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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_naturalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_and_medieval_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_medieval_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient and medieval philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_medieval_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Contemporary philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Providing_assumptions_required_for_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Providing_assumptions_required_for_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Providing assumptions required for science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Providing_assumptions_required_for_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodological_naturalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodological_naturalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methodological naturalism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodological_naturalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodological naturalism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodological_naturalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Views_on_methodological_naturalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_methodological_naturalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Views on methodological naturalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_methodological_naturalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-W._V._O._Quine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#W._V._O._Quine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>W. V. O. Quine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-W._V._O._Quine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karl_Popper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karl_Popper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Karl Popper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karl_Popper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alvin_Plantinga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alvin_Plantinga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Alvin Plantinga</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alvin_Plantinga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_T._Pennock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_T._Pennock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Robert T. Pennock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_T._Pennock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Naturalism (philosophy)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filosofie)" title="Naturalisme (filosofie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Naturalisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9)" title="المذهب الطبيعي (فلسفة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المذهب الطبيعي (فلسفة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalizm_(f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99)" title="Naturalizm (fəlsəfə) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Naturalizm (fəlsəfə)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87)" title="ناتورالیسم (فلسفه) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ناتورالیسم (فلسفه)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6_(%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8)" title="প্রকৃতিবাদ (দর্শন) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রকৃতিবাদ (দর্শন)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filosofia)" title="Naturalisme (filosofia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Naturalisme (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismus_(filozofie)" title="Naturalismus (filozofie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Naturalismus (filozofie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturiolaeth_(athroniaeth)" title="Naturiolaeth (athroniaeth) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Naturiolaeth (athroniaeth)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filosofi)" title="Naturalisme (filosofi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturalisme (filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismus_(Philosophie)" title="Naturalismus (Philosophie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturalismus (Philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(filosoofia)" title="Naturalism (filosoofia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Naturalism (filosoofia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismo_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Naturalismo (filosofía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Naturalismo (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismo_(filozofio)" title="Naturalismo (filozofio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Naturalismo (filozofio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismo_(filosofia)" title="Naturalismo (filosofia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Naturalismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87)" title="طبیعت‌گرایی (فلسفه) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="طبیعت‌گرایی (فلسفه)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(philosophie)" title="Naturalisme (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Naturalisme (philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98_(%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99)" title="자연주의 (철학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자연주의 (철학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Նատուրալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նատուրալիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6_(%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8)" title="प्रकृतिवाद (दर्शन) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रकृतिवाद (दर्शन)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalizam_(filozofija)" title="Naturalizam (filozofija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Naturalizam (filozofija)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filsafat)" title="Naturalisme (filsafat) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Naturalisme (filsafat)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismo" title="Naturalismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Naturalismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B0fer%C3%B0afr%C3%A6%C3%B0ileg_n%C3%A1tt%C3%BAruhyggja" title="Aðferðafræðileg náttúruhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Aðferðafræðileg náttúruhyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismo_(filosofia)" title="Naturalismo (filosofia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Naturalismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_(%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94)" title="נטורליזם (פילוסופיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נטורליזם (פילוסופיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Натурализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Натурализм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismus_(philosophia)" title="Naturalismus (philosophia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Naturalismus (philosophia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat%C5%ABralizmas_(filosofija)" title="Natūralizmas (filosofija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Natūralizmas (filosofija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalizmus_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Naturalizmus (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Naturalizmus (filozófia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natoralisma_(fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia)" title="Natoralisma (filôzôfia) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Natoralisma (filôzôfia)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filosofie)" title="Naturalisme (filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Naturalisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisme_(filosofi)" title="Naturalisme (filosofi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Naturalisme (filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the philosophical view. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Naturalism (disambiguation)">Naturalism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg/250px-Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg/375px-Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg/500px-Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Double_rainbow" class="mw-redirect" title="Double rainbow">Double rainbow</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite National Park</a>. According to naturalism, the causes of all phenomena are to be found within the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and not transcendental factors beyond it.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>naturalism</b> is the idea that only <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">natural laws</a> and forces (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> ones) operate in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its primary sense,<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is also known as <b>ontological naturalism</b>, <b>metaphysical naturalism</b>, <b>pure naturalism</b>, <b>philosophical naturalism</b> and <b>antisupernaturalism</b>. "Ontological" refers to <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the philosophical study of what exists. Philosophers often treat naturalism as equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, but there are important distinctions between the philosophies. </p><p>For example, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">material</a> principles. These principles include <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a> accepted by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">ghosts</a> are not real and that there is no "<a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">purpose</a>" in nature. This stronger formulation of naturalism is commonly referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">metaphysical naturalism</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-KurtzDistinction_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KurtzDistinction-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the more moderate view that naturalism should be assumed in one's working methods as the current paradigm, without any further consideration of whether naturalism is true in the robust metaphysical sense, is called <i>methodological naturalism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheists</a> – who believe that nature is identical with divinity while not recognizing a distinct personal anthropomorphic god – <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theists</a> challenge the idea that nature contains all of reality. According to some theists, natural laws may be viewed as <a href="/wiki/Secondary_causation" title="Secondary causation">secondary causes</a> of God(s). </p><p>In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>, and other philosophers argued that the success of naturalism in science meant that scientific methods should also be used in philosophy. According to this view, science and philosophy are not always distinct from one another, but instead form a <a href="/wiki/Continuum_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuum (theory)">continuum</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Naturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number of philosophical and religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative doctrines as an attitude or spirit pervading and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies, this tendency consists essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in attempting to explain everything in terms of nature. Either the limits of nature are also the limits of existing reality, or at least the first cause, <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">if its existence is found necessary</a>, has nothing to do with the working of natural agencies. All events, therefore, find their adequate explanation within nature itself. But, as the terms nature and natural are themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far from having one fixed meaning".</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#CITEREFDubray1911">Dubray 1911</a></cite></div></blockquote> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_naturalism">History of naturalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of materialism">History of materialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_metaphysical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of metaphysical realism">History of metaphysical realism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_medieval_philosophy">Ancient and medieval philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient and medieval philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Naturalism is most notably a <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> phenomenon, but an equivalent idea has long existed in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">East</a>. Naturalism was the foundation of two out of six orthodox schools and one heterodox school of Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, one of the oldest schools of Indian philosophy puts nature (<a href="/wiki/Prakriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakriti">Prakriti</a>) as the primary cause of the universe, without assuming the existence of a personal God or <a href="/wiki/Ishwara" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishwara">Ishvara</a>. The Carvaka, Nyaya, Vaisheshika schools originated in the 7th, 6th, and 2nd century BCE, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, though unnamed and never articulated into a coherent system, one tradition within <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> philosophy embraced a form of Naturalism dating to the <a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a> in the 1st century, if not earlier, but it arose independently and had little influence on the development of modern naturalist philosophy or on Eastern or Western culture. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anaximander_Mosaic_(cropped,_with_sundial).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Anaximander_Mosaic_%28cropped%2C_with_sundial%29.jpg/220px-Anaximander_Mosaic_%28cropped%2C_with_sundial%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Anaximander_Mosaic_%28cropped%2C_with_sundial%29.jpg/330px-Anaximander_Mosaic_%28cropped%2C_with_sundial%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Anaximander_Mosaic_%28cropped%2C_with_sundial%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="367" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Roman mosaic showing Anaximander holding a sundial. One of the contributors to naturalism in ancient Greek philosophy</figcaption></figure> <p>Western metaphysical naturalism originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a>. The earliest <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosopher">pre-Socratic philosophers</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Atomists" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomists">atomists</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>), were labeled by their peers and successors "the <i>physikoi</i>" (from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> φυσικός or <i>physikos</i>, meaning "natural philosopher" borrowing on the word φύσις or <i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">physis</a></i>, meaning "nature") because they investigated natural causes, often excluding any role for gods in the creation or operation of the world. This eventually led to fully developed systems such as <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a>, which sought to explain everything that exists as the product of atoms falling and swerving in a void.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Plato's world of eternal and unchanging <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Forms</a>, imperfectly represented in matter by a divine <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Artisan</a>, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic <i><a href="/wiki/Weltanschauungen" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltanschauungen">Weltanschauungen</a></i>, of which <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> was, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> while the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> adopted a <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">divine teleology</a> <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system. This was how Aristotle… when still a young acolyte of Plato, saw matters. <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>… preserves Aristotle's own <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">cave-image</a>: if <a href="/wiki/Troglodytae" title="Troglodytae">troglodytes</a> were brought on a sudden into the upper world, they would immediately suppose it to have been intelligently arranged. But Aristotle grew to abandon this view; although he believes in a divine being, the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Prime Mover</a> is not the <a href="/wiki/Efficient_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient cause">efficient cause</a> of action in the Universe, and plays no part in constructing or arranging it <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> But, although he rejects the divine Artificer, Aristotle does not resort to a pure mechanism of random forces. Instead he seeks to find a middle way between the two positions, one which relies heavily on the notion of Nature, or <i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">phusis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>With the rise and dominance of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the West and the later spread of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, metaphysical naturalism was generally abandoned by intellectuals. Thus, there is little evidence for it in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was not until the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern era of philosophy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> that naturalists like <a href="/wiki/Benedict_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedict Spinoza">Benedict Spinoza</a> (who put forward a theory of <a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">psychophysical parallelism</a>), <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the proponents of <a href="/wiki/French_materialism" title="French materialism">French materialism</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julien_La_Mettrie" class="mw-redirect" title="Julien La Mettrie">Julien La Mettrie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a>) started to emerge again in the 17th and 18th centuries. In this period, some metaphysical naturalists adhered to a distinct doctrine, <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, which became the dominant category of metaphysical naturalism widely defended until the end of the 19th century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> was a proponent of naturalism in ethics who acknowledged normative truths and properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Abizadeh_2018_p._23_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abizadeh_2018_p._23-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> rejected (<a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionist</a>) materialist positions in metaphysics,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he was not hostile to naturalism. His <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental philosophy">transcendental philosophy</a> is considered to be a form of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_naturalism" title="Liberal naturalism">liberal naturalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/220px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/330px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/440px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3674" data-file-height="4783" /></a><figcaption>Hegel who together with Joseph von Schelling developed the form of natural philosophy recognised as <i>Naturphilosophie</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Late_modern_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern philosophy">late modern philosophy</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a></i>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, was developed by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling</a><sup id="cite_ref-Beiser_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beiser-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a><sup id="cite_ref-Beiser_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beiser-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as an attempt to comprehend nature in its totality and to outline its general theoretical structure. </p><p>A version of naturalism that arose after Hegel was <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological materialism">anthropological materialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which influenced <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, Engels's "materialist dialectic" <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of nature">philosophy of nature</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Nature" title="Dialectics of Nature">Dialectics of Nature</a></i>), and their follower <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another notable school of late modern philosophy advocating naturalism was <a href="/wiki/German_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="German materialism">German materialism</a>: members included <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_B%C3%BCchner" title="Ludwig Büchner">Ludwig Büchner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Moleschott" title="Jacob Moleschott">Jacob Moleschott</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Vogt" title="Carl Vogt">Carl Vogt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current usage of the term naturalism "derives from debates in America in the first half of the 20th century. The self-proclaimed 'naturalists' from that period included <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hook" title="Sidney Hook">Sidney Hook</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wood_Sellars" title="Roy Wood Sellars">Roy Wood Sellars</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Naturalism_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naturalism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_philosophy">Contemporary philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contemporary philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A politicized version of naturalism that has arisen in contemporary philosophy is <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a>. Objectivism is an expression of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethical_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical idealism">ethical idealism</a> within a naturalistic framework. An example of a more progressive naturalistic philosophy is <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular humanism</a>. </p><p>The current usage of the term naturalism "derives from debates in America in the first half of the last century.<sup id="cite_ref-Naturalism_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naturalism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, metaphysical naturalism is more widely embraced than in previous centuries, especially but not exclusively in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> and the Anglo-American, <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophical</a> communities. While the vast majority of the population of the world remains firmly committed to non-naturalistic worldviews, contemporary defenders of naturalism and/or naturalistic theses and doctrines today include <a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">David Papineau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Leiter" title="Brian Leiter">Brian Leiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Devitt" title="Michael Devitt">Michael Devitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Schaffer" title="Jonathan Schaffer">Jonathan Schaffer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonard_Olson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonard Olson (page does not exist)">Leonard Olson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith" title="Quentin Smith">Quentin Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Martin_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Martin (philosopher)">Michael Martin</a>, among many other academic philosophers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">David Papineau</a>, contemporary naturalism is a consequence of the build-up of scientific evidence during the twentieth century for the "<a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">causal closure</a> of the physical", the doctrine that all physical effects can be accounted for by physical causes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By the middle of the twentieth century, the acceptance of the causal closure of the physical realm led to even stronger naturalist views. The <a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">causal closure</a> thesis implies that any mental and biological causes must themselves be physically constituted, if they are to produce physical effects. It thus gives rise to a particularly strong form of ontological naturalism, namely the physicalist doctrine that any state that has physical effects must itself be physical. From the 1950s onwards, philosophers began to formulate arguments for ontological physicalism. Some of these arguments appealed explicitly to the causal closure of the physical realm (Feigl 1958, Oppenheim and Putnam 1958). In other cases, the reliance on causal closure lay below the surface. However, it is not hard to see that even in these latter cases the causal closure thesis played a crucial role.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2007">Papineau 2007</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In contemporary <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Meillassoux" title="Quentin Meillassoux">Quentin Meillassoux</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Speculative_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative materialism">speculative materialism</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Post-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Kantian">post-Kantian</a> return to David Hume which can strengthen classical materialist ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This speculative approach to philosophical naturalism has been further developed by other contemporary thinkers including <a href="/wiki/Ray_Brassier" title="Ray Brassier">Ray Brassier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drew_Dalton" title="Drew Dalton">Drew M. Dalton</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "methodological naturalism" is much more recent, though. According to <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Numbers" title="Ronald Numbers">Ronald Numbers</a>, it was coined in 1983 by Paul de Vries, a <a href="/wiki/Wheaton_College,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheaton College, Illinois">Wheaton College</a> philosopher. De Vries distinguished between what he called "methodological naturalism", a disciplinary method that says nothing about God's existence, and "metaphysical naturalism", which "denies the existence of a transcendent God".<sup id="cite_ref-nick_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nick-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "methodological naturalism" had been used in 1937 by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_S._Brightman" title="Edgar S. Brightman">Edgar S. Brightman</a> in an article in <i>The Philosophical Review</i> as a contrast to "naturalism" in general, but there the idea was not really developed to its more recent distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg/149px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg/224px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg/298px-Hubble_ultra_deep_field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3100" data-file-height="3100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">Hubble Ultra-Deep Field</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammarion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/177px-Flammarion.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/266px-Flammarion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flammarion.jpg/354px-Flammarion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3614" data-file-height="3027" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Flammarion_engraving" title="Flammarion engraving">Flammarion engraving</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A 21st century image of the universe and a 1888 illustration of the cosmos</div></div></div></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Steven_Schafersman" title="Steven Schafersman">Steven Schafersman</a>, naturalism is a philosophy that maintains that; </p> <ol><li>"Nature encompasses all that <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">exists</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space and time</a>;</li> <li>Nature (the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatio-temporal <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> substance – <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> –<a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>. Non-physical or quasi-physical <a href="/wiki/Substance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance (philosophy)">substance</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Values" class="mw-redirect" title="Values">values</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">intellect</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emergent phenomena</a>, either <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervene</a> upon the physical or can be <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">reduced</a> to a physical account;</li> <li>Nature operates by the laws of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and in principle, can be explained and understood by science and philosophy;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> does not exist, i.e., only nature is <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a>. Naturalism is therefore a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> philosophy opposed primarily by supernaturalism".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Or, as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> succinctly put it: "<i>The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Danto" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur C. Danto">Arthur C. Danto</a> states that naturalism, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical monism according to which whatever exists or happens is <i>natural</i> in the sense of being susceptible to explanation through methods which, although paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are continuous from domain to domain of objects and events. Hence, naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that there exists or could exist any entities which lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanto1967448_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanto1967448-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone20082_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20082-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Newell_Strahler" title="Arthur Newell Strahler">Arthur Newell Strahler</a> states: "The naturalistic view is that the particular universe we observe came into existence and has operated through all time and in all its parts without the impetus or guidance of any supernatural agency."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The great majority of contemporary philosophers urge that that reality is exhausted by nature, containing nothing 'supernatural', and that the scientific method should be used to investigate all areas of reality, including the 'human spirit'." Philosophers widely regard naturalism as a "positive" term, and "few active philosophers nowadays are happy to announce themselves as 'non-naturalists'". "Philosophers concerned with religion tend to be less enthusiastic about 'naturalism'" and that despite an "inevitable" divergence due to its popularity, if more narrowly construed, (to the chagrin of <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Hornsby" title="Jennifer Hornsby">Jennifer Hornsby</a>, for example), those not so disqualified remain nonetheless content "to set the bar for 'naturalism' higher."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> stated that Naturalism is presumed to not be a religion. However, in one very important respect it resembles religion by performing the cognitive function of a religion. There is a set of deep human questions to which a religion typically provides an answer. In like manner naturalism gives a set of answers to these questions".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Assumptions"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Providing_assumptions_required_for_science">Providing assumptions required for science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Providing assumptions required for science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that cannot be tested by scientific processes;<sup id="cite_ref-Priddy_1998_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priddy_1998-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is, that scientists must start with some assumptions as to the ultimate analysis of the facts with which it deals. These assumptions would then be justified partly by their adherence to the types of occurrence of which we are directly conscious, and partly by their success in representing the observed facts with a certain generality, devoid of <i>ad hoc</i> suppositions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitehead1997135_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitehead1997135-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn</a> also claims that all science is based on assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions – a paradigm – comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the "correct" paradigm, and there is no such thing as <i>supernatural</i>, i.e. anything above, beyond, or outside of nature. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, including the human spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some claim that naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists, and that the following basic assumptions are needed to justify the scientific method:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>That there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />"The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurak2008-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than live with <a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobottka200511_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobottka200511-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (May 2023)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i>That this objective reality is governed by natural laws</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />"Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys knowable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurak2008-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and comprehensible."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>That reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Stanley Sobottka said: "The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part, science is the discovering and explaining of the external world."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobottka200511_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobottka200511-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (May 2023)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup> "Science attempts to produce knowledge that is as universal and objective as possible within the realm of human understanding."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurak2008-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>That Nature has uniformity of laws and most if not all things in nature must have at least a natural cause.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Biologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> referred to these two closely related propositions as the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of known processes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simpson agrees that the axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past in order to meaningfully study it.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations. (Since the assumption is itself vindicated by induction, it can in no way "prove" the validity of induction — an endeavor virtually abandoned after Hume demonstrated its futility two centuries ago)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1965223–228_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1965223–228-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gould also notes that natural processes such as Lyell's "uniformity of process" are an assumption: "As such, it is another <i>a priori</i> assumption shared by all scientists and not a statement about the empirical world."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould198411_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould198411-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to R. Hooykaas: "The principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a principle, preceding the observation of facts ... It is the logical principle of parsimony of causes and of economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there are an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHooykaas196338_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHooykaas196338-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>That experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or unintentional mistakes that will influence the results</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>That experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>That random sampling is representative of the entire population.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The benefit of SRS is that the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the population that ensures statistically valid conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodological_naturalism">Methodological naturalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methodological naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/220px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/330px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/440px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle, one of the philosophers behind the modern day scientific method used as a central term in methodological naturalism</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Methodological naturalism</b>, the second sense of the term "naturalism", (see above) is "the adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism … with or without fully accepting or believing it.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Pennock" title="Robert T. Pennock">Robert T. Pennock</a> used the term to clarify that the scientific method confines itself to natural explanations without assuming the existence or non-existence of the supernatural.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "We may therefore be agnostic about the ultimate truth of [philosophical] naturalism, but nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature is all that there is."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Numbers" title="Ronald Numbers">Ronald Numbers</a>, the term "methodological naturalism" was coined in 1983 by Paul de Vries, a <a href="/wiki/Wheaton_College,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheaton College, Illinois">Wheaton College</a> philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-nick_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nick-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Schafersman and Strahler assert that it is illogical to try to decouple the two senses of naturalism. "While science as a process only requires methodological naturalism, the practice or adoption of methodological naturalism entails a logical and moral belief in philosophical naturalism, so they are not logically decoupled."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This “[philosophical] naturalistic view is espoused by science as its fundamental assumption."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But <a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Eugenie Scott</a> finds it imperative to do so for the expediency of deprogramming the religious. "Scientists can defuse some of the opposition to evolution by first recognizing that the vast majority of Americans are believers, and that most Americans want to retain their faith." Scott apparently believes that "individuals can retain religious beliefs and still accept evolution through methodological naturalism. Scientists should therefore avoid mentioning metaphysical naturalism and use methodological naturalism instead."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Even someone who may disagree with my logic … often understands the strategic reasons for separating methodological from philosophical naturalism—if we want more Americans to understand evolution."<sup id="cite_ref-Scott2008_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scott’s approach has found success as illustrated in Ecklund’s study where some religious scientists reported that their religious beliefs affect the way they think about the implications – often moral – of their work, but not the way they practice science within methodological naturalism.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Papineau notes that "Philosophers concerned with religion tend to be less enthusiastic about metaphysical naturalism and that those not so disqualified remain content "to set the bar for 'naturalism' higher."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to Schafersman, Strahler, and Scott, Robert T. Pennock, an expert witness<sup id="cite_ref-auto_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a> trial and cited by the Judge in his <i>Memorandum Opinion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-kitz_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kitz-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> described "methodological naturalism" stating that it is not based on dogmatic metaphysical naturalism.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pennock further states that as supernatural agents and powers "are above and beyond the natural world and its agents and powers" and "are not constrained by natural laws", only logical impossibilities constrain what a supernatural agent cannot do. In addition he says: "If we could apply natural knowledge to understand supernatural powers, then, by definition, they would not be supernatural." "Because the supernatural is necessarily a mystery to us, it can provide no grounds on which one can judge scientific models." "Experimentation requires observation and control of the variables.... But by definition we have no control over supernatural entities or forces." </p><p>The position that the study of the function of nature is also the study of the origin of nature is in contrast with opponents who take the position that functioning of the cosmos is unrelated to how it originated. While they are open to supernatural fiat in its invention and coming into existence, during scientific study to explain the functioning of the cosmos, they do not appeal to the supernatural. They agree that allowing "science to appeal to untestable supernatural powers to explain how nature functions would make the scientist's task meaningless, undermine the discipline that allows science to make progress, and would be as profoundly unsatisfying as the ancient Greek playwright's reliance upon the <i><a href="/wiki/Deus_ex_machina" title="Deus ex machina">deus ex machina</a></i> to extract his hero from a difficult predicament."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_methodological_naturalism">Views on methodological naturalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Views on methodological naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="W._V._O._Quine">W. V. O. Quine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: W. V. O. Quine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a> describes naturalism as the position that there is no higher tribunal for truth than natural science itself. In his view, there is no better method than the scientific method for judging the claims of science, and there is neither any need nor any place for a "first philosophy", such as (abstract) <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, that could stand behind and justify science or the scientific method. </p><p>Therefore, philosophy should feel free to make use of the findings of scientists in its own pursuit, while also feeling free to offer criticism when those claims are ungrounded, confused, or inconsistent. In Quine's view, philosophy is "continuous with" science, and <i>both</i> are empirical.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudder_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudder-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naturalism is not a dogmatic belief that the modern view of science is entirely correct. Instead, it simply holds that science is the best way to explore the processes of the universe and that those processes are what modern science is striving to understand.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karl_Popper">Karl Popper</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Karl Popper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> equated naturalism with <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a> theory of science. He rejected it based on his general critique of induction (see <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">problem of induction</a>), yet acknowledged its utility as means for inventing conjectures. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A naturalistic methodology (sometimes called an "inductive theory of science") has its value, no doubt. <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> I reject the naturalistic view: It is uncritical. Its upholders fail to notice that whenever they believe to have discovered a fact, they have only proposed a convention. Hence the convention is liable to turn into a dogma. This criticism of the naturalistic view applies not only to its criterion of meaning, but also to its idea of science, and consequently to its idea of empirical method.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Karl R. Popper, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i>, (Routledge, 2002), pp. 52–53, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27844-9">0-415-27844-9</a>.</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Popper instead proposed that science should adopt a methodology based on <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> for <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation</a>, because no number of experiments can ever prove a theory, but a single experiment can contradict one. Popper holds that scientific theories are characterized by falsifiability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alvin_Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alvin Plantinga"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">Notre Dame</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a>, has become a well-known critic of naturalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Beilby2002p9_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beilby2002p9-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2018)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> He suggests, in his <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_argument_against_naturalism" title="Evolutionary argument against naturalism">evolutionary argument against naturalism</a>, that the probability that evolution has produced humans with <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliable true beliefs</a>, is low or inscrutable, unless the evolution of humans was guided (for example, by God). According to David Kahan of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Glasgow" title="University of Glasgow">University of Glasgow</a>, in order to understand how beliefs are warranted, a justification must be found in the context of <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> theism, as in Plantinga's epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>(See also <a href="/wiki/Supernormal_stimuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernormal stimuli">supernormal stimuli</a>).</i> </p><p>Plantinga argues that together, naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable "<i>defeater</i> for the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical argument">skeptical argument</a> along the lines of Descartes' <a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">evil demon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat" title="Brain in a vat">brain in a vat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beilby2002_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beilby2002-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Take <i>philosophical naturalism</i> to be the belief that there aren't any supernatural entities – no such person as God, for example, but also no other supernatural entities, and nothing at all like God. My claim was that naturalism and contemporary evolutionary theory are at serious odds with one another – and this despite the fact that the latter is ordinarily thought to be one of the main pillars supporting the edifice of the former. (Of course I am <i>not</i> attacking the theory of evolution, or anything in that neighborhood; I am instead attacking the conjunction of <i>naturalism</i> with the view that human beings have evolved in that way. I see no similar problems with the conjunction of <i>theism</i> and the idea that human beings have evolved in the way contemporary evolutionary science suggests.) More particularly, I argued that the conjunction of naturalism with the belief that we human beings have evolved in conformity with current evolutionary doctrine <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> is in a certain interesting way self-defeating or self-referentially incoherent.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Alvin Plantinga, <i>Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism</i>, "Introduction"<sup id="cite_ref-Beilby2002_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beilby2002-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The argument is controversial and has <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_argument_against_naturalism#Fitelson_and_Sober's_response" title="Evolutionary argument against naturalism">been criticized</a> as seriously flawed, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Elliott Sober</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_T._Pennock">Robert T. Pennock</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Robert T. Pennock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Pennock" title="Robert T. Pennock">Robert T. Pennock</a> states that as <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> agents and powers "are above and beyond the natural world and its agents and powers" and "are not constrained by natural laws", only logical impossibilities constrain what a supernatural agent cannot do. He says: "If we could apply natural knowledge to understand supernatural powers, then, by definition, they would not be supernatural." As the supernatural is necessarily a mystery to us, it can provide no grounds on which one can judge scientific models. "Experimentation requires observation and control of the variables.... But by definition we have no control over supernatural entities or forces." Science does not deal with meanings; the closed system of scientific reasoning cannot be used to define itself. Allowing science to appeal to untestable supernatural powers would make the scientist's task meaningless, undermine the discipline that allows science to make progress, and "would be as profoundly unsatisfying as the ancient Greek playwright's reliance upon the <i><a href="/wiki/Deus_ex_machina" title="Deus ex machina">deus ex machina</a></i> to extract his hero from a difficult predicament."<sup id="cite_ref-lettuce_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lettuce-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Naturalism of this sort says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural, which by this definition is beyond natural testing. As a practical consideration, the rejection of supernatural explanations would merely be pragmatic, thus it would nonetheless be possible for an ontological supernaturalist to espouse and practice methodological naturalism. For example, scientists may believe in God while practicing methodological naturalism in their scientific work. This position does not preclude knowledge that is somehow connected to the supernatural. Generally however, anything that one can examine and explain scientifically would not be supernatural, simply by definition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_universe" title="Clockwork universe">Clockwork universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysteleology" title="Dysteleology">Dysteleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_naturalism" title="Legal naturalism">Legal naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_naturalism" title="Liberal naturalism">Liberal naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalist_computationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist computationalism">Naturalist computationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_pantheism" title="Naturalistic pantheism">Naturalistic pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of nature">Philosophy of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonized_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonized naturalism">Platonized naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poetic naturalism">Poetic naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_naturalism" title="Sociological naturalism">Sociological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernaturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernaturalism">Supernaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental naturalism">Transcendental naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/125337?redirectedFrom=naturalism">"naturalism"</a>. <i>Oxford English Dictionary Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=naturalism&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F125337%3FredirectedFrom%3Dnaturalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapineau2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">Papineau, David</a> (22 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2007/entries/naturalism/#NatPhy">"Naturalism"</a>. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <q>According to philosopher Steven Lockwood, naturalism can be separated into an <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> sense and a <a href="/wiki/Methodological" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological">methodological</a> sense.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2007-02-22&rft.aulast=Papineau&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2007%2Fentries%2Fnaturalism%2F%23NatPhy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KurtzDistinction-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KurtzDistinction_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz,_Paul1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Kurtz, Paul</a> (Spring 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018023306/http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/fi/kurtz_18_2.html">"Darwin Re-Crucified: Why Are So Many Afraid of Naturalism?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Free_Inquiry" title="Free Inquiry">Free Inquiry</a></i>. <b>18</b> (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/fi/kurtz_18_2.html">the original</a> on 18 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Free+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Darwin+Re-Crucified%3A+Why+Are+So+Many+Afraid+of+Naturalism%3F&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Kurtz%2C+Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.secularhumanism.org%2Flibrary%2Ffi%2Fkurtz_18_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchafersman1996">Schafersman 1996</a>, Methodological naturalism is the adoption or assumption of naturalism in scientific belief and practice without really believing in naturalism.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjee2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chatterjee, A (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/naturalism-india/">"Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism+in+Classical+Indian+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Fall+2014+Edition%29&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Chatterjee&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2014%2Fentries%2Fnaturalism-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiepe1996" class="citation book cs1">Riepe, Dale (1996). <i>Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought</i>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 227–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120812932" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120812932"><bdi>978-8120812932</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalistic+Tradition+in+Indian+Thought&rft.pages=227-246&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-8120812932&rft.aulast=Riepe&rft.aufirst=Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman1999" class="citation book cs1">Leaman, Oliver (1999). <i>Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy</i>. Routledge. p. 269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415173629" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415173629"><bdi>978-0415173629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Eastern+Philosophy&rft.pages=269&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0415173629&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keefe2010" class="citation book cs1">O'Keefe, Tim (2010). <i>Epicureanism</i>. University of California Press. pp. 11–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicureanism&rft.pages=11-13&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=O%27Keefe&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See especially <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, books I and II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankinson1997" class="citation book cs1">Hankinson, R. J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwfy-n5IWL8C"><i>Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4"><bdi>978-0-19-924656-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cause+and+Explanation+in+Ancient+Greek+Thought&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924656-4&rft.aulast=Hankinson&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Diwfy-n5IWL8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Edward Morris, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume/">"David Hume"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (21 May 2014), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abizadeh_2018_p._23-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abizadeh_2018_p._23_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbizadeh2018" class="citation book cs1">Abizadeh, A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CWJjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23"><i>Hobbes and the Two Faces of Ethics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41729-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41729-7"><bdi>978-1-108-41729-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hobbes+and+the+Two+Faces+of+Ethics&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-108-41729-7&rft.aulast=Abizadeh&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCWJjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohlf2020" class="citation book cs1">Rohlf, Michael (28 July 2020). "Immanuel Kant". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020-07-28&rft.aulast=Rohlf&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanna, Robert, <i>Kant, Science, and Human Nature</i>. Clarendon Press, 2006, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beiser-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beiser_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beiser_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a>(2002), <i>German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism 1781–1801</i>, Harvard university Press, p. 506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Axel_Honneth" title="Axel Honneth">Axel Honneth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Joas" title="Hans Joas">Hans Joas</a>, <i>Social Action and Human Nature</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Georgi Plekhanov, "For the Sixtieth Anniversary of Hegel's Death" (1891). See also Plekhanov, <i>Essays on the History of Materialism</i> (1893) and Plekhanov, <i>The Development of the Monist View of History</i> (1895).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Owen Chadwick, <i>The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 165: "During the 1850s German ... scientists conducted a controversy known ... as the materialistic controversy. It was specially associated with the names of Vogt, Moleschott and Büchner" and p. 173: "Frenchmen were surprised to see Büchner and Vogt. ... [T]he French were surprised at German materialism".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nineteenth_Century_and_After" class="mw-redirect" title="The Nineteenth Century and After">The Nineteenth Century and After</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-VXAAAAIAAJ&q=">Vol. 151</a>, 1952, p. 227: "the Continental materialism of Moleschott and Buchner".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naturalism-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Naturalism_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naturalism_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Papineau, David <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism/">"Naturalism"</a>, in "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapineau2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">Papineau, David</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160601180141/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511570797">"The Rise of Physicalism"</a>. In Gillett, Carl; Loewer, Barry (eds.). <i>Physicalism and its Discontents</i>. Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511570797">10.1017/CBO9780511570797</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521801751" title="Special:BookSources/9780521801751"><bdi>9780521801751</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511570797">the original</a> on 1 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Physicalism&rft.btitle=Physicalism+and+its+Discontents&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511570797&rft.isbn=9780521801751&rft.aulast=Papineau&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febooks.cambridge.org%2Febook.jsf%3Fbid%3DCBO9780511570797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Meillassoux" title="Quentin Meillassoux">Quentin Meillassoux</a> (2008), <i>After Finitude</i>, Bloomsbury, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nick-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nick_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nick_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nick_Matzke" title="Nick Matzke">Nick Matzke</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/03/on_the_origins.html">On the Origins of Methodological Naturalism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060903191457/http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/03/on_the_origins.html">Archived</a> 2006-09-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>The Pandas Thumb</i> (March 20, 2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120801144730/http://www.calvin.edu/archive/asa/200603/0501.html">"ASA March 2006 – Re: Methodological Naturalism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calvin.edu/archive/asa/200603/0501.html">the original</a> on 1 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ASA+March+2006+%E2%80%93+Re%3A+Methodological+Naturalism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.calvin.edu%2Farchive%2Fasa%2F200603%2F0501.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafersman1996_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchafersman1996">Schafersman 1996</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (2002). <i>Cosmos</i>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375508325" title="Special:BookSources/9780375508325"><bdi>9780375508325</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780375508325&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanto1967448-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanto1967448_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanto1967">Danto 1967</a>, p. 448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone20082-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone20082_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2008">Stone 2008</a>, p. 2: Personally, I place great emphasis on the phrase "in principle", since there are many things that science does not now explain. And perhaps we need some natural piety concerning the ontological limit question as to why there is anything at all. But the idea that naturalism is a polemical notion is important"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrahler19923_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrahler1992">Strahler 1992</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapineau2007_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2007">Papineau 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFPlantinga2010">Plantinga 2010</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Priddy_1998-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Priddy_1998_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriddy1998" class="citation book cs1">Priddy, Robert (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robertpriddy.com/lim/5.html">"Chapter Five, Scientific Objectivity in Question"</a>. <i>Science Limited</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Five%2C+Scientific+Objectivity+in+Question&rft.btitle=Science+Limited&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Priddy&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frobertpriddy.com%2Flim%2F5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitehead1997135-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitehead1997135_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhitehead1997">Whitehead 1997</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoldman2007" class="citation web cs1">Boldman, Lee (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p98831/pdf/ch0615.pdf">"Chapter 6, The Privileged Status of Science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+6%2C+The+Privileged+Status+of+Science&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Boldman&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-files.anu.edu.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpress%2Fp98831%2Fpdf%2Fch0615.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Papineau, David <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism/">"Naturalism"</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, quote, "The great majority of contemporary philosophers would happily... reject 'supernatural' entities, and allow that science is a possible route (if not necessarily the only one) to important truths about the 'human spirit'."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003vii_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2003">Heilbron 2003</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen20091–2_37-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2009">Chen 2009</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurak2008-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurak2008_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurak2008">Durak 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaccaro" class="citation web cs1">Vaccaro, Joan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ict.griffith.edu.au/joan/atheism/reality.php">"Reality"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reality&rft.aulast=Vaccaro&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ict.griffith.edu.au%2Fjoan%2Fatheism%2Freality.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaccaro" class="citation web cs1">Vaccaro, Joan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ict.griffith.edu.au/joan/atheism/objectivism.php">"Objectiveism"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2017</span>. <q>Objective reality exists beyond or outside our self. Any belief that it arises from a real world outside us is actually an assumption. It seems more beneficial to assume that an objective reality exists than to live with solipsism, and so people are quite happy to make this assumption. In fact we made this assumption unconsciously when we began to learn about the world as infants. The world outside ourselves appears to respond in ways which are consistent with it being real. The assumption of objectivism is essential if we are to attach the contemporary meanings to our sensations and feelings and make more sense of them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Objectiveism&rft.aulast=Vaccaro&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ict.griffith.edu.au%2Fjoan%2Fatheism%2Fobjectivism.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobottka200511-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobottka200511_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobottka200511_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSobottka2005">Sobottka 2005</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGauch2002">Gauch 2002</a>, p. 154, "Expressed as a single grand statement, science presupposes that the physical world is orderly and comprehensible. The most obvious components of this comprehensive presupposition are that the physical world exists and that our sense perceptions are generally reliable."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. 120, "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws or the working of known processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop of rock."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson1963">Simpson 1963</a>, pp. 24–48, "Uniformity is an unprovable postulate justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second, only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould1965223–228-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould1965223–228_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1965">Gould 1965</a>, pp. 223–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGould198411-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGould198411_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1984">Gould 1984</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHooykaas196338-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHooykaas196338_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHooykaas1963">Hooykaas 1963</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180102073443/http://www.betterevaluation.org/evaluation-options/simplerandom">"Simple Random Sampling"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://betterevaluation.org/evaluation-options/simplerandom">the original</a> on 2 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2018</span>. <q>A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. Each SRS is made of individuals drawn from a larger population, completely at random. As a result, said individuals have an equal chance of being selected throughout the sampling process. The benefit of SRS is that as a result, the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample which is representative of the population, which ensures statistically valid conclusions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Simple+Random+Sampling&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbetterevaluation.org%2Fevaluation-options%2Fsimplerandom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day3am2.html">"Kitzmiller v. Dover: Day 3, AM: Robert Pennock (continued)"</a>. <i>www.talkorigins.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.talkorigins.org&rft.atitle=Kitzmiller+v.+Dover%3A+Day+3%2C+AM%3A+Robert+Pennock+%28continued%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Fdover%2Fday3am2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Scott, Eugenie C.</a> (1996). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Creationism, Ideology, and Science"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Gross; Levitt; Lewis (eds.). <i>The Flight From Science and Reason</i>. The New York Academy of Sciences. pp. 519–520.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Creationism%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Science%22&rft.btitle=The+Flight+From+Science+and+Reason&rft.pages=519-520&rft.pub=The+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Eugenie+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott2008-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scott2008_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Scott, Eugenie C.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ncse.com/religion/science-religion-methodology-humanism">"Science and Religion, Methodology and Humanism"</a>. NCSE<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion%2C+Methodology+and+Humanism&rft.pub=NCSE&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Eugenie+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Freligion%2Fscience-religion-methodology-humanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEcklund2010" class="citation book cs1">Ecklund, Elaine Howard (2010). <i>Science vs. Religion: What Scientists Really Think</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195392982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195392982"><bdi>978-0195392982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+vs.+Religion%3A+What+Scientists+Really+Think&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0195392982&rft.aulast=Ecklund&rft.aufirst=Elaine+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kitz-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kitz_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[[wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#4. Whether ID is Science |Kitzmiller v. Dover: Whether ID is Science]]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day3am2.html">"Kitzmiller v. Dover: Day 3, AM: Robert Pennock (continued)"</a>. <i>www.talkorigins.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.talkorigins.org&rft.atitle=Kitzmiller+v.+Dover%3A+Day+3%2C+AM%3A+Robert+Pennock+%28continued%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Fdover%2Fday3am2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennock2015" class="citation web cs1">Pennock, Robert T. (10 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150610013620/http://www.msu.edu/~pennock5/research/papers/Pennock_SupNatExpl.html">"Supernaturalist Explanations..."</a> <i>msu.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msu.edu/~pennock5/research/papers/Pennock_SupNatExpl.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=msu.edu&rft.atitle=Supernaturalist+Explanations...&rft.date=2015-06-10&rft.aulast=Pennock&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msu.edu%2F~pennock5%2Fresearch%2Fpapers%2FPennock_SupNatExpl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudder-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rudder_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynne_Rudder2013" class="citation book cs1">Lynne Rudder (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9G_bIWzgjFkC&pg=PA5"><i>Naturalism and the First-Person Perspective</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199914746" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199914746"><bdi>978-0199914746</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalism+and+the+First-Person+Perspective&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199914746&rft.au=Lynne+Rudder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9G_bIWzgjFkC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quine has argued that "Epistemology, or something like it, simply falls into place as a chapter of psychology." The Quinean view that we should abandon epistemology for psychology, however, is not widely accepted by contemporary naturalists in epistemology. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Feldman, Richard (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2012/entries/epistemology-naturalized/">"Naturalized Epistemology"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2012 ed.)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2014</span>. <q>Quinean Replacement Naturalism finds relatively few supporters.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalized+Epistemology&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2012&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2012%2Fentries%2Fepistemology-naturalized%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beilby2002p9-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beilby2002p9_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeilby2002" class="citation book cs1">Beilby, J.K. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p40tc_T7-rMC&pg=PR9"><i>Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism</i></a>. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Cornell University Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801487637" title="Special:BookSources/9780801487637"><bdi>9780801487637</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001006111">2001006111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalism+Defeated%3F%3A+Essays+on+Plantinga%27s+Evolutionary+Argument+Against+Naturalism&rft.series=G+%E2%80%93+Reference%2C+Information+and+Interdisciplinary+Subjects+Series&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001006111&rft.isbn=9780801487637&rft.aulast=Beilby&rft.aufirst=J.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp40tc_T7-rMC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104024641/http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPWAPF&Cover=TRUE">"Gifford Lecture Series – Warrant and Proper Function 1987–1988"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPWAPF&Cover=TRUE">the original</a> on 4 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gifford+Lecture+Series+%E2%80%93+Warrant+and+Proper+Function+1987%E2%80%931988&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.giffordlectures.org%2FBrowse.asp%3FPubID%3DTPWAPF%26Cover%3DTRUE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga2010" class="citation web cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (11 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chronicle.com/article/Evolution-Shibboleths-and/64990/">"Evolution, Shibboleths, and Philosophers — Letters to the Editor"</a>. The Chronicle of Higher Education. <q>...I do indeed think that evolution functions as a contemporary shibboleth by which to distinguish the ignorant fundamentalist goats from the informed and scientifically literate sheep.<br /><br />According to Richard Dawkins, 'It is absolutely safe to say that, if you meet somebody who claims not to believe in evolution, that person is ignorant, stupid, or insane (or wicked, but I'd rather not consider that).' Daniel Dennett goes Dawkins one (or two) further: 'Anyone today who doubts that the variety of life on this planet was produced by a process of evolution is simply ignorant—inexcusably ignorant.' You wake up in the middle of the night; you think, can that whole Darwinian story really be true? Wham! You are inexcusably ignorant.<br /><br />I do think that evolution has become a modern idol of the tribe. But of course it doesn't even begin to follow that I think the scientific theory of evolution is false. And I don't.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution%2C+Shibboleths%2C+and+Philosophers+%E2%80%94+Letters+to+the+Editor&rft.pub=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.date=2010-04-11&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchronicle.com%2Farticle%2FEvolution-Shibboleths-and%2F64990%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1993" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1993). <i>Warrant and Proper Function</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chap. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507863-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507863-2"><bdi>0-19-507863-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warrant+and+Proper+Function&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=Chap.+11&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-507863-2&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beilby2002-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beilby2002_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beilby2002_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeilby2002" class="citation book cs1">Beilby, J.K., ed. (2002). "Introduction by Alvin Plantinga". <i>Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism</i>. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p40tc_T7-rMC&pg=PA1">1–2, 10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8763-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8763-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-8763-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001006111">2001006111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+by+Alvin+Plantinga&rft.btitle=Naturalism+Defeated%3F%3A+Essays+on+Plantinga%27s+Evolutionary+Argument+Against+Naturalism&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.series=Reference%2C+Information+and+Interdisciplinary+Subjects+Series&rft.pages=1-2%2C+10&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2001006111&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8763-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOppyTrakakis2014" class="citation book cs1">Oppy, Graham; Trakakis, N. N. (11 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2h_BAAAQBAJ&q=Although+the+argument+has+been+criticized+by+some+philosophers%2C+like+Elliott+Sober&pg=PT305"><i>Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion: The History of Western Philosophy of Religion</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54638-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-54638-2"><bdi>978-1-317-54638-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twentieth-Century+Philosophy+of+Religion%3A+The+History+of+Western+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-09-11&rft.isbn=978-1-317-54638-2&rft.aulast=Oppy&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft.au=Trakakis%2C+N.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2h_BAAAQBAJ%26q%3DAlthough%2Bthe%2Bargument%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Bcriticized%2Bby%2Bsome%2Bphilosophers%252C%2Blike%2BElliott%2BSober%26pg%3DPT305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitelsonSober1998" class="citation journal cs1">Fitelson, Branden; Sober, Elliott (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/FITPPA">"Plantinga's Probability Arguments Against Evolutionary Naturalism"</a>. <i>Pacific Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>79</b> (2): 115–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0114.00053">10.1111/1468-0114.00053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Plantinga%27s+Probability+Arguments+Against+Evolutionary+Naturalism&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=115-129&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0114.00053&rft.aulast=Fitelson&rft.aufirst=Branden&rft.au=Sober%2C+Elliott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FFITPPA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lettuce-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lettuce_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT.2015" class="citation web cs1">T., Robert (10 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150610013620/http://www.msu.edu/~pennock5/research/papers/Pennock_SupNatExpl.html">"Supernaturalist Explanations..."</a> <i>msu.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msu.edu/~pennock5/research/papers/Pennock_SupNatExpl.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=msu.edu&rft.atitle=Supernaturalist+Explanations...&rft.date=2015-06-10&rft.aulast=T.&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msu.edu%2F~pennock5%2Fresearch%2Fpapers%2FPennock_SupNatExpl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References_2">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAudi1996" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert (1996). "Naturalism". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy Supplement</i>. USA: Macmillan Reference. pp. 372–374.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+Supplement&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=372-374&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrier2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Carrier" title="Richard Carrier">Carrier, Richard</a> (2005). <i>Sense and Goodness without God: A defense of Metaphysical Naturalism</i>. AuthorHouse. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4208-0293-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4208-0293-3"><bdi>1-4208-0293-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sense+and+Goodness+without+God%3A+A+defense+of+Metaphysical+Naturalism&rft.pages=444&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4208-0293-3&rft.aulast=Carrier&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Christina S. (2009). Larson, Thomas (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lyceumphilosophy.com/?q=node/117">"Atheism and the Assumptions of Science and Religion"</a>. <i>Lyceum</i> (2): 1–10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lyceum&rft.atitle=Atheism+and+the+Assumptions+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Christina+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flyceumphilosophy.com%2F%3Fq%3Dnode%2F117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanto1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Danto" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur C. Danto">Danto, Arthur C.</a> (1967). "Naturalism". In Edwards, Paul (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. New York: The Macmillan. pp. 448–450.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=448-450&rft.pub=The+Macmillan&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Danto&rft.aufirst=Arthur+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubray1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dubray, Charles Albert (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Naturalism"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Naturalism">"Naturalism" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Dubray&rft.aufirst=Charles+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurak2008" class="citation web cs1">Durak, Antoine Berke (6 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lambda-diode.com/opinion/the-nature-of-reality-and-knowledge">"The nature of reality and knowledge"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+reality+and+knowledge&rft.date=2008-06-06&rft.aulast=Durak&rft.aufirst=Antoine+Berke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flambda-diode.com%2Fopinion%2Fthe-nature-of-reality-and-knowledge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauch2002" class="citation book cs1">Gauch, Hugh G. (2002). <i>Scientific Method in Practice</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Method+in+Practice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Gauch&rft.aufirst=Hugh+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1965" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, S. J. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223">"Is uniformitarianism necessary?"</a>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. <b>263</b> (3): 223–228. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AmJS..263..223G">1965AmJS..263..223G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223">10.2475/ajs.263.3.223</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Is+uniformitarianism+necessary%3F&rft.volume=263&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=223-228&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965AmJS..263..223G&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2475%252Fajs.263.3.223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Gould" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen J. Gould">Gould, Stephen J.</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catastropheseart00berg">"Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history"</a></span>. In Bergren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.). <i>Catastrophes and Earth History</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Toward+the+vindication+of+punctuational+change+in+catastrophes+and+earth+history&rft.btitle=Catastrophes+and+Earth+History&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatastropheseart00berg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Gould" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen J. Gould">Gould, Stephen J.</a> (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0"><i>Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0/page/119">119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time%27s+Arrow%2C+Time%27s+Cycle%3A+Myth+and+Metaphor+in+the+Discovery+of+Geological+Time&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimesarrowtimesc00step_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">Heilbron, John L.</a>, ed. (2003). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_the_History_of_Modern_Science" title="The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science">The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195112290" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195112290"><bdi>978-0195112290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0195112290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooykaas1963" class="citation book cs1">Hooykaas, R. (1963). <i>The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology</i> (2nd ed.). London: E.J. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+principle+of+uniformity+in+geology%2C+biology%2C+and+theology&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Hooykaas&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Kurtz, Paul</a> (1990). <i>Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism</i>. Prometheus Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Essays+in+Pragmatic+Naturalism&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Kurtz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacey1995" class="citation book cs1">Lacey, Alan R. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond">"Naturalism"</a></span>. In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/604">604–606</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0"><bdi>978-0-19-866132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=604-606&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866132-0&rft.aulast=Lacey&rft.aufirst=Alan+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPost1995" class="citation book cs1">Post, John F. (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgediction00audi_0">"Naturalism"</a></span>. In Audi, Robert (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgediction00audi_0/page/517">517–518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=517-518&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgediction00audi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRea2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rea" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Rea">Rea, Michael</a> (2002). <i>World Without Design: The Ontological Consequences of Naturalism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-924760-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-924760-9"><bdi>0-19-924760-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Without+Design%3A+The+Ontological+Consequences+of+Naturalism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-924760-9&rft.aulast=Rea&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (2002). <i>Cosmos</i>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50832-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50832-5"><bdi>978-0-375-50832-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-375-50832-5&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchafersman1996" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Schafersman" title="Steven Schafersman">Schafersman, Steven D.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190705061915/http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/schafersman_nat.html">"Naturalism is Today An Essential Part of Science"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/schafersman_nat.html">the original</a> on 5 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naturalism+is+Today+An+Essential+Part+of+Science&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Schafersman&rft.aufirst=Steven+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stephenjaygould.org%2Fctrl%2Fschafersman_nat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1963" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, C. C. Jr. (ed.). <i>Fabric of geology</i>. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+science&rft.btitle=Fabric+of+geology&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Freeman%2C+Cooper%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=G.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSobottka2005" class="citation web cs1">Sobottka, Stanley (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stillnessspeaks.com/images/uploaded/file/Sobottka.pdf">"Consciousness"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consciousness&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Sobottka&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stillnessspeaks.com%2Fimages%2Fuploaded%2Ffile%2FSobottka.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrahler1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Newell_Strahler" title="Arthur Newell Strahler">Strahler, Arthur N.</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingsci0000stra"><i>Understanding Science: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues</i></a></span>. Buffalo: Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780879757243" title="Special:BookSources/9780879757243"><bdi>9780879757243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Science%3A+An+Introduction+to+Concepts+and+Issues&rft.place=Buffalo&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780879757243&rft.aulast=Strahler&rft.aufirst=Arthur+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingsci0000stra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2008" class="citation book cs1">Stone, J.A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LZcjzjsXrHMC&pg=PA2"><i>Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative</i></a>. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. State University of New York Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7537-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7537-9"><bdi>978-0-7914-7537-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007048682">2007048682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Naturalism+Today%3A+The+Rebirth+of+a+Forgotten+Alternative&rft.series=G+%E2%80%93+Reference%2C+Information+and+Interdisciplinary+Subjects+Series&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007048682&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7537-9&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLZcjzjsXrHMC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehead1997" class="citation book cs1">Whitehead, A.N. (1997) [1920]. <i>Science and the Modern World</i>. Lowell Lectures. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83639-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83639-3"><bdi>978-0-684-83639-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/67002244">67002244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+Modern+World&rft.series=Lowell+Lectures&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67002244&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83639-3&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=A.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANaturalism+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Mario De Caro and David Macarthur (eds) <i>Naturalism in Question.</i> Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2004.</li> <li>Mario De Caro and David Macarthur (eds) <i>Naturalism and Normativity.</i> New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.</li> <li>Friedrich Albert Lange, <i>The History of Materialism,</i> London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co Ltd, 1925, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22525-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-22525-6">0-415-22525-6</a></li> <li>David Macarthur, "Quinean Naturalism in Question," Philo. vol 11, no. 1 (2008).</li> <li>Sander Verhaeg, <i><a href="/wiki/Working_from_Within:_The_Nature_and_Development_of_Quine%27s_Naturalism" title="Working from Within: The Nature and Development of Quine's Naturalism">Working from Within: The Nature and Development of Quine's Naturalism</a></i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto 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\"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-pnlkl","timestamp":"20241122150442","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Naturalism (philosophy)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naturalism_(philosophy)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q56000","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q56000","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-04-05T02:31:36Z","dateModified":"2024-11-13T23:17:32Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/08\/Rainbow_at_Half_Dome.jpg","headline":"belief that only natural laws, entities and forces operate in the universe"}</script> </body> </html>