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class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Emergentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesmerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesmerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mesmerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesmerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medical philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A" title="المذهب الحيوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المذهب الحيوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-kh%C3%AC-l%C5%ABn" title="Seng-khì-lūn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-khì-lūn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Віталізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Віталізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Витализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Витализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalizam" title="Vitalizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vitalizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismus" title="Vitalismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vitalismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismus" title="Vitalismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vitalismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vitalism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Βιταλισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιταλισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismo" title="Vitalismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vitalismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismo" title="Vitalismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vitalismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitalismo" title="Bitalismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bitalismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="حیات‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حیات‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatisme" title="Animatisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Animatisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismo" title="Vitalismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vitalismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EA%B8%B0%EB%A1%A0" title="생기론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생기론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Վիտալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիտալիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="प्राणतत्ववाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राणतत्ववाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismo" title="Vitalismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vitalismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="ויטליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויטליזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Витализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Витализм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Витализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Витализм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis_vitalis" title="Vis vitalis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vis vitalis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisma" title="Vitalisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vitalisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme_(filosofie)" title="Vitalisme (filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vitalisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%B0%97%E8%AB%96" title="生気論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生気論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalisme" title="Vitalisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vitalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalizm" title="Vitalizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vitalizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA" title="د ژوند اصالت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ژوند اصالت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witalizm" title="Witalizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Witalizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismo" title="Vitalismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vitalismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vitalism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Витализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Витализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalizmus_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Vitalizmus (biológia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vitalizmus (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Витализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Витализам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalizam" title="Vitalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vitalizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismi" title="Vitalismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vitalismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vitalism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalizm" title="Vitalizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vitalizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Віталізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Віталізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_l%E1%BB%B1c_lu%E1%BA%ADn" title="Sinh lực luận – 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Belief about living organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the non-mechanist philosophy. For the Jain philosophical concept, see <a href="/wiki/Vitalism_(Jainism)" title="Vitalism (Jainism)">Vitalism (Jainism)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Vital_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Vital (disambiguation)">Vital (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medicine" title="Category:Alternative medicine">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Outline-body-aura.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/60px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/90px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/120px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">General information</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alternative_medicine" title="History of alternative medicine">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine" title="Terminology of alternative medicine">Terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_veterinary_medicine" title="Alternative veterinary medicine">Alternative veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a> (health fraud)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine#19th_century:_rise_of_modern_medicine" title="History of medicine">Rise of modern medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_nihilism" title="Therapeutic nihilism">Therapeutic nihilism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Fringe medicine and science</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupressure" title="Acupressure">Acupressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_diet" title="Alkaline diet">Alkaline diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apitherapy" title="Apitherapy">Apitherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Research_and_Enlightenment" title="Association for Research and Enlightenment">Association for Research and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auriculotherapy" title="Auriculotherapy">Auriculotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_terrain_assessment" title="Biological terrain assessment">Biological terrain assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_salve" title="Black salve">Black salve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodywork_(alternative_medicine)" title="Bodywork (alternative medicine)">Bodywork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_bone-setting" title="Traditional bone-setting">Bone-setting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_technique" title="Bowen technique">Bowen technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathwork_(New_Age)" title="Breathwork (New Age)">Breathwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19" title="List of unproven methods against COVID-19">Fake COVID-19 treatments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camel_urine" title="Camel urine">Camel urine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments" title="Alternative cancer treatments">Cancer treatments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse" title="Activated charcoal cleanse">Charcoal cleanse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic_treatment_techniques" title="Chiropractic treatment techniques">Chiropractic treatment techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colloidal_silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloidal silver">Colloidal silver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_enema" title="Coffee enema">Coffee enema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorpuncture" title="Colorpuncture">Colorpuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craniosacral_therapy" title="Craniosacral therapy">Craniosacral therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy" title="Dental amalgam controversy">Dental amalgam controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_foot_baths" title="Detoxification foot baths">Foot detox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_needling" title="Dry needling">Dry needling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">Esoteric energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_touch" title="Therapeutic touch">Therapeutic touch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_dominance" title="Estrogen dominance">Estrogen dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabunan_Antiviral_Injection" title="Fabunan Antiviral Injection">Fabunan Antiviral Injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feldenkrais_Method" title="Feldenkrais Method">Feldenkrais Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_medicine" title="Functional medicine">Functional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_analysis_(alternative_medicine)" title="Hair analysis (alternative medicine)">Hair analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holistic_dentistry" title="Holistic dentistry">Holistic dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologram_bracelet" title="Hologram bracelet">Hologram bracelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bach_flower_remedies" title="Bach flower remedies">Bach flower remedies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrotherapy" title="Hydrotherapy">Hydrotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy" title="Hypnotherapy">Hypnotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionized_jewelry" title="Ionized jewelry">Ionized jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jilly_Juice" title="Jilly Juice">Jilly Juice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lightning_Process" title="The Lightning Process">Lightning Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphotherapy" title="Lymphotherapy">Lymphotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_therapy" title="Manual therapy">Manual therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manual_lymphatic_drainage" title="Manual lymphatic drainage">Manual lymphatic drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_intuitive" title="Medical intuitive">Medical intuitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavitamin_therapy" title="Megavitamin therapy">Megavitamin therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">Mesmerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Mind–body interventions">Mind–body interventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">MMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myofascial_release" title="Myofascial release">Myofascial release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambudripad%27s_Allergy_Elimination_Techniques" title="Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination Techniques">NAET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_pulling" title="Oil pulling">Oil pulling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine" title="Orthomolecular medicine">Orthomolecular medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopathy" title="Orthopathy">Orthopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomyology" title="Osteomyology">Osteomyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteopathy" title="Osteopathy">Osteopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_therapy" title="Ozone therapy">Ozone therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postural_Integration" title="Postural Integration">Postural Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic_surgery" title="Psychic surgery">Psychic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychodermatology" title="Psychodermatology">Psychodermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_healing" title="Quantum healing">Quantum healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexology" title="Reflexology">Reflexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichian_body-oriented_psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichian body-oriented psychotherapy">RBOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolfing" title="Rolfing">Rolfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ThetaHealing" title="ThetaHealing">ThetaHealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomsonianism" title="Thomsonianism">Thomsonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy" title="Thought Field Therapy">Thought Field Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urophagia" title="Urophagia">Urophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_steaming" title="Vaginal steaming">Vaginal steaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetotherapy" title="Vegetotherapy">Vegetotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_therapy" title="Vision therapy">Vision therapy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_balancing" title="Zero balancing">Zero balancing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Controversies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theories" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theories">Big Pharma conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_polio_vaccine_AIDS_hypothesis" title="Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis">OPV AIDS hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">Anti-vaccinationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccine misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">Vaccines and autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR vaccine and autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccinationism_in_chiropractic" title="Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic">in chiropractic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbo_cancer" title="Turbo cancer">Turbo cancer</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine#NCCIH_classification" title="Alternative medicine">Classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medical_systems" title="Category:Alternative medical systems">Alternative medical systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Category:Mind–body interventions">Mind–body intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biologically_based_therapies" title="Category:Biologically based therapies">Biologically based therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Manual_therapy" title="Category:Manual therapy">Manipulative methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_therapies" title="Category:Energy therapies">Energy therapy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_medicine" title="Traditional African medicine">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muti" title="Muti">Muti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_healers_of_Southern_Africa" title="Traditional healers of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dosha" title="Dosha">Dosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Vedic_Approach_to_Health" title="Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health">MVAH</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneotherapy" title="Balneotherapy">Balneotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_traditional_medicine" title="Brazilian traditional medicine">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_medicine" title="Bush medicine">Bush medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Cambodian_medicine" title="Traditional Cambodian medicine">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_stasis" title="Blood stasis">Blood stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_herbology" title="Chinese herbology">Chinese herbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dit_da" title="Dit da">Dit da</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gua_sha" title="Gua sha">Gua sha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gill_plate_trade" title="Gill plate trade">Gill plate trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_gu" title="Long gu">Long gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Meridian (Chinese medicine)">Meridian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxibustion" title="Moxibustion">Moxibustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_point" title="Pressure point">Pressure point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Jiao" title="San Jiao">San Jiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tui_na" title="Tui na">Tui na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zang-fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Zang-fu">Zang-fu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_traditional_medicine" title="Chumash traditional medicine">Chumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curandero" title="Curandero">Curandero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">Herbal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilot" title="Hilot">Hilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_traditional_medicine" title="Iranian traditional medicine">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamu" title="Jamu">Jamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayakalpa" title="Kayakalpa">Kayakalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kambo_cleanse" class="mw-redirect" title="Kambo cleanse">Kambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampo" title="Kampo">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Korean_medicine" title="Traditional Korean medicine">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_medicine" title="Maya medicine">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mien_Shiang" title="Mien Shiang">Mien Shiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Mongolian_medicine" title="Traditional Mongolian medicine">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftalan_oil" title="Naftalan oil">Naftalan oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_medicine" title="Prophetic medicine">Prophetic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiatsu" title="Shiatsu">Shiatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha_medicine" title="Siddha medicine">Siddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_traditional_medicine" title="Sri Lankan traditional medicine">Sri Lankan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_massage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai massage">Thai massage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Tibetan_medicine" title="Traditional Tibetan medicine">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unani_medicine" title="Unani medicine">Unani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Vietnamese_medicine" title="Traditional Vietnamese medicine">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;;color: var(--color-base)">Alternative diagnoses</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerotoxic_syndrome" title="Aerotoxic syndrome">Aerotoxic syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candida_hypersensitivity" title="Candida hypersensitivity">Candida hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_Lyme_disease" title="Chronic Lyme disease">Chronic Lyme disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_legs" title="Heavy legs">Heavy legs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_chemical_sensitivity" title="Multiple chemical sensitivity">Multiple chemical sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_temperature_syndrome" title="Wilson's temperature syndrome">Wilson's temperature syndrome</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Template:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Template talk:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative_medicine_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alternative medicine sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Vitalism</b> is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things."<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to as the "vital spark", "energy", "<i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lan_vital" title="Élan vital">élan vital</a></i>" (coined by vitalist <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a>), "vital force", or "<i><b>vis vitalis</b></i>", which some equate with the <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>. In the 18th and 19th centuries, vitalism was <a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_evolution_by_natural_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternatives to evolution by natural selection">discussed among biologists</a>, between those who felt that the known mechanics of physics would eventually explain the difference between life and non-life and vitalists who argued that the processes of life could not be reduced to a mechanistic process. Vitalist biologists such as <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Reinke" title="Johannes Reinke">Johannes Reinke</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Testable" class="mw-redirect" title="Testable">testable</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> meant to show inadequacies with mechanistic explanations, but their experiments failed to provide support for vitalism. Biologists now consider vitalism in this sense to have been refuted by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">empirical evidence</a>, and hence regard it either as a <a href="/wiki/Superseded_scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded scientific theories">superseded scientific theory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> since the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-DevBio_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DevBio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ps_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ps-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vitalism has a long history in <a href="/wiki/Medical" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical">medical</a> philosophies: many <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional healing</a> practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_times">Ancient times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion that bodily functions are due to a vitalistic principle existing in all living creatures has roots going back at least to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a> proposed natural explanations <a href="/wiki/Deductive_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive argument">deduced</a> from <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanism</a>. However, by the time of <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, this account was supplemented, (for example, by the unpredictable <i><a href="/wiki/Clinamen" title="Clinamen">clinamen</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>), and in <a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Stoic physics</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">pneuma</a></i> assumed the role of <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> believed the lungs draw <i>pneuma</i> from the air, which the blood communicates throughout the body.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Medieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Europe, medieval physics was influenced by the idea of <i>pneuma</i>, helping to shape later <a href="/wiki/Aether_theories" title="Aether theories">aether theories</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern">Early modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vitalists included English anatomist <a href="/wiki/Francis_Glisson" title="Francis Glisson">Francis Glisson</a> (1597–1677) and the Italian doctor <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> (1628–1694).<sup id="cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Friedrich_Wolff" title="Caspar Friedrich Wolff">Caspar Friedrich Wolff</a> (1733–1794) is considered to be the father of <a href="/wiki/Epigenesis_(biology)" title="Epigenesis (biology)">epigenesis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, that is, he marks the point when embryonic development began to be described in terms of the proliferation of cells rather than the incarnation of a preformed soul. However, this degree of empirical observation was not matched by a mechanistic philosophy: in his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theoria_Generationis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theoria Generationis (page does not exist)">Theoria Generationis</a></i> (1759), he tried to explain the emergence of the organism by the actions of a <i>vis essentialis</i> (an organizing, formative force). <a href="/wiki/Carl_Reichenbach" title="Carl Reichenbach">Carl Reichenbach</a> (1788–1869) later developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Odic_force" title="Odic force">Odic force</a>, a form of life-energy that permeates living things. </p><p>In the 17th century, modern science responded to <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Action_at_a_distance" title="Action at a distance">action at a distance</a> and the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Cartesian dualism</a> with vitalist theories: that whereas the chemical transformations undergone by non-living substances are reversible, so-called "organic" matter is permanently altered by chemical transformations (such as cooking).<sup id="cite_ref-Ede_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ede-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As worded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Birch" title="Charles Birch">Charles Birch</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_B._Cobb" title="John B. Cobb">John B. Cobb</a>, "the claims of the vitalists came to the fore again" in the 18th century:<sup id="cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Stahl" title="Georg Ernst Stahl">Georg Ernst Stahl</a>'s followers were active as were others, such as the physician genius <a href="/wiki/Xavier_Bichat" title="Xavier Bichat">Francis Xavier Bichat</a> of the Hotel Dieu."<sup id="cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "Bichat moved from the tendency typical of the French vitalistic tradition to progressively free himself from <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> in order to combine with hypotheses and theories which accorded to the scientific criteria of physics and chemistry."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a> recognised "a 'living principle' in addition to mechanics."<sup id="cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach" title="Johann Friedrich Blumenbach">Johann Friedrich Blumenbach</a> was influential in establishing epigenesis in the life sciences in 1781 with his publication of <i>Über den Bildungstrieb und das Zeugungsgeschäfte</i>. Blumenbach cut up freshwater <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydra (zoology)">Hydra</a></i> and established that the removed parts would regenerate. He inferred the presence of a "formative drive" (<i>Bildungstrieb</i>) in living matter. But he pointed out that this name, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>like names applied to every other kind of vital power, of itself, explains nothing: it serves merely to designate a peculiar power formed by the combination of the mechanical principle with that which is susceptible of modification.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternatives to Darwinism">Alternatives to Darwinism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_Urea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sample_of_Urea.jpg/220px-Sample_of_Urea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sample_of_Urea.jpg/330px-Sample_of_Urea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sample_of_Urea.jpg/440px-Sample_of_Urea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2551" data-file-height="2894" /></a><figcaption>The synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> in the early 19th century from <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">inorganic compounds</a> was <a href="/wiki/Counterevidence" title="Counterevidence">counterevidence</a> for the vitalist hypothesis that only organisms could make the components of living things.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Jöns Jakob Berzelius">Jöns Jakob Berzelius</a>, one of the early 19th century founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, argued that a regulative force must exist within living matter to maintain its functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ede_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ede-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berzelius contended that compounds could be distinguished by whether they required any organisms in their <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">synthesis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>) or whether they did not (<a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic compounds">inorganic compounds</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vitalist chemists predicted that organic materials could not be synthesized from inorganic components, but <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> synthesised <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> from inorganic components in 1828.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, contemporary accounts do not support the common belief that vitalism died when Wöhler made urea. This <i>Wöhler Myth</i>, as historian Peter Ramberg called it, originated from a popular history of chemistry published in 1931, which, "ignoring all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a crusader who made attempt after attempt to synthesize a natural product that would refute vitalism and lift the veil of ignorance, until 'one afternoon the miracle happened<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1833 and 1844, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Peter_M%C3%BCller" title="Johannes Peter Müller">Johannes Peter Müller</a> wrote a book on <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> called <i>Handbuch der Physiologie</i>, which became the leading textbook in the field for much of the nineteenth century. The book showed Müller's commitments to vitalism; he questioned why organic matter differs from inorganic, then proceeded to chemical analyses of the blood and lymph. He describes in detail the circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, endocrine, nervous, and sensory systems in a wide variety of animals but explains that the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> makes each organism an indivisible whole. He claimed that the behaviour of light and sound waves showed that living organisms possessed a life-energy for which physical laws could never fully account.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> (1822–1895) after his famous rebuttal of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a>, performed several experiments that he felt supported vitalism. According to Bechtel, Pasteur "fitted fermentation into a more general programme describing special reactions that only occur in living organisms. These are irreducibly vital phenomena." Rejecting the claims of Berzelius, <a href="/wiki/Liebig" class="mw-redirect" title="Liebig">Liebig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Traube" title="Moritz Traube">Traube</a> and others that fermentation resulted from chemical agents or catalysts within cells, Pasteur concluded that fermentation was a "vital action".<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hans_Driesch" title="Hans Driesch">Hans Driesch</a> (1867–1941) interpreted his experiments as showing that life is not run by physicochemical laws.<sup id="cite_ref-DevBio_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DevBio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His main argument was that when one cuts up an embryo after its first division or two, each part grows into a complete adult. Driesch's reputation as an experimental biologist deteriorated as a result of his vitalistic theories, which scientists have seen since his time as pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-DevBio_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DevBio-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ps_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ps-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vitalism is a superseded scientific hypothesis, and the term is sometimes used as a <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> (1904–2005) wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It would be ahistorical to ridicule vitalists. When one reads the writings of one of the leading vitalists like Driesch one is forced to agree with him that many of the basic problems of biology simply cannot be solved by a philosophy as that of Descartes, in which the organism is simply considered a machine... The logic of the critique of the vitalists was impeccable.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Vitalism has become so disreputable a belief in the last fifty years that no biologist alive today would want to be classified as a vitalist. Still, the remnants of vitalist thinking can be found in the work of <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Hardy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alistair Hardy">Alistair Hardy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Birch" title="Charles Birch">Charles Birch</a>, who seem to believe in some sort of nonmaterial principle in organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Other vitalists included <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Reinke" title="Johannes Reinke">Johannes Reinke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Hertwig" title="Oscar Hertwig">Oscar Hertwig</a>. Reinke used the word <i>neovitalism</i> to describe his work, claiming that it would eventually be verified through experimentation, and that it was an improvement over the other vitalistic theories. The work of Reinke influenced <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a> adopted an anti-mechanist approach to biology and an <a href="/wiki/Idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealist">idealist</a> philosophy early on in his career. Haldane saw his work as a vindication of his belief that <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a> was an essential concept in biology. His views became widely known with his first book <i>Mechanism, life and personality</i> in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haldane borrowed arguments from the vitalists to use against mechanism; however, he was not a vitalist. Haldane treated the organism as fundamental to biology: "we perceive the organism as a self-regulating entity", "every effort to analyze it into components that can be reduced to a mechanical explanation violates this central experience".<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of Haldane was an influence on <a href="/wiki/Organicism" title="Organicism">organicism</a>. Haldane stated that a purely mechanist interpretation could not account for the characteristics of life. Haldane wrote a number of books in which he attempted to show the invalidity of both vitalism and mechanist approaches to science. Haldane explained: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We must find a different theoretical basis of biology, based on the observation that all the phenomena concerned tend towards being so coordinated that they express what is normal for an adult organism.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>By 1931, biologists had "almost unanimously abandoned vitalism as an acknowledged belief."<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergentism">Emergentism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></div> <p>Contemporary science and engineering sometimes describe <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent processes</a>, in which the properties of a system cannot be fully described in terms of the properties of the constituents.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be because the properties of the constituents are not fully understood, or because the interactions between the individual constituents are important for the behavior of the system. </p><p>Whether emergence should be grouped with traditional vitalist concepts is a matter of semantic controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Emmeche <i>et al.</i> (1997): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On the one hand, many scientists and philosophers regard emergence as having only a pseudo-scientific status. On the other hand, new developments in physics, biology, psychology, and cross-disciplinary fields such as cognitive science, artificial life, and the study of non-linear dynamical systems have focused strongly on the high level 'collective behaviour' of complex systems, which is often said to be truly emergent, and the term is increasingly used to characterize such systems.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><sup id="cite_ref-Emmeche_1997_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emmeche_1997-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mesmerism">Mesmerism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mesmerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">Animal magnetism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg/170px-Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg/255px-Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg/340px-Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1335" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Mesmer" title="Franz Mesmer">Franz Mesmer</a> proposed the vitalist force of <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">magnétisme animal</a></i> in animals with breath.</figcaption></figure> <p>A popular vitalist theory of the 18th century was "<a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">animal magnetism</a>", in the theories of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Mesmer" title="Franz Mesmer">Franz Mesmer</a> (1734–1815). However, the use of the (conventional) English term <i>animal magnetism</i> to translate Mesmer's <b>magnétisme animal</b> can be misleading for three reasons: </p> <ul><li>Mesmer chose his term to clearly distinguish his variant of <i>magnetic</i> force from those referred to, at that time, as <i>mineral magnetism</i>, <i>cosmic magnetism</i> and <i>planetary magnetism</i>.</li> <li>Mesmer felt that this particular force/power only resided in the bodies of humans and animals.</li> <li>Mesmer chose the word "<i>animal</i>," for its root meaning (from Latin <i>animus</i>="breath") specifically to identify his force as a quality that belonged to all creatures with breath; viz., the animate beings: humans and animals.</li></ul> <p>Mesmer's ideas became so influential that King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a> of France appointed two commissions to investigate <a href="/wiki/Mesmerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesmerism">mesmerism</a>; one was led by <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Ignace_Guillotin" title="Joseph-Ignace Guillotin">Joseph-Ignace Guillotin</a>, the other, led by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, included <a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Bailly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a>. The commissioners learned about Mesmeric theory, and saw its patients fall into fits and <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trances</a>. In Franklin's garden, a patient was led to each of five trees, one of which had been "mesmerized"; he hugged each in turn to receive the "vital fluid," but fainted at the foot of a 'wrong' one. At Lavoisier's house, four normal cups of water were held before a "sensitive" woman; the fourth produced convulsions, but she calmly swallowed the mesmerized contents of a fifth, believing it to be plain water. The commissioners concluded that "the fluid without imagination is powerless, whereas imagination without the fluid can produce the effects of the fluid."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_philosophies">Medical philosophies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medical philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vitalism has a long history in <a href="/wiki/Medical" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical">medical</a> philosophies: many <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional healing</a> practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces. One example of a similar notion in Africa is the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Ase_(Yoruba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ase (Yoruba)">ase</a>. In the European tradition founded by <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, these vital forces were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">four temperaments</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_four_humours" class="mw-redirect" title="The four humours">humours</a>. Multiple Asian traditions posited an imbalance or blocking of <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prana" title="Prana">prana</a>. Amongst unterritorialized traditions such as religions and arts, forms of vitalism continue to exist as philosophical positions or as memorial tenets.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Complementary_and_alternative_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary and alternative medicine">Complementary and alternative medicine</a> therapies include <a href="/wiki/Energy_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy therapy">energy therapies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-titleComplementary_and_Alternative_Medicine_–_U.S._National_Library_of_Medicine_Collection_Development_Manual_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-titleComplementary_and_Alternative_Medicine_–_U.S._National_Library_of_Medicine_Collection_Development_Manual-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> associated with vitalism, especially biofield therapies such as <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_touch" title="Therapeutic touch">therapeutic touch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a>, external <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chakra" title="Chakra">chakra</a> healing and SHEN therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubik_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubik-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these therapies, the "<a href="/wiki/Subtle_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtle energy">subtle energy</a>" field of a patient is manipulated by a practitioner. The subtle energy is held to exist beyond the electromagnetic energy produced by the heart and brain. Beverly Rubik describes the biofield as a "complex, dynamic, extremely weak EM field within and around the human body...."<sup id="cite_ref-Rubik_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubik-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The founder of <a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">homeopathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hahnemann" title="Samuel Hahnemann">Samuel Hahnemann</a>, promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of disease: "...they are solely spirit-like (dynamic) derangements of the spirit-like power (the vital principle) that animates the human body." The view of disease as a dynamic disturbance of the immaterial and dynamic vital force is taught in many homeopathic colleges and constitutes a fundamental principle for many contemporary practising homeopaths.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_(1622-1673)_-_Google_Art_Project_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Pierre_Mignard_-_Portrait_de_Jean-Baptiste_Poquelin_dit_Moli%C3%A8re_%281622-1673%29_-_Google_Art_Project_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3716" data-file-height="4214" /></a><figcaption>The 17th century French playwright <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a> mocked vitalism in his 1673 play <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Malade_imaginaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Malade imaginaire">Le Malade imaginaire</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Vitalism has sometimes been criticized as <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">begging the question</a> by inventing a name. <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a> had famously parodied this fallacy in <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Malade_imaginaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Malade imaginaire">Le Malade imaginaire</a></i>, where a quack "answers" the question of "Why does <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> cause sleep?" with "Because of its <b>dormitive virtue</b> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Soporific" class="mw-redirect" title="Soporific">soporific</a> power)."<sup id="cite_ref-fr.wikisource.org_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fr.wikisource.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> compared vitalism to stating that water is the way it is because of its "aquosity".<sup id="cite_ref-The_Physical_Basis_of_Life_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Physical_Basis_of_Life-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His grandson <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> in 1926 compared "vital force" or <i>élan vital</i> to explaining a railroad locomotive's operation by its <i>élan locomotif</i> ("locomotive force"). </p><p>Another criticism is that vitalists have failed to rule out mechanistic explanations. This is rather obvious in retrospect for <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>, but the criticism goes back at least a century. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Loeb" title="Jacques Loeb">Jacques Loeb</a> published <i>The Mechanistic Conception of Life</i>, in which he described experiments on how a sea urchin could have a pin for its father, as <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> put it (<i>Religion and Science</i>). He offered this challenge:<sup id="cite_ref-JLoeb1912_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JLoeb1912-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 5–6">: 5–6 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... we must either succeed in producing living matter artificially, or we must find the reasons why this is impossible.</p></blockquote> <p>Loeb addressed vitalism more explicitly:<sup id="cite_ref-JLoeb1912_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JLoeb1912-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 14–15">: 14–15 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is, therefore, unwarranted to continue the statement that in addition to the acceleration of oxidations the beginning of individual life is determined by the entrance of a metaphysical "life principle" into the egg; and that death is determined, aside from the cessation of oxidations, by the departure of this "principle" from the body. In the case of the evaporation of water we are satisfied with the explanation given by the kinetic theory of gases and do not demand that to repeat a well-known jest of Huxley the disappearance of the "aquosity" be also taken into consideration.</p></blockquote> <p>Bechtel states that vitalism "is often viewed as <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">unfalsifiable</a>, and therefore a pernicious metaphysical doctrine."<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For many scientists, "vitalist" theories were unsatisfactory "holding positions" on the pathway to mechanistic understanding. In 1967, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, the co-discoverer of the structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, stated "And so to those of you who may be vitalists I would make this prophecy: what everyone believed yesterday, and you believe today, only <a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">cranks</a> will believe tomorrow."<sup id="cite_ref-Crick_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crick-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While many vitalistic theories have in fact been falsified, notably Mesmerism, the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> retention of untested and <a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">untestable</a> theories continues to this day. <a href="/wiki/Alan_Sokal" title="Alan Sokal">Alan Sokal</a> published an analysis of the wide acceptance among professional nurses of "scientific theories" of spiritual healing.<sup id="cite_ref-Sokal_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sokal-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of a technique called <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_touch" title="Therapeutic touch">therapeutic touch</a> was especially reviewed by Sokal, who concluded, "nearly all the pseudoscientific systems to be examined in this essay are based philosophically on vitalism" and added that "Mainstream science has rejected vitalism since at least the 1930s, for a plethora of good reasons that have only become stronger with time."<sup id="cite_ref-Sokal_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sokal-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseph C. Keating, Jr.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discusses vitalism's past and present roles in <a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">chiropractic</a> and calls vitalism "a form of <a href="/wiki/Bio-theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-theology">bio-theology</a>." He further explains that:<sup id="cite_ref-keating_innate_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keating_innate-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Vitalism is that rejected tradition in biology which proposes that life is sustained and explained by an unmeasurable, intelligent force or energy. The supposed effects of vitalism are the manifestations of life itself, which in turn are the basis for inferring the concept in the first place. This <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> offers pseudo-explanation, and may deceive us into believing we have explained some aspect of biology when in fact we have only labeled our ignorance. 'Explaining an unknown (life) with an unknowable (Innate),' suggests chiropractor Joseph Donahue, 'is absurd'."</p></blockquote> <p>Keating views vitalism as incompatible with scientific thinking:<sup id="cite_ref-keating_innate_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keating_innate-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Chiropractors are not unique in recognizing a tendency and capacity for self-repair and auto-regulation of human physiology. But we surely stick out like a sore thumb among professions which claim to be scientifically based by our unrelenting commitment to vitalism. So long as we propound the 'One cause, one cure' rhetoric of Innate, we should expect to be met by ridicule from the wider health science community. Chiropractors can't have it both ways. Our theories cannot be both dogmatically held vitalistic constructs and be scientific at the same time. The purposiveness, consciousness and rigidity of the Palmers' Innate should be rejected.</p></blockquote> <p>Keating also mentions Skinner's viewpoint:<sup id="cite_ref-keating_innate_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keating_innate-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Vitalism has many faces and has sprung up in many areas of scientific inquiry. Psychologist <a href="/wiki/B.F._Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="B.F. Skinner">B.F. Skinner</a>, for example, pointed out the irrationality of attributing behavior to mental states and traits. Such 'mental way stations,' he argued, amount to excess theoretical baggage which fails to advance cause-and-effect explanations by substituting an unfathomable psychology of 'mind'.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Williams, "[t]oday, vitalism is one of the ideas that form the basis for many pseudoscientific health systems that claim that illnesses are caused by a disturbance or imbalance of the body's vital force."<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability. They often regard subjective experience to be more valid than objective material reality."<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger" title="Victor J. Stenger">Victor Stenger</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that the term "bioenergetics" "is applied in biochemistry to refer to the readily measurable <a href="/wiki/Biological_thermodynamics" title="Biological thermodynamics">exchanges of energy</a> within organisms, and between organisms and the environment, which occur by normal physical and chemical processes. This is not, however, what the new vitalists have in mind. They imagine the <a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">bioenergetic</a> field as a holistic living force that goes beyond reductionist physics and chemistry."<sup id="cite_ref-Stenger_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stenger-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such a field is sometimes explained as electromagnetic, though some advocates also make confused appeals to quantum physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubik_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubik-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joanne Stefanatos states that "The principles of energy medicine originate in quantum physics."<sup id="cite_ref-Stefanatos_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stefanatos-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stenger<sup id="cite_ref-Stenger_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stenger-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offers several explanations as to why this line of reasoning may be misplaced. He explains that energy exists in discrete packets called quanta. Energy fields are composed of their component parts and so only exist when quanta are present. Therefore, energy fields are not holistic, but are rather a system of discrete parts that must obey the laws of physics. This also means that energy fields are not instantaneous. These facts of quantum physics place limitations on the infinite, continuous field that is used by some theorists to describe so-called "human energy fields".<sup id="cite_ref-Biley_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biley-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stenger continues, explaining that the effects of EM forces have been measured by physicists as accurately as one part in a billion and there is yet to be any evidence that living organisms emit a unique field.<sup id="cite_ref-Stenger_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stenger-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vitalistic thinking has been identified in the naive biological theories of children: "Recent experimental results show that a majority of preschoolers tend to choose vitalistic explanations as most plausible. Vitalism, together with other forms of intermediate causality, constitute unique causal devices for naive biology as a core domain of thought."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egregore" title="Egregore">Egregore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">Energy (esotericism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etheric_body" title="Etheric body">Etheric body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Canguilhem" title="Georges Canguilhem">Georges Canguilhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylozoism" title="Hylozoism">Hylozoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebensphilosophie" title="Lebensphilosophie">Lebensphilosophie</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Mind–body dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montpellier_vitalism" title="Montpellier vitalism">Montpellier vitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphic_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphic resonance">Morphic resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odic_force" title="Odic force">Odic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orenda" title="Orenda">Orenda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratiovitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratiovitalism">Ratiovitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Animal_Magnetism" title="Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism">Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">Spirit (animating force)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vis_medicatrix_naturae" title="Vis medicatrix naturae">Vis medicatrix naturae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vital_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vital materialism">Vital materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitality" title="Vitality">Vitality</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Leduc" title="Stéphane Leduc">Stéphane Leduc</a> and <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Arcy Thompson">D'Arcy Thompson</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Growth_and_Form" title="On Growth and Form">On Growth and Form</a></i>) published a series of works that in Evelyn Fox Keller's view took on the task of uprooting the remaining vestiges of vitalism, essentially by showing that the principles of physics and chemistry were enough, by themselves, to account for the growth and development of biological form.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a> notes that D'Arcy Thompson's avoidance of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> had an "odor of spirit forces" about it.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruse_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruse-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 1845, <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Kolbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph Kolbe">Adolph Kolbe</a> succeeded in making acetic acid from inorganic compounds, and in the 1850s, <a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Marcellin Berthelot</a> repeated this feat for numerous organic compounds. In retrospect, Wöhler's work was the beginning of the end of Berzelius's vitalist hypothesis, but only in retrospect, as Ramberg had shown.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See;<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> briefly, some philosophers see emergentism as midway between traditional spiritual vitalism and mechanistic reductionism; others argue that, structurally, emergentism is equivalent to vitalism. See also.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bechtel-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bechtel_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bechtel_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bechtel_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBechtel,_William;_Williamson,_Robert_C.1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bechtel, William; Williamson, Robert C. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mechanism.ucsd.edu/teaching/philbio/vitalism.htm">"Vitalism"</a>. In E. Craig (ed.). <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vitalism&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Bechtel%2C+William%3B+Williamson%2C+Robert+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmechanism.ucsd.edu%2Fteaching%2Fphilbio%2Fvitalism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evelyn Fox Keller, <i>Making Sense of Life Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines</i>. Harvard University Press, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruse-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruse_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuse,_Michael2013" class="citation book cs1">Ruse, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3VtosxAtq-EC">"17. From Organicism to Mechanism-and Halfway Back?"</a>. In Henning, Brian G.; Scarfe, Adam (eds.). <i>Beyond Mechanism: Putting Life Back Into Biology</i>. Lexington Books. p. 419. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739174371" title="Special:BookSources/9780739174371"><bdi>9780739174371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17.+From+Organicism+to+Mechanism-and+Halfway+Back%3F&rft.btitle=Beyond+Mechanism%3A+Putting+Life+Back+Into+Biology&rft.pages=419&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780739174371&rft.au=Ruse%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3VtosxAtq-EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams2003-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams2003_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2003" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Elizabeth Ann (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AvqYl4sdwaYC&pg=PA4"><i>A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier</i></a>. Ashgate. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0881-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0881-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-0881-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Medical+Vitalism+in+Enlightenment+Montpellier&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0881-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAvqYl4sdwaYC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DevBio-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DevBio_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DevBio_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DevBio_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061031180529/http://7e.devbio.com/article.php?ch=10&id=110">"Developmental Biology 8e Online: A Selective History of Induction"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://7e.devbio.com/article.php?ch=10&id=110">the original</a> on October 31, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Developmental+Biology+8e+Online%3A+A+Selective+History+of+Induction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F7e.devbio.com%2Farticle.php%3Fch%3D10%26id%3D110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ps-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ps_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ps_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyde2013" class="citation book cs1">Dyde, Sean (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EQVAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">"Chapter 5: Life and the Mind in Nineteenth-Century Britain"</a>. In Normandin, Sebastian; Wolfe, T. Charles (eds.). <i>Vitalism and the Scientific Image in Post-Enlightenment Life Science, 1800–2010</i>. Springer. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2445-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-2445-7"><bdi>978-94-007-2445-7</bdi></a>. <q>In medicine and biology, vitalism has been seen as a philosophically-charged term, a pseudoscientific gloss that corrupted scientific practice …</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Life+and+the+Mind+in+Nineteenth-Century+Britain&rft.btitle=Vitalism+and+the+Scientific+Image+in+Post-Enlightenment+Life+Science%2C+1800%E2%80%932010&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-2445-7&rft.aulast=Dyde&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEQVAAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jidenu, Paulin (1996) <i>African Philosophy, 2nd Ed.</i> Indiana University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21096-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-21096-8">0-253-21096-8</a>, p.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBirchCobb1985">Birch & Cobb 1985</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Birch_1985,_pp._76_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBirchCobb1985">Birch & Cobb 1985</a>, pp. 76–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ede-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ede_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ede_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ede, Andrew. (2007) <i>The Rise and Decline of Colloid Science in North America, 1900–1935: The Neglected Dimension</i>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHistory_and_Philosophy_of_the_Life_Sciences"><i>History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences</i></a>, p. 238</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wilkinson, Ian (10 June 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6208063">"History of Clinical Chemistry"</a>. <i>EJIFCC</i>. <b>13</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">114–</span>118. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1650-3414">1650-3414</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6208063">6208063</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJIFCC&rft.atitle=History+of+Clinical+Chemistry&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.date=2002-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6208063%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1650-3414&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6208063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinne-SaffranKinne1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kinne-Saffran, E.; Kinne, R. K. H. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BOTANY+ONLINE%3A+Ernst+MAYR%3A+Walter+Arndt+Lecture%3A+The+Autonomy+of+Biology&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologie.uni-hamburg.de%2Fb-online%2Fe01_2%2Fautonomy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Mayr <i>Toward a new philosophy of biology: observations of an evolutionist</i> 1988, p. 13. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674896666" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674896666">978-0674896666</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll" class="citation journal cs1">Noll, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6789277">"Jung's concept of die Dominanten (the Dominants) (1997)"</a> – via www.academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jung%27s+concept+of+die+Dominanten+%28the+Dominants%29+%281997%29&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6789277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peter_J._Bowler_2001,_pp._168_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowler, Peter J. Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain, 2001, pp. 168–169. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226068589" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226068589">978-0226068589</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Bedau_2010,_p._95_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L3ycvNfa320C&pg=PA93">"The Decline of Vitalism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bedau" title="Mark Bedau">Bedau, Mark A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carol_Cleland" title="Carol Cleland">Cleland, Carol E.</a> (eds.). <i>The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">93–</span>95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139488655" title="Special:BookSources/9781139488655"><bdi>9781139488655</bdi></a>. <q>Yet considering how dominant vitalism was in biology and for how long a period it prevailed, it is surprising how rapidly and completely it collapsed. The last support of vitalism as a viable concept in biology disappeared about 1930." (p. 94) From p. 95: "Vitalism survived even longer in the writings of philosophers than it did in the writings of physicists. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Complementary+and+Alternative+Medicine+%E2%80%93+U.S.+National+Library+of+Medicine+Collection+Development+Manual&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Ftsd%2Facquisitions%2Fcdm%2Fsubjects24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubik-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubik_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubik_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubik_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubik" class="citation web cs1">Rubik, Beverly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060214125248/https://www.amsa.org/ICAM/C6.doc">"Bioenergetic Medicines"</a>. <i>American Medical Student Association Foundation</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amsa.org/ICAM/C6.doc">the original</a> on 2006-02-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Medical+Student+Association+Foundation&rft.atitle=Bioenergetic+Medicines&rft.aulast=Rubik&rft.aufirst=Beverly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amsa.org%2FICAM%2FC6.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fr.wikisource.org-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fr.wikisource.org_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> Mihi a docto doctore / Demandatur causam et rationem quare / Opium facit dormire. / A quoi respondeo, / Quia est in eo / Vertus dormitiva, / Cujus est natura / Sensus assoupire.</i> <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Malade_imaginaire_-_3%C3%A8me_interm%C3%A8de">Le Malade imaginaire, (French Wikisource)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Physical_Basis_of_Life-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Physical_Basis_of_Life_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/comm/PMG/PBofL.html">The Physical Basis of Life</a>, <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, 1869</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JLoeb1912-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JLoeb1912_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JLoeb1912_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoeb1912" class="citation book cs1">Loeb, Jacques (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Mechanistic_Conception_of_Life/euVcAAAAcAAJ"><i>The Mechanistic Conception of Life: Biological Essays</i></a> (1st ed.). United States: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mechanistic+Conception+of+Life%3A+Biological+Essays&rft.place=United+States&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Loeb&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FThe_Mechanistic_Conception_of_Life%2FeuVcAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crick-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crick_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crick, Francis (1967) <i>Of Molecules and Men</i>; Great Minds Series Prometheus Books 2004, reviewed <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/reviews/crickandkurtz.htm">here</a>. Crick's remark is cited and discussed in: Hein H (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00413789">Molecular biology vs. organicism: The enduring dispute between mechanism and vitalism.</a> <i>Synthese</i> 20:238–253, who describes Crick's remark as "raising spectral red herrings".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sokal-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sokal_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sokal_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/pseudoscience_rev.pdf">Pseudoscience and Postmodernism: Antagonists or Fellow-Travelers? (pdf)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060525203939/http://www.ncmic.com/pages/ce/seminars/speakers/keating.htm">"Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD: Biographical sketch"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncmic.com/pages/ce/seminars/speakers/keating.htm">the original</a> on May 25, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joseph+C.+Keating%2C+Jr.%2C+PhD%3A+Biographical+sketch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncmic.com%2Fpages%2Fce%2Fseminars%2Fspeakers%2Fkeating.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keating_innate-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-keating_innate_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-keating_innate_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-keating_innate_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating,_Joseph_C.2002" class="citation cs2">Keating, Joseph C. (2002), "The Meanings of Innate", <i>The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association</i>, <b>46</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>10, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2505097">2505097</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Canadian+Chiropractic+Association&rft.atitle=The+Meanings+of+Innate&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2505097%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.au=Keating%2C+Joseph+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Williams, William F., ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vH1EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA395">"Vitalism"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy</i> (revised ed.). p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135955229" title="Special:BookSources/9781135955229"><bdi>9781135955229</bdi></a>. <q><b>VITALISM</b> – The concept that bodily functions are due to a 'vital principle' or 'life force' that is distinct from the physical forces explainable by the laws of chemistry and physics. Many alternative approaches to modern medicine are rooted in vitalism. ... The exact nature of the vital force was debated by early philosophers, but vitalism in one form or another remained the preferred thinking behind most science and medicine until 1828. That year, German scientist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> (1800–82) synthesized an organic compound from an inorganic substance, a process that vitalists considered to be impossible. ... Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability. They often regard subjective experience to be more valid than objective material reality. Today, vitalism is one of the ideas that form the basis for many pseudoscientific health systems that claim that illnesses are caused by a disturbance or imbalance of the body's vital force.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vitalism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Pseudoscience%3A+From+Alien+Abductions+to+Zone+Therapy&rft.pages=367&rft.edition=revised&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781135955229&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvH1EAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202347/http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/vstenger/Medicine/Biofield.html">"Victor J. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sram.org/0301/bioenergetic-fields.html">the original</a> on 2006-12-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Review+of+Alternative+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Physics+of+%27Alternative+Medicine%27%3A+Bioenergetic+Fields&rft.chron=spring%E2%80%93summer&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Stenger&rft.aufirst=Victor+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sram.org%2F0301%2Fbioenergetic-fields.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stefanatos-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stefanatos_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stefanatos, J. 1997, <i>Introduction to Bioenergetic Medicine</i>, Shoen, A.M. and S.G. Wynn, <i>Complementary and Alternative Veterinary Medicine: Principles and Practices</i>, Mosby-Yearbook, Chicago.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biley-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biley_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biley, Francis C. 2005, <i>Unitary Health Care: Martha Rogers' Science of Unitary Human Beings</i>, University of Wales College of Medicine, viewed 30 November 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061205024515/http://medweb.uwcm.ac.uk/martha/">"RogersHomepage"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medweb.uwcm.ac.uk/martha/">the original</a> on 2006-12-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RogersHomepage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedweb.uwcm.ac.uk%2Fmartha%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInagakiHatano2004" class="citation journal cs1">Inagaki, K.; Hatano, G. (2004). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Vitalistic causality in young children's naive biology.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Trends Cogn Sci</i>. <b>8</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">356–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2004.06.004">10.1016/j.tics.2004.06.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15335462">15335462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29256474">29256474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Cogn+Sci&rft.atitle=%27Vitalistic+causality+in+young+children%27s+naive+biology.%27&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E356-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29256474%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15335462&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2004.06.004&rft.aulast=Inagaki&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Hatano%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirchCobb1985" class="citation book cs1">Birch, Charles; Cobb, John B (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h3c6AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to the Community</i></a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521315142" title="Special:BookSources/9780521315142"><bdi>9780521315142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberation+of+Life%3A+From+the+Cell+to+the+Community&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780521315142&rft.aulast=Birch&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Cobb%2C+John+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh3c6AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistory_and_Philosophy_of_the_Life_Sciences" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tUkoAQAAIAAJ"><i>History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences</i></a>. Vol. 29. 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+the+Life+Sciences&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtUkoAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitalism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Vitalism" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Vitalism">Vitalism</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00dwhwt">Vitalism</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/vitalism.html">Vitalism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic's Dictionary">Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li></ul> <ul><li>For vital force and vitalism in the Spanish context, see Nicolás Fernández-Medina's <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37425761/Life_Embodied_The_Promise_of_Vital_Force_in_Spanish_Modernity">Life Embodied: The Promise of Vital Force in Spanish Modernity</a></i> (McGill-Queen's UP, 2018).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox 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href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_biology122" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template talk:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_biology122" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Springbok_pronk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/80px-Springbok_pronk.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/120px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/160px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives to Darwinian evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biology)" title="Tree of life (biology)">Tree of life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_biology" title="Category:Philosophers of biology">Philosophers of biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Beatty_(philosopher)" title="John Beatty (philosopher)">John Beatty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindley_Darden" title="Lindley Darden">Lindley Darden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carla_Fehr" title="Carla Fehr">Carla Fehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Grene" title="Marjorie Grene">Marjorie Grene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Peter Godfrey-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Griesemer" title="James R. Griesemer">James R. Griesemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Griffiths" title="Paul E. Griffiths">Paul E. Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">David Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Lewens" title="Tim Lewens">Tim Lewens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Longino" title="Helen Longino">Helen Longino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Maienschein" title="Jane Maienschein">Jane Maienschein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Millstein" title="Roberta Millstein">Roberta Millstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Mitchell" title="Sandra Mitchell">Sandra Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Oyama" title="Susan Oyama">Susan Oyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rosenberg" title="Alexander Rosenberg">Alex Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahotra_Sarkar" title="Sahotra Sarkar">Sahotra Sarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Elliott Sober</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Sterelny" title="Kim Sterelny">Kim Sterelny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_I._Tauber" title="Alfred I. Tauber">Alfred I. Tauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Verschuuren" title="Gerard Verschuuren">Gerard Verschuuren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Wimsatt" title="William C. Wimsatt">William C. Wimsatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ghiselin" title="Michael Ghiselin">Michael Ghiselin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Noble" title="Denis Noble">Denis Noble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Roughgarden" title="Joan Roughgarden">Joan Roughgarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Sattler" title="Rolf Sattler">Rolf Sattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science439" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science439" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&oldid=1274793969">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitalism&oldid=1274793969</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vitalism" title="Category:Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">History of biology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Obsolete_scientific_theories" title="Category:Obsolete scientific theories">Obsolete scientific theories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pseudoscience" title="Category:Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 February 2025, at 08:24<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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