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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Underdetermination and evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underdetermination_and_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_involving_underdetermination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_involving_underdetermination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Arguments involving underdetermination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_involving_underdetermination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments involving underdetermination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_involving_underdetermination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epistemological_problem_of_the_indeterminacy_of_data_to_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemological_problem_of_the_indeterminacy_of_data_to_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemological_problem_of_the_indeterminacy_of_data_to_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_skeptical_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_skeptical_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>General skeptical arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_skeptical_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Idea in the philosophy of science</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the mathematical term involving systems of linear equations, see <a href="/wiki/Underdetermined_system" title="Underdetermined system">Underdetermined system</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <b>underdetermination</b> or the <b>underdetermination of theory by data</b> (sometimes abbreviated UTD) is the idea that evidence available to us at a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we should hold in response to it.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>underdetermination thesis</i> says that all evidence necessarily underdetermines any scientific theory.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Underdetermination exists when available evidence is insufficient to identify which belief one should hold about that evidence. For example, if all that was known was that exactly $10 were spent on apples and oranges, and that apples cost $1 and oranges $2, then one would know enough to eliminate some possibilities (e.g., 6 oranges could not have been purchased), but one would not have enough evidence to know which specific combination of apples and oranges were purchased. In this example, one would say that belief in what combination was purchased is underdetermined by the available evidence. </p><p>In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Overdetermination" title="Overdetermination">overdetermination</a> in philosophy of science means that more evidence is available than is necessary to justify a conclusion. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skeptics</a> argued for <i>equipollence</i>, the view that reasons for and against claims are equally balanced. This captures at least one sense of saying that the claims themselves are underdetermined. </p><p>Underdetermination, again under different labels, arises in the modern period in the work of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. Among other skeptical arguments, Descartes presents two arguments involving underdetermination. His <a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">dream argument</a> points out that experiences perceived while dreaming (for example, falling) do not necessarily contain sufficient information to deduce the true situation (being in bed). He concluded that since one cannot always distinguish dreams from reality, one cannot rule out the possibility that one is dreaming rather than having <a href="/wiki/Veridical_dream" class="mw-redirect" title="Veridical dream">veridical</a> experiences; thus the conclusion that one is having a veridical experience is underdetermined. His <a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">demon argument</a> posits that all of one's experiences and thoughts might be manipulated by a very powerful and deceptive "evil demon". Once again, so long as the perceived reality appears internally consistent to the limits of one's limited ability to tell, the situation is indistinguishable from reality and one cannot logically determine that such a demon does not exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Underdetermination_and_evidence">Underdetermination and evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Underdetermination and evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To show that a conclusion is underdetermined, one must show that there is a rival conclusion that is equally well supported by the standards of evidence. A trivial example of underdetermination is the addition of the statement "whenever we look for evidence" (or more generally, any statement which cannot be <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsified</a>). For example, the conclusion "objects near earth fall toward it when dropped" might be opposed by "objects near earth fall toward it when dropped but only when one checks to see that they do." Since one may append this to any conclusion, all conclusions are at least trivially underdetermined. If one considers such statements to be illegitimate, e.g. by applying <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Occam's Razor">Occam's Razor</a>, then such "tricks" are not considered demonstrations of underdetermination. </p><p>This concept also applies to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theories</a>: for example, it is similarly trivial to find situations that a theory does not address. For example, <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> did not distinguish between non-accelerating <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">reference frames</a>. As a result, any conclusion about such a reference frame was underdetermined; it was equally consistent with the theory to say that the solar system is at rest, as it is to say that it moves at any constant velocity in any particular direction. Newton himself stated that these possibilities were indistinguishable. More generally, evidence may not always be sufficient to distinguish between competing theories (or to determine a different theory that will unify both), as is the case with <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. </p><p>Another example is provided by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" title="Theory of Colours">Theory of Colours</a></i>: "Newton believed that with the help of his prism experiments, he could prove that sunlight was composed of variously coloured rays of light. Goethe showed that this step from observation to theory is more problematic than Newton wanted to admit. By insisting that the step to theory is not forced upon us by the phenomena, Goethe revealed our own free, creative contribution to theory construction. And Goethe's insight is surprisingly significant, because he correctly claimed that all of the results of Newton's prism experiments fit a theoretical alternative equally well. If this is correct, then by suggesting an alternative to a well-established physical theory, Goethe developed the problem of underdetermination a century before <a href="/wiki/Duhem%E2%80%93Quine_thesis" title="Duhem–Quine thesis">Duhem and Quine's famous argument</a>." (Mueller, 2016)<sup id="cite_ref-Mueller_2016_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mueller_2016-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> says of this, "And I for one do not know how anyone, regardless of what his views about colours are, can deny that the theory in itself is fully consequent, that its assumptions, once granted, explain the facts treated completely and indeed simply".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bell_test" title="Bell test">Experimental violations of Bell inequality</a> show, that there are some limitations to underdetermination – every theory exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Local_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Local realism">local realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical independence">statistical independence</a> was disproved by this tests. Analogus limitations follow from <a href="/wiki/Kochen%E2%80%93Specker_theorem" title="Kochen–Specker theorem">Kochen–Specker experiments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-maudlin_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maudlin-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tests employ only correlations between results of measurements and therefore are able to bypass the issue of <a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">theory-ladenness</a> of observation.<sup id="cite_ref-maudlin_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maudlin-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_involving_underdetermination">Arguments involving underdetermination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arguments involving underdetermination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arguments involving underdetermination attempt to show that there is no reason to believe some conclusion because it is underdetermined by the evidence. Then, if the evidence available at a particular time can be equally well explained by at least one other hypothesis, there is no reason to believe it rather than the equally supported rival, which can be considered <a href="/wiki/Observational_equivalence" title="Observational equivalence">observationally equivalent</a> (although many other hypotheses may still be eliminated). </p><p>Because arguments involving underdetermination involve both a claim about what the evidence is and that such evidence underdetermines a conclusion, it is often useful to separate these two claims within the underdetermination argument as follows: </p> <ol><li>All the available evidence of a certain type underdetermines which of several rival conclusions is correct.</li> <li>Only evidence of that type is relevant to believing one of these conclusions.</li> <li>Therefore, there is no evidence for believing one among the rival conclusions.</li></ol> <p>The first premise makes the claim that a theory is underdetermined. The second says that rational decision (i.e. using available evidence) depends upon insufficient evidence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemological_problem_of_the_indeterminacy_of_data_to_theory">Epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any phenomenon can be explained by a multiplicity of hypotheses. How, then, can data ever be sufficient to prove a theory? This is the "<a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory". </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">poverty of the stimulus</a> argument and <a href="/wiki/W.V.O._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W.V.O. Quine">W.V.O. Quine</a>'s 1960 <a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_of_translation" title="Indeterminacy of translation">'Gavagai' example</a> are perhaps the most commented variants of the epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_skeptical_arguments">General skeptical arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: General skeptical arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some skeptical arguments appeal to the fact that no possible evidence could be incompatible with 'skeptical hypotheses' like the maintenance of a complex illusion by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>' evil demon or (in a modern version) the machines who run the <a href="/wiki/The_Matrix" title="The Matrix">Matrix</a>. A skeptic may argue that this undermines any claims to <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, or even (by internalist definitions), <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">justification</a>. </p><p>Philosophers have found this argument very powerful. <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a> felt it was unanswerable, but observed that it was in practice impossible to accept its conclusions. Influenced by this, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> held that while the nature of the '<a href="/wiki/Noumenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumenal">noumenal</a>' world was indeed unknowable, we could aspire to knowledge of the '<a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenal</a>' world. A similar response has been advocated by modern <a href="/wiki/Anti-realist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-realist">anti-realists</a>. </p><p>Underdetermined ideas are not implied to be incorrect (taking into account present evidence); rather, we cannot know if they are correct. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, underdetermination is often presented as a problem for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a>, which holds that we have reason to believe in entities that are not directly observable talked about by scientific theories. One such argument proceeds as follows (to be compared to the previous one): </p> <ol><li>All the available observational evidence for such entities underdetermines the claims of a scientific theory about such entities.</li> <li>Only the observational evidence is relevant to believing a scientific theory.</li> <li>Therefore, there is no evidence for believing what scientific theories say about such entities.</li></ol> <p>Particular responses to this argument attack both the first and the second premise (1 and 2). It is argued against the first premise that the underdetermination must be strong and/or inductive. It is argued against the second premise that there is evidence for a theory's truth besides observations; for example, it is argued that <a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">simplicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">explanatory power</a> or some other feature of a theory is evidence for it over its rivals. </p><p>A more general response from the scientific realist is to argue that underdetermination is no special problem for science, because, as indicated earlier in this article, all knowledge that is directly or indirectly supported by evidence suffers from it—for example, conjectures concerning unobserved <a href="/wiki/Observable" title="Observable">observables</a>. It is therefore too powerful an argument to have any significance in the philosophy of science, since it does not cast doubt uniquely on conjectured unobservables. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)" title="Indeterminacy (philosophy)">Indeterminacy (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">Poverty of the stimulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference_class_problem" title="Reference class problem">Reference class problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equifinality" title="Equifinality">Equifinality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_equivalence" title="Observational equivalence">Observational equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdetermination" title="Overdetermination">Overdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination/">"Underdetermination of Scientific Theory"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Underdetermination+of+Scientific+Theory&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscientific-underdetermination%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorton2003" class="citation web cs1">Norton, John D. (July 9–12, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/1702_jnrsnr_sem/1702_jnrsnr_seminar_2005/docs/underdet_thesis.pdf">"Must Evidence Underdetermine Theory?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Must+Evidence+Underdetermine+Theory%3F&rft.date=2003-07-09%2F2003-07-12&rft.aulast=Norton&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~jdnorton%2Fteaching%2F1702_jnrsnr_sem%2F1702_jnrsnr_seminar_2005%2Fdocs%2Funderdet_thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mueller_2016-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mueller_2016_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMueller2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mueller, Olaf L. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/MUEPE">"Prismatic Equivalence – A New Case of Underdetermination: Goethe vs. Newton on the Prism Experiments, 2016/2 (n° 24)"</a>. <i>British Journal for the History of Philosophy</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 323–347. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09608788.2015.1132671">10.1080/09608788.2015.1132671</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170843218">170843218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Prismatic+Equivalence+%E2%80%93+A+New+Case+of+Underdetermination%3A+Goethe+vs.+Newton+on+the+Prism+Experiments%2C+2016%2F2+%28n%C2%B0+24%29&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=323-347&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09608788.2015.1132671&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170843218%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mueller&rft.aufirst=Olaf+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FMUEPE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helmholtz, Hermann von. 1853. <i>Goethes Vorahnungen kommender naturwissenschaftlicher Ideen</i>. Berlin: Pastel. 1971. Philosophische Vortrdge und Aufsdtze. Ed. H. Horz and S. Wollgast. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgazzi2017" class="citation book cs1">Agazzi, Evandro, ed. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-51608-0"><i>Varieties of Scientific Realism</i></a>. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 312. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-51608-0">10.1007/978-3-319-51608-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51607-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-51607-3"><bdi>978-3-319-51607-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Varieties+of+Scientific+Realism&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=312&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51608-0&rft.isbn=978-3-319-51607-3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51608-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlai2019" class="citation journal cs1">Alai, Mario (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10516-018-9384-4">"The Underdetermination of Theories and Scientific Realism"</a>. <i>Axiomathes</i>. <b>29</b> (6): 621–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10516-018-9384-4">10.1007/s10516-018-9384-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11576%2F2661165">11576/2661165</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1122-1151">1122-1151</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126042452">126042452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Axiomathes&rft.atitle=The+Underdetermination+of+Theories+and+Scientific+Realism&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=621-637&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11576%2F2661165&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126042452%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1122-1151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10516-018-9384-4&rft.aulast=Alai&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10516-018-9384-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maudlin-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maudlin_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maudlin_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaudlin1996" class="citation cs2">Maudlin, Tim (1996), Cushing, James T.; Fine, Arthur; Goldstein, Sheldon (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-015-8715-0_20">"Space-Time in the Quantum World"</a>, <i>Bohmian Mechanics and Quantum Theory: An Appraisal</i>, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 184, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, p. 305, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-015-8715-0_20">10.1007/978-94-015-8715-0_20</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-4698-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-4698-7"><bdi>978-90-481-4698-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bohmian+Mechanics+and+Quantum+Theory%3A+An+Appraisal&rft.atitle=Space-Time+in+the+Quantum+World&rft.volume=184&rft.pages=305&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-015-8715-0_20&rft.isbn=978-90-481-4698-7&rft.aulast=Maudlin&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-94-015-8715-0_20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_T._CushingErnan_McMullin1989" class="citation book cs1">James T. Cushing; Ernan McMullin, eds. (1989). <i>Philosophical consequences of quantum theory : reflections on Bell's theorem</i>. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-01578-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-01578-3"><bdi>0-268-01578-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19352903">19352903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+consequences+of+quantum+theory+%3A+reflections+on+Bell%27s+theorem&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19352903&rft.isbn=0-268-01578-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underdetermination&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.sunyconnect.suny.edu/handle/1951/42590">Underdetermination and the Claims of Science</a> by P. D. Magnus</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanford2000" class="citation cs2">Stanford, Kyle (Winter 2000), <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-underdetermination"><i>Underdetermination of Scientific Theory</i></a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Underdetermination+of+Scientific+Theory&rft.pub=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Stanford&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fscientific-underdetermination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnderdetermination" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null 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href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a 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title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a 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of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. 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