implies a public gathering and that it is based on the root konga, 'to gather' (trans[itive])." Nelson, Samuel Henry. Colonialism In The <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a>, 1880–1940. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaGamma2015" class="citation book cs1">LaGamma, Alisa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylRVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Kongo: Power and Majesty</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7"><bdi>978-1-58839-575-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo%3A+Power+and+Majesty&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-575-7&rft.aulast=LaGamma&rft.aufirst=Alisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DylRVCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Congo">Congo</a>, Douglas Harper, Etymology Dictionary </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarner-Lewis2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maureen_Warner-Lewis" title="Maureen Warner-Lewis">Warner-Lewis, Maureen</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMARCr6HoB4C&pg=PA320">Central Africa in the Caribbean: Transcending Time, Transforming Cultures</a>. University of West Indies Press. pp. 320–321. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-976-640-118-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-976-640-118-4"><bdi>978-976-640-118-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Africa+in+the+Caribbean%3A+Transcending+Time%2C+Transforming+Cultures&rft.pages=320-321&rft.pub=University+of+West+Indies+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-976-640-118-4&rft.aulast=Warner-Lewis&rft.aufirst=Maureen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcMARCr6HoB4C%26pg%3DPA320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Thornton, John, Les anneaux de la Memoire, 2 (2000) 235–49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anneauxdelamemoire.org/fr/component/k2/item/download/142.html">"La nation angolaise en Amérique, son identité en Afrique et en Amérique"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331041011/http://www.anneauxdelamemoire.org/fr/component/k2/item/download/142.html">Archived</a> 2012-03-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-Vansina1990pxix-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Vansina1990pxix_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1990" class="citation book cs1">Vansina, Jan M. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8Wv0Tp8VwC">Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa</a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-12573-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-12573-8"><bdi>978-0-299-12573-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+in+the+Rainforests%3A+Toward+a+History+of+Political+Tradition+in+Equatorial+Africa&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-299-12573-8&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8Wv0Tp8VwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGaffey2000" class="citation book cs1">MacGaffey, Wyatt (2000). Kongo Political Culture: The Conceptual Challenge of the Particular. Indiana University Press. p. 241.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo+Political+Culture%3A+The+Conceptual+Challenge+of+the+Particular&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=MacGaffey&rft.aufirst=Wyatt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vansina1990p52-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vansina1990p52_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vansina1990p52_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vansina1990p52_19-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1990" class="citation book cs1">Vansina (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8Wv0Tp8VwC">Paths in the Rainforests</a>. University of Wisconsin Pres. pp. 52, 47–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299125738" title="Special:BookSources/9780299125738"><bdi>9780299125738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+in+the+Rainforests&rft.pages=52%2C+47-54&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Pres&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780299125738&rft.au=Vansina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8Wv0Tp8VwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vansina1990p146-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Vansina1990p146_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1990" class="citation book cs1">Vansina (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8Wv0Tp8VwC">Paths in the Rainforests</a>. University of Wisconsin Pres. pp. 146–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299125738" title="Special:BookSources/9780299125738"><bdi>9780299125738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+in+the+Rainforests&rft.pages=146-148&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Pres&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780299125738&rft.au=Vansina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8Wv0Tp8VwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenbow1990" class="citation journal cs1">Denbow, James (1990). "Congo to Kalahari: Data and hypotheses about the political economy of the western stream of the Early Iron Age". The African Archaeological Review. 8: 139–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01116874">10.1007/bf01116874</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162398190">162398190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Congo+to+Kalahari%3A+Data+and+hypotheses+about+the+political+economy+of+the+western+stream+of+the+Early+Iron+Age&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=139-75&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf01116874&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162398190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Denbow&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vansina152-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vansina152_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina152_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1990" class="citation book cs1">Vansina (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8Wv0Tp8VwC">Paths in the Rainforests</a>. University of Wisconsin Pres. pp. 152–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299125738" title="Special:BookSources/9780299125738"><bdi>9780299125738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+in+the+Rainforests&rft.pages=152-158&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Pres&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780299125738&rft.au=Vansina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8Wv0Tp8VwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Kimbwandende Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau, le Mukongo et le monde qui l’entourait: cosmogonie kongo, Office National de la Recherche et de Développement, Kinshasa, 1969; Reprint 2021 ed. Paari </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Arte (Invitation au voyage), En Angola, au cœur du royaume Kongo, Arte, 2020 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fromont2014p2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fromont2014p2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fromont2014p2_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fromont2014p2_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fromont2014p2_25-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromont2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_Fromont" title="Cécile Fromont">Fromont, Cécile</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ax8VBQAAQBAJ">The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo</a>. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 2–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1871-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1871-5"><bdi>978-1-4696-1871-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Conversion%3A+Christian+Visual+Culture+in+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.pages=2-5&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-1871-5&rft.aulast=Fromont&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9cile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAx8VBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vansina200-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina200_26-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1990" class="citation book cs1">Vansina (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8Wv0Tp8VwC">Paths in the Rainforests</a>. University of Wisconsin Pres. pp. 200–202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299125738" title="Special:BookSources/9780299125738"><bdi>9780299125738</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+in+the+Rainforests&rft.pages=200-202&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Pres&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780299125738&rft.au=Vansina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8Wv0Tp8VwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Thomas T. Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, East African Expressions of Christianity, James Currey Publishers, 1999, p. 219 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Godefroid Muzalia Kihangu, Bundu dia Kongo, une résurgence des messianismes et de l’alliance des Bakongo?, Universiteit Gent, België, 2011, p. 178 </li> <li id="cite_note-ks2013p773-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ks2013p773_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ks2013p773_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2013" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC">Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set</a>. Routledge. pp. 773–775. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45670-2"><bdi>978-1-135-45670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History+3-Volume+Set&rft.pages=773-775&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45670-2&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumyHqvAErOAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stapleton2016p377-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stapleton2016p377_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stapleton2016p377_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stapleton2016p377_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2016" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Estevam (2016). Timothy J. Stapleton (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ">Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 377–378. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-837-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-837-3"><bdi>978-1-59884-837-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+Colonial+Conflicts&rft.pages=377-378&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-837-3&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Estevam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5rZCDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RFO-31"><a href="#cite_ref-RFO_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=30nBJ0w7mG8">"Grappe à Kongos"</a>. RFO-FMC (in French). 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/30nBJ0w7mG8">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 14 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RFO-FMC&rft.atitle=Grappe+%C3%A0+Kongos&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D30nBJ0w7mG8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller121-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-miller121_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-miller121_32-1">b</a> Miller, Joseph C. (1973), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4391189">Requiem for the "Jaga" (Requiem pour les "Jaga")</a>, Cahiers d'Études Africaines, Vol. 13, Cahier 49 (1973), pages 121-149 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirmingham2009" class="citation journal cs1">Birmingham, David (2009). "The Date and Significance of the Imbangala Invasion of Angola". The Journal of African History. 6 (2): 143–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700005569">10.1017/S0021853700005569</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162907442">162907442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Date+and+Significance+of+the+Imbangala+Invasion+of+Angola&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-152&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700005569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162907442%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Birmingham&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina1966" class="citation journal cs1">Vansina, Jan (1966). "More on the Invasions of Kongo and Angola by the Jaga and the Lunda". Journal of African History. 7 (3): 421–429. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700006502">10.1017/s0021853700006502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162366748">162366748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=More+on+the+Invasions+of+Kongo+and+Angola+by+the+Jaga+and+the+Lunda&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=421-429&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853700006502&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162366748%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromont2014" class="citation book cs1">Fromont, Cécile (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ax8VBQAAQBAJ">The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo</a>. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 6–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1871-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1871-5"><bdi>978-1-4696-1871-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Conversion%3A+Christian+Visual+Culture+in+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.pages=6-8&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-1871-5&rft.aulast=Fromont&rft.aufirst=C%C3%A9cile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAx8VBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina2010" class="citation book cs1">Vansina, Jan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYRwo8SqqRwC">Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880–1960</a>. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-23643-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-23643-4"><bdi>978-0-299-23643-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Colonized%3A+The+Kuba+Experience+in+Rural+Congo%2C+1880%E2%80%931960&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-299-23643-4&rft.aulast=Vansina&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYRwo8SqqRwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaige1978" class="citation book cs1">Paige, Jeffrey M. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iuROQYHKmL8C">Agrarian Revolution</a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. 216–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-923550-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-923550-8"><bdi>978-0-02-923550-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agrarian+Revolution&rft.pages=216-217&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-02-923550-8&rft.aulast=Paige&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiuROQYHKmL8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lagamma104-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lagamma104_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lagamma104_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lagamma104_38-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaGamma2015" class="citation book cs1">LaGamma, Alisa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylRVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Kongo: Power and Majesty</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 103–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7"><bdi>978-1-58839-575-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo%3A+Power+and+Majesty&rft.pages=103-104&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-575-7&rft.aulast=LaGamma&rft.aufirst=Alisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DylRVCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Thornton, John (1983), The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–1718, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage2003" class="citation book cs1">Page (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC">Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 778–780. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576073353" title="Special:BookSources/9781576073353"><bdi>9781576073353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism%3A+An+International+Social%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Political+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=778-780&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781576073353&rft.au=Page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqFTHBoRvQbsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lagamma103-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lagamma103_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lagamma103_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaGamma2015" class="citation book cs1">LaGamma, Alisa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylRVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Kongo: Power and Majesty</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7"><bdi>978-1-58839-575-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo%3A+Power+and+Majesty&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-575-7&rft.aulast=LaGamma&rft.aufirst=Alisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DylRVCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1998" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Adj9j5IXIgAC">The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684-1706</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 113–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59649-7"><bdi>978-0-521-59649-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kongolese+Saint+Anthony%3A+Dona+Beatriz+Kimpa+Vita+and+the+Antonian+Movement%2C+1684-1706&rft.pages=113-117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59649-7&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdj9j5IXIgAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thornton214-43"><a href="#cite_ref-thornton214_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1998" class="citation book cs1">Thornton (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Adj9j5IXIgAC">The Kongolese Saint Anthony</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2, 214–215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521596497" title="Special:BookSources/9780521596497"><bdi>9780521596497</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kongolese+Saint+Anthony&rft.pages=1-2%2C+214-215&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780521596497&rft.au=Thornton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdj9j5IXIgAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988">, Quote: "Dona Beatriz had sought to end the wars that fed this trade in humans...." </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton1998p1-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton1998p1_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1998" class="citation book cs1">Thornton (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Adj9j5IXIgAC">The Kongolese Saint Anthony</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–3, 81–82, 162–163, 184–185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521596497" title="Special:BookSources/9780521596497"><bdi>9780521596497</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kongolese+Saint+Anthony&rft.pages=1-3%2C+81-82%2C+162-163%2C+184-185&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780521596497&rft.au=Thornton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAdj9j5IXIgAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaGamma2015" class="citation book cs1">LaGamma, Alisa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylRVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Kongo: Power and Majesty</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 104–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-575-7"><bdi>978-1-58839-575-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo%3A+Power+and+Majesty&rft.pages=104-108&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-575-7&rft.aulast=LaGamma&rft.aufirst=Alisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DylRVCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eltis2015-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eltis2015_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltis2015_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltis2015_46-2">c</a> Eltis, David, and David Richardson (2015), Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 2nd Edition, Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300212549" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300212549">978-0300212549</a>; Archive: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/intro-maps">Slave Route Maps</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161122214155/http://slavevoyages.org/assessment/intro-maps">Archived</a> 2016-11-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, see Map 9; The transatlantic slave trade volume over the 350+ years involved an estimated 12.5 million Africans, almost every country that bordered the Atlantic ocean, as well as Mozambique and the Swahili coast. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalasRichards2004" class="citation journal cs1">Salas, Antonio; Richards, Martin; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182259">"The African Diaspora: Mitochondrial DNA and the Atlantic Slave Trade"</a>. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (3). Elsevier: 454–465. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F382194">10.1086/382194</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182259">1182259</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14872407">14872407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+African+Diaspora%3A+Mitochondrial+DNA+and+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=454-465&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182259%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14872407&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F382194&rft.aulast=Salas&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Richards%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vansina11-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vansina11_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vansina11_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVansina2010" class="citation book cs1">Vansina (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYRwo8SqqRwC">Being Colonized</a>. 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Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822376705" title="Special:BookSources/9780822376705"><bdi>9780822376705</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talking+to+the+Dead%3A+Religion%2C+Music%2C+and+Lived+Memory+among+Gullah%2FGeechee+Women&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780822376705&rft.aulast=Manigault-Bryant&rft.aufirst=LeRhonda+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddw8tBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dspirits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thornton73-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thornton73_63-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeywoodThornton2002" class="citation book cs1">Heywood, Linda M.; Thornton, John K. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 72–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00278-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00278-3"><bdi>978-0-521-00278-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+and+Ceremonial+Life+in+the+Kongo+and+Mbundu+Areas&rft.btitle=Central+Africans+and+Cultural+Transformations+in+the+American+Diaspora&rft.pages=72-77&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00278-3&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=Linda+M.&rft.au=Thornton%2C+John+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1rEgAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DReligious%2Band%2BCeremonial%2BLife%2Bin%2Bthe%2BKongo%2Band%2BMbundu%2BAreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2012" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Ras Michael (2012-08-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1rEgAwAAQBAJ">African-Atlantic Cultures and the South Carolina Lowcountry</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26, 27, 90–102, 106–110, 119–121, 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-56104-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-56104-4"><bdi>978-1-139-56104-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-Atlantic+Cultures+and+the+South+Carolina+Lowcountry&rft.pages=26%2C+27%2C+90-102%2C+106-110%2C+119-121%2C+123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-08-27&rft.isbn=978-1-139-56104-4&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Ras+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1rEgAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thornton84-65"><a href="#cite_ref-thornton84_65-0">^</a> Thornton (2002), "Religious and Ceremonial Life," pp. 84–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1984" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/181386">"The Development of an African Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1491–1750"</a>. Journal of African History. 25 (2): 147–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700022830">10.1017/s0021853700022830</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/181386">181386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162511713">162511713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+an+African+Catholic+Church+in+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo%2C+1491%E2%80%931750&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=147-167&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162511713%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F181386%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853700022830&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F181386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> MacGaffey, Wyatt, Religion and Society in Central Africa: The Bakongo of Lower Zaire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubin" class="citation news cs1">Subin, Anna Della. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/culture/marshall-sahlins-new-science-enchanted-universe/">"The enchanted worlds of Marshall Sahlins"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+enchanted+worlds+of+Marshall+Sahlins&rft.aulast=Subin&rft.aufirst=Anna+Della&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Fculture%2Fmarshall-sahlins-new-science-enchanted-universe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHersak2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hersak, Dunja (2001). 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Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 71 (2): 614–640. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fafr.2001.71.4.614">10.3366/afr.2001.71.4.614</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1161582">1161582</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145680078">145680078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africa%3A+Journal+of+the+International+African+Institute&rft.atitle=There+Are+Many+Kongo+Worlds%3A+Particularities+of+Magico-Religious+Beliefs+among+the+Vili+and+Yombe+People+of+Congo-Brazzaville&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=614-640&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145680078%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1161582%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fafr.2001.71.4.614&rft.aulast=Hersak&rft.aufirst=Dunja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Janzen, John, Lemba, 1650–1930: a drum of affliction in Africa and the New World (New York, Garland, 1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Hein Vanhee, "Central African Popular Christianity and the Development of Voudou Religion in Haiti," in Heywood, Central Africans, pp. 243–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris2006p153-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morris2006p153_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris2006p153_72-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2006" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Brian (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA153">Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction</a>. 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Indiana University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33698-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33698-8"><bdi>0-253-33698-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo+Political+Culture%3A+The+Conceptual+Challenge+of+the+Particular&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-253-33698-8&rft.aulast=MacGaffey&rft.aufirst=Wyatt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVwF77SIQ0HsC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKongo+people" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvaAlshamaliSilvaCarrilho2015" class="citation journal cs1">Silva, Marina; Alshamali, Farida; Silva, Paula; Carrilho, Carla; Mandlate, Flávio; Jesus Trovoada, Maria; Černý, Viktor; Pereira, Luísa; Soares, Pedro (2015-07-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4515592">"60,000 years of interactions between Central and Eastern Africa documented by major African mitochondrial haplogroup L2"</a>. 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Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo: 16th to 19th centuries. New York: Random House.</li> <li>Batsîkama Ba Mampuya Ma Ndâwala, Raphaël (1966–1998). Voici les Jaga. Paris: L'Harmattan.</li> <li>Bockie, Simon (1993). Death and the Invisible Powers: The World of Kongo Belief Bloomington: Indiana University Press</li> <li>Eckholm-Friedman, Kajsa (1991). Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture Reading and Amsterdam: Harwood</li> <li>Fu-kiau kia Bunseki (1969). Le mukongo et le monde que l'entourait/N'kongo ye nza yakundidila Kinshasa: Office national de le recherche et de le devéloppement (Réimpression 2021, Paari éditeur).</li> <li>Hilton, Anne (1982). The Kingdom of Kongo. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Heusch, Luc de (2000). Le roi de Kongo et les monstres sacrės. Paris: Gallimard.</li> <li>Janzen, John (1982). Lemba, 1650–1932: A Drum of Affliction in Africa and the New World. New York: Garland.</li> <li>Laman, Karl (1953–1968). The Kongo Uppsala: Alqvist and Wilsells.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1970). Custom and Government in the Lower Congo. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1977). "Fetishism Revisited: Kongo nkisi in sociological perspective," Africa 47/2, pp. 140–52.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1983). Modern Kongo Prophets: Religion in a Plural Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1986). Religion and Society in Central Africa: The BaKongo of Lower Zaire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1991), ed. and trans. <a href="//archive.org/details/monographseries16artandhealingofthebakongocommented" class="extiw" title="iarchive:monographseries16artandhealingofthebakongocommented">Art and Healing of the Bakongo commented upon by themselves: Minkisi from the Laman Collection.</a> Bloomington: Indiana University Press and Stockholm: Folkens-museum etnografiska.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (1994). "The Eye of Understanding: Kongo minkisi" in Astonishment and Power Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 21–103.</li> <li>MacGaffey, Wyatt (2000). Kongo Political Culture: The Conceptual Challenge of the Particular Bloomington: Indiana University Press.</li> <li>Nsondė, Jean de Dieu (1995). Langues, histoire, et culture Koongo aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles Paris: L'Harmattan.</li> <li>Randles, William G. L. (1968). L'ancien royaume du Congo des origines à la fin du XIX e siècle. Paris: Mouton</li> <li>Thompson, Robert Farris (1983). Flash of the Spirit New York: Random House.</li> <li>Thompson, Robert Farris and Jean Cornet (1981). Four Moments of the Sun. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press</li> <li>Thornton, John (1983). The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–1718. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.</li> <li>Thornton, John (1998). The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>RESCOVA, Joaquim pedro neto (2022). Mariage Traditionnel Kongo - Makuela -: Corps résistant du langage culturel bantu. La Loupe, N'Tamo (Brazzaville): Paari éditeur.</li> <li>Volavka, Zdenka (1998). Crown and Ritual: The Royal Insignia of Ngoyo ed. Wendy A Thomas. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.</li> <li>Richard Serge ZINGOULA (2021). Lexique des Anthroponymes kongo: Lutangulu lua mazina. La Loupe, N'Tamo (Brazzaville): Paari éditeur.</li> <li>Aristóteles Kandimba (2019). O Livro dos Nomes de Angola : Cerca de 2.000 nomes de origem Bantu. 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Angola">Ethnic groups in Angola</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilians_in_Angola" title="Brazilians in Angola">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people" title="Chokwe people">Chokwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_people" title="Herero people">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himba_people" title="Himba people">Himba</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_people" title="ǃKung people">ǃKung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovale_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Lovale people">Lovale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_people" title="Lozi people">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunda_people" title="Lunda people">Lunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbunda_people" title="Mbunda people">Mbunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucubal_people" title="Mucubal people">Mucubal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovambo_people" title="Ovambo people">Ovambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovimbundu" title="Ovimbundu">Ovimbundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Angolans" title="White Angolans">White Angolans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angolans" title="Portuguese Angolans">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Angolans" title="German Angolans">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_South_Africans" title="Norwegian South Africans">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsland_Trek" title="Dorsland Trek">Afrikaner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xindonga" title="Xindonga">Xindonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaka_people" title="Yaka people">Yaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yombe_people" title="Yombe people">Yombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemba" title="Zemba">Zemba</a></li></ul> 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navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alur_people" title="Alur people">Alur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyindu_people" title="Nyindu people">Nyindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_people" title="Amba people">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avukaya_people" title="Avukaya people">Avukaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baka_people_(Congo_and_South_Sudan)" title="Baka people (Congo and South Sudan)">Baka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakwa_Dishi_tribe" title="Bakwa Dishi tribe">Bakwa Dishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banda_people" title="Banda people">Banda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banyamulenge" title="Banyamulenge">Banyamulenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barambu_people" title="Barambu people">Barambu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bemba_people" title="Bemba people">Bemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bembe_people" title="Bembe people">Bembe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boa_people" title="Boa people">Boa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budu_people" title="Budu people">Budu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunda_people" title="Bunda people">Bunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwile_people" title="Bwile people">Bwile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people" title="Chokwe people">Chokwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengese_people" title="Dengese people">Dengese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ef%C3%A9_people" title="Efé people">Efé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furiiru_people" title="Furiiru people">Furiiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garanganze_people" title="Garanganze people">Garanganze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gbaya_people" title="Gbaya people">Gbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Twa" title="Great Lakes Twa">Great Lakes Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hema_people" title="Hema people">Hema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoholo_people" title="Holoholo people">Holoholo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iyaelima_people" title="Iyaelima people">Iyaelima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakwa_people" title="Kakwa people">Kakwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kango_people" title="Kango people">Kango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kele_people_(Congo)" title="Kele people (Congo)">Kele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keliko_people" title="Keliko people">Keliko</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konjo_people" title="Konjo people">Konjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lega_people" title="Lega people">Lega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lele_people" title="Lele people">Lele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lendu_language" title="Lendu language">Lendu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logo_people" title="Logo people">Logo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemba_people" title="Hemba people">Hemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulua_people" title="Lulua people">Lulua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_people" title="Lugbara people">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunda_people" title="Lunda people">Lunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lungu_people" title="Lungu people">Lungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makere_people" title="Makere people">Makere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayogo_people" title="Mayogo people">Mayogo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbaka_people" title="Mbaka people">Mbaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbetu_people" title="Mangbetu people">Mangbetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbo_people_(Congo)" title="Mbo people (Congo)">Mbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbole_people" title="Mbole people">Mbole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbunda_people" title="Mbunda people">Mbunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_people" title="Mbuti people">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongo_people" title="Mongo people">Mongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongo_Twa" title="Mongo Twa">Mongo Twa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono_people_(Congo)" title="Mono people (Congo)">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moru_people" title="Moru people">Moru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpama_people" title="Mpama people">Mpama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndaka_people" title="Ndaka people">Ndaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngando_people" title="Ngando people">Ngando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngata_people" title="Ngata people">Ngata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngbandi_people" title="Ngbandi people">Ngbandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyanga_people" title="Nyanga people">Nyanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pende_people" title="Pende people">Pende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanga_people" title="Sanga people">Sanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songora" class="mw-redirect" title="Songora">Songora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songye_people" title="Songye people">Songye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suku_people" title="Suku people">Suku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbu_people" title="Tagbu people">Tagbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teke_people" title="Teke people">Teke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetela_people" title="Tetela people">Tetela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topoke_people" title="Topoke people">Topoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbwe_people" title="Tumbwe people">Tumbwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turumbu_people" title="Turumbu people">Turumbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vira_people" title="Vira people">Vira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wochua_people" title="Wochua people">Wochua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaka_people" title="Yaka people">Yaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanzi_people" title="Yanzi people">Yanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakoma_people" title="Yakoma people">Yakoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yombe_people" title="Yombe people">Yombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yulu_people" title="Yulu people">Yulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zande_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Zande people">Zande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zyoba_people" title="Zyoba people">Zyoba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Chinese people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_people_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="White people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Europeans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Greeks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Jewish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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