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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-historic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-historic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-historic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Classical astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Post-classical astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_telescopic_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_telescopic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Early telescopic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_telescopic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_space_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_space_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Deep space astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_space_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observational_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observational_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Observational astronomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Observational_astronomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Observational astronomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Observational_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Radio astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrared_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrared_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Infrared astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrared_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Optical astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultraviolet_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultraviolet_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ultraviolet astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultraviolet_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-X-ray_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#X-ray_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>X-ray astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-X-ray_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma-ray_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma-ray_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Gamma-ray astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma-ray_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fields_not_based_on_the_electromagnetic_spectrum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fields_not_based_on_the_electromagnetic_spectrum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fields_not_based_on_the_electromagnetic_spectrum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrometry_and_celestial_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrometry_and_celestial_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Astrometry and celestial mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrometry_and_celestial_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Theoretical astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Specific subfields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specific_subfields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Specific subfields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Specific_subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astrophysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrophysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Astrophysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Astrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrobiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrobiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Astrobiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrobiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Physical cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extragalactic_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extragalactic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Extragalactic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extragalactic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galactic_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galactic_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Galactic astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galactic_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stellar_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stellar_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Stellar astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stellar_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Solar astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Planetary science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Interdisciplinary studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amateur_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amateur_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Amateur astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amateur_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unsolved_problems_in_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unsolved_problems_in_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Unsolved problems in astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Astronomy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 242 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-242" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">242 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrekunde" title="Sterrekunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sterrekunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8D%88%E1%88%88%E1%8A%AD" title="ሥነ ፈለክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ፈለክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="खगोल शास्त्र – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="खगोल शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungolcr%C3%A6ft" title="Tungolcræft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Tungolcræft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83" title="علم الفلك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الفلك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa" title="Astronomía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Astronomía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%A0%DC%98%DC%AC_%DC%9F%DC%98%DC%9F%DC%92%DC%90" title="ܡܡܠܠܘܬ ܟܘܟܒܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܡܡܠܠܘܬ ܟܘܟܒܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աստղագիտութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Աստղագիտութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জ্যোতিৰ্বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জ্যোতিৰ্বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa" title="Astronomía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Astronomía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbyjakuaa" title="Mbyjakuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mbyjakuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaxpacha_y%C3%A4nakata" title="Alaxpacha yänakata – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Alaxpacha yänakata" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="آسترونومی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آسترونومی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolokalan" title="Dolokalan – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dolokalan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_tawas_langit" title="Kaji tawas langit – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji tawas langit" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thian-b%C3%BBn-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Thian-bûn-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thian-bûn-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астраномія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Астраномія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астраномія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Астраномія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="खगोलिकी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="खगोलिकी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steredoniezh" title="Steredoniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Steredoniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%88%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Одон орон шудалал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Одон орон шудалал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Астрономи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Астрономи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvechadenga" title="Zvechadenga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Zvechadenga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronumia" title="Astronumia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Astronumia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seryddiaeth" title="Seryddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Seryddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A6%DE%86%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ފަލަކީ އިލްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފަލަކީ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronoomia" title="Astronoomia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Astronoomia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αστρονομία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αστρονομία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%AE" title="Astronomî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Astronomî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa" title="Astronomía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astronomía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomio" title="Astronomio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Astronomio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="اخترشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخترشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taara_vigyan" title="Taara vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Taara vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rnufr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Stjørnufrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Stjørnufrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Astronomy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astoronomy" title="Astoronomy – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Astoronomy" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fulfulde</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9alteola%C3%ADocht" title="Réalteolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réalteolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollageydys" title="Rollageydys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Rollageydys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reul-e%C3%B2las" title="Reul-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Reul-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ADa" title="Astronomía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Astronomía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D3%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="АйламӀилма – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="АйламӀилма" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="天文學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%96%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B3%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="ખગોળશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ખગોળશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn-v%C3%B9n-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Thiên-vùn-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thiên-vùn-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%9C%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="천문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="천문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilo_h%C5%8Dk%C5%AB" title="Kilo hōkū – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kilo hōkū" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աստղագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աստղագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="खगोल शास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खगोल शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomio" title="Astronomio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Astronomio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%93%AF%E1%93%9A%E1%93%AF%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᓯᓚᓯᐅᕐᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᓯᓚᓯᐅᕐᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Астрономи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Астрономи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAstronomi" title="IAstronomi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IAstronomi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izinkanyezi" title="Izinkanyezi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Izinkanyezi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B6rnufr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Stjörnufræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjörnufræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="אסטרונומיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אסטרונומיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulloriarsiorneq" title="Ulloriarsiorneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Ulloriarsiorneq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಖಗೋಳಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಖಗೋಳಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ასტრონომია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ასტრონომია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8E%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%90%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فَلکِیات – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="فَلکِیات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomij%C3%B4" title="Astronomijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Astronomijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steronieth" title="Steronieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Steronieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimuanga" title="Elimuanga – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Elimuanga" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astwonomi" title="Astwonomi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Astwonomi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lastronnonmi" title="Lastronnonmi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lastronnonmi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%AArnas%C3%AE" title="Stêrnasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Stêrnasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%80%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83" title="ЦӀурттал элму – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="ЦӀурттал элму" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ດາລາສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ດາລາສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starekunde" title="Starekunde – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Starekunde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamb%C3%AD_ma_nz%C9%94%CC%81t%C9%94" title="Mambí ma nzɔ́tɔ – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mambí ma nzɔ́tɔ" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C3%A4htitiedo" title="Tiähtitiedo – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Tiähtitiedo" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/kesyske" title="kesyske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="kesyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomabwengula" title="Essomabwengula – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomabwengula" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csillag%C3%A1szat" title="Csillagászat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csillagászat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Астрономија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Астрономија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haikintana" title="Haikintana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haikintana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%83%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജ്യോതിഃശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജ്യോതിഃശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81tai_arorangi" title="Tātai arorangi – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Tātai arorangi" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="खगोलशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="खगोलशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ასტრონომია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ასტრონომია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83" title="فلك – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلك" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="اساره‌دونی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اساره‌دونی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%88%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%86%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣꯡꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣꯡꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%95ng-%C3%B9ng" title="Tiĕng-ùng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Tiĕng-ùng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Одон орон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Одон орон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilhuicamatiliztli" title="Ilhuicamatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Ilhuicamatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maliwalala" title="Maliwalala – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Maliwalala" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steernskunde" title="Steernskunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Steernskunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="खगोल शास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="खगोल शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="खगोलशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="खगोलशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="天文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="天文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronumia" title="Astronumia – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Astronumia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9B%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%9B%DF%93%DF%8D" title="ߛߊ߲ߡߊߛߓߍ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߛߊ߲ߡߊߛߓߍ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Астрономи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Астрономи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A4%C3%A4rkunde" title="Stäärkunde – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Stäärkunde" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estronomii" title="Estronomii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Estronomii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrononmie" title="Astrononmie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Astrononmie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Астрономий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Астрономий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin-hawaa" title="Xin-hawaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xin-hawaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਤਾਰਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਾਰਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D9%BE%DA%91%DA%BE%D8%AA" title="تارا پڑھت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تارا پڑھت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ستورپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ستورپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aschranami" title="Aschranami – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aschranami" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="តារាវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="តារាវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrononmie" title="Astrononmie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Astrononmie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronom%C3%ACa" title="Astronomìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Astronomìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estronomi" title="Estronomi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Estronomi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chexanipen" title="Chexanipen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Chexanipen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quyllur_yachay" title="Quyllur yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Quyllur yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астрономія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Астрономія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saienisi_o_fet%C5%AB" title="Saienisi o fetū – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Saienisi o fetū" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="खगोलशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="खगोलशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2tongo" title="Sêndâtongo – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Sêndâtongo" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sängö</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فلکیات – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="فلکیات" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Astronomy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiernkunde_af_Astronomie" title="Stiernkunde af Astronomie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Stiernkunde af Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutanaledi" title="Thutanaledi – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutanaledi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrunum%C3%ACa" title="Astrunumìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Astrunumìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="තාරකා විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තාරකා විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Astronomy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%90_%D9%81%D9%84%DA%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علمِ فلڪيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="علمِ فلڪيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astron%C3%B3mia" title="Astronómia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Astronómia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astr%C5%8Dn%C5%8Dmij%C5%8F" title="Astrōnōmijŏ – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Astrōnōmijŏ" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiddigmaal" title="Xiddigmaal – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Xiddigmaal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1%DB%95%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ئەستێرەناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەستێرەناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Астрономија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Астрономија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomija" title="Astronomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Astronomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4htitiede" title="Tähtitiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tähtitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வானியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வானியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnaggurt" title="Tasnaggurt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnaggurt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnallunt" title="Tasnallunt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnallunt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астрономия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Астрономия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%96%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B3_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="ఖగోళ శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఖగోళ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ดาราศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดาราศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ai%C9%9B%CC%88ckanhial" title="Ŋiɛ̈ckanhial – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Ŋiɛ̈ckanhial" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%90-%E1%8A%AE%E1%8A%BE%E1%89%A5" title="ስነ-ኮኾብ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ስነ-ኮኾብ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Ахтаршиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ахтаршиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B3_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಖಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಖಗೋಳ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi%C3%BDa" title="Astronomiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Astronomiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астрономія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Астрономія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فلکیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلکیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="ئاسترونومىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئاسترونومىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denhvwnz" title="Denhvwnz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Denhvwnz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia" title="Astronomia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Astronomia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomii" title="Astronomii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Astronomii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn_v%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Thiên văn học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thiên văn học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelav" title="Stelav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Stelav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4hetiid%C3%BCs" title="Tähetiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tähetiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomeye" title="Astronomeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Astronomeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="天文學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomie" title="Astronomie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Astronomie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya" title="Astronomiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Astronomiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saytubiddiw" title="Saytubiddiw – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Saytubiddiw" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="天文學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyondzo-Tinyeleti" title="Dyondzo-Tinyeleti – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Dyondzo-Tinyeleti" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אסטראנאמיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אסטראנאמיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ct%C3%B2r%C3%A0w%E1%BB%8D%CC%80" title="Ìtòràwọ̀ – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìtòràwọ̀" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="天文學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asm%C3%AAn%C5%9F%C4%B1nasiye" title="Asmênşınasiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Asmênşınasiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staerrekunde" title="Staerrekunde – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Staerrekunde" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astruonuom%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Astruonuomėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Astruonuomėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="天文學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu_palak" title="Èlmu palak – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Èlmu palak" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astoronomi" title="Astoronomi – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Astoronomi" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi" title="Astronomi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Astronomi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomij%C9%99" title="Astronomijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Astronomijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q333#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of celestial objects</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>This article is about the scientific study of celestial objects. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a>, a divinatory pseudoscience.</span> <span>For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Astronomy (disambiguation)">Astronomy (disambiguation)</a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg/330px-Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg/495px-Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg/660px-Laser_Towards_Milky_Ways_Centre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3631" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Paranal_Observatory" title="Paranal Observatory">Paranal Observatory</a> of <a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">European Southern Observatory</a> shooting a <a href="/wiki/Laser_guide_star" title="Laser guide star">laser guide star</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">Galactic Center</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Astronomy</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> that studies <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial objects</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> that occur in the cosmos. It uses <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> in order to explain their origin and their overall <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronology of the Universe">evolution</a>. Objects of interest include <a href="/wiki/Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Planets">planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebulae">nebulae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>. Relevant phenomena include <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> explosions, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray_burst" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma ray burst">gamma ray bursts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">blazars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a>. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> is a branch of astronomy that studies the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> as a whole. </p><p>Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a> made methodical observations of the <a href="/wiki/Night_sky" title="Night sky">night sky</a>. These include the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a>, and many ancient <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>. In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">astrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>, and the making of <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendars</a>. </p><p>Professional astronomy is split into <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy" title="Theoretical astronomy">theoretical</a> branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. This data is then analyzed using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two fields complement each other. Theoretical astronomy seeks to explain observational results and observations are used to confirm theoretical results. </p><p>Astronomy is one of the few sciences in which amateurs play an <a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">active role</a>. This is especially true for the discovery and observation of <a href="/wiki/Transient_astronomical_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Transient astronomical event">transient events</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur astronomers</a> have helped with many important discoveries, such as finding new comets. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg/220px-SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg/330px-SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg/440px-SLNSW_479519_16_Observatory_SH_198.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1162" /></a><figcaption>Astronomical Observatory, New South Wales, Australia 1873</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Astronomy</i> (from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀστρονομία">ἀστρονομία</a> from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%84%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἄστρον">ἄστρον</a> <i>astron</i>, "star" and -νομία <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-nomy" class="extiw" title="wikt:-nomy">-nomia</a></i> from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:νόμος">νόμος</a> <i>nomos</i>, "law" or "culture") means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the translation). Astronomy should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the <a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">two fields</a> share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct.<sup id="cite_ref-new_cosmos_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_cosmos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_of_terms_"astronomy"_and_"astrophysics""><span id="Use_of_terms_.22astronomy.22_and_.22astrophysics.22"></span>Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"</h3></div> <p>"Astronomy" and "<a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>" are synonyms.<sup id="cite_ref-scharrinhausen_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharrinhausen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-odenwald_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-odenwald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pennstateerie_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pennstateerie-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties",<sup id="cite_ref-mw-astronomy_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-astronomy-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena".<sup id="cite_ref-mw-astrophysics_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-astrophysics-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, as in the introduction of the introductory textbook <i>The Physical Universe</i> by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Shu" title="Frank Shu">Frank Shu</a>, "astronomy" may be used to describe the qualitative study of the subject, whereas "astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-shu1982_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shu1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics.<sup id="cite_ref-scharrinhausen_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scharrinhausen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">astrometry</a>, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics. Various departments in which scientists carry out research on this subject may use "astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether the department is historically affiliated with a physics department,<sup id="cite_ref-odenwald_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-odenwald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many professional <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a> have physics rather than astronomy degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-pennstateerie_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pennstateerie-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Astronomical_Journal" title="The Astronomical Journal">The Astronomical Journal</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Astrophysics" title="Astronomy & Astrophysics">Astronomy & Astrophysics</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline of astronomy</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-historic_astronomy">Pre-historic astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nebra_solstice_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Nebra_solstice_2.jpg/220px-Nebra_solstice_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Nebra_solstice_2.jpg/330px-Nebra_solstice_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Nebra_solstice_2.jpg/440px-Nebra_solstice_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1191" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nebra_sky_disc" title="Nebra sky disc">Nebra sky disc</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800–1600 BCE</span>), found near a possibly <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_complex" title="Astronomical complex">astronomical complex</a>, most likely depicting the Sun or full Moon, the Moon as a crescent, the <a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Pleiades</a> and the summer and winter solstices as strips of gold on the side of the disc,<sup id="cite_ref-Meller_2021_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meller_2021-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the top representing the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a><sup id="cite_ref-:03_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/North" title="North">north</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In early historic times, astronomy only consisted of the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that may have had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their ceremonial uses, these <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatories</a> could be employed to determine the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant crops and in understanding the length of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-history_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_astronomy">Classical astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ct-33-planisphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ct-33-planisphere.jpg/220px-Ct-33-planisphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ct-33-planisphere.jpg/330px-Ct-33-planisphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ct-33-planisphere.jpg/440px-Ct-33-planisphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a> (7th century BCE). <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a> made early advances in astronomy. Its use of <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimals</a> (e.g. 12, 24, 60, 360) is still being used today through having been broadly adopted for <a href="/wiki/Timekeeping" class="mw-redirect" title="Timekeeping">timekeeping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">astrometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-x754_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-x754-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>As civilizations developed, most notably in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Central America</a>, astronomical observatories were assembled and ideas on the nature of the Universe began to develop. Most early astronomy consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">astrometry</a>. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically. The Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the Universe, or the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic system</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">the Babylonians</a>, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonians</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar eclipses">lunar eclipses</a> recurred in a repeating cycle known as a <a href="/wiki/Saros_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Saros cycle">saros</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy were made in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> world. <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a> is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 3rd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> estimated the <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_On_the_Sizes_and_Distances" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristarchus On the Sizes and Distances">size and distance of the Moon and Sun</a>, and he proposed a model of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> where the Earth and planets rotated around the Sun, now called the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2nd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a>, calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellations</a> of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span>–80 BC) was an early <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> designed to calculate the location of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Planets">planets</a> for a given date. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clocks</a> appeared in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-insearchoflosttime_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insearchoflosttime-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_astronomy">Post-classical astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB,_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica,_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg/220px-Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg/330px-Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg/440px-Al-_Farg%C4%81n%C4%AB%2C_A%E1%B8%A5mad_ibn_Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_%E2%80%93_Compilatio_astronomica%2C_1493_%E2%80%93_BEIC_13262685.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Alfraganus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfraganus">Alfraganus</a> in the <i>Compilatio astronomica</i>, 1493. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomers</a> began just before the 9th century to collect and translate <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek</a> astronomical texts, adding their own astronomy and enabling later, particularly European astronomy to build on.<sup id="cite_ref-n063_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-n063-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Astronomy flourished in the Islamic world</a> and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatories</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> by the early 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-1962_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-1962-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Micheau-992-3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Micheau-992-3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 964, the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a>, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NSOG_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSOG-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">SN 1006</a> <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>, the brightest <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">apparent magnitude</a> stellar event in recorded history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomers</a> in 1006. Iranian scholar <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> observed that, contrary to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, the Sun's <a href="/wiki/Apogee" class="mw-redirect" title="Apogee">apogee</a> (highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">Al-Battani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebit" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebit">Thebit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan Biruni">Biruni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ish%C4%81q_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Zarq%C4%81l%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī">Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Birjandi" title="Al-Birjandi">Al-Birjandi</a>, and the astronomers of the <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Samarkand</a> observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic names now used for individual stars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-short_history_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-short_history-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_history_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_history-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also believed that the ruins at <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may have housed astronomical observatories.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">Post-classical</a> <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, Astronomers studied the movement of stars and relation to seasons, crafting charts of the heavens as well as precise diagrams of orbits of the other planets based on complex mathematical calculations. <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Kati" title="Mahmud Kati">Mahmud Kati</a> documented a <a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">meteor shower</a> in August 1583.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> during the pre-colonial Middle Ages, but modern discoveries show otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For over six centuries (from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy than probably all other institutions. Among the Church's motives was finding the <a href="/wiki/Date_of_Easter" title="Date of Easter">date for Easter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval Europe housed a number of important astronomers. <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Wallingford" title="Richard of Wallingford">Richard of Wallingford</a> (1292–1336) made major contributions to astronomy and <a href="/wiki/Horology" class="mw-redirect" title="Horology">horology</a>, including the invention of the first astronomical clock, the <a href="/wiki/Rectangulus" title="Rectangulus">Rectangulus</a> which allowed for the measurement of angles between planets and other astronomical bodies, as well as an <a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">equatorium</a> called the <i>Albion</i> which could be used for astronomical calculations such as <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">lunar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">solar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planetary</a> <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitudes</a> and could predict <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a> (1320–1382) and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a> (1300–1361) first discussed evidence for the rotation of the Earth, furthermore, Buridan also developed the theory of impetus (predecessor of the modern scientific theory of <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>) which was able to show planets were capable of motion without the intervention of angels.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_Peuerbach" title="Georg von Peuerbach">Georg von Peuerbach</a> (1423–1461) and <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a> (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_telescopic_astronomy">Early telescopic astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png/170px-Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png/255px-Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png/340px-Galileo%27s_sketches_of_the_moon.png 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="3050" /></a><figcaption>The first sketches of the Moon's topography, from <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>'s ground-breaking <i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a></i> (1610), publishing his findings from the first telescopic astronomical observations.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system. His work was defended by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and expanded upon by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>. Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun. However, Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, with his invention of <a href="/wiki/Celestial_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial dynamics">celestial dynamics</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">law of gravitation</a>, who finally explained the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the <a href="/wiki/Reflecting_telescope" title="Reflecting telescope">reflecting telescope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-f58-64_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-f58-64-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Improvements in the size and quality of the telescope led to further discoveries. The English astronomer <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">John Flamsteed</a> catalogued over 3000 stars.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More extensive star catalogues were produced by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas Louis de Lacaille">Nicolas Louis de Lacaille</a>. The astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, and in 1781 discovered the planet <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a>, the first new planet found.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the <a href="/wiki/Three-body_problem" title="Three-body problem">three-body problem</a> by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Claude_Clairaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexis Claude Clairaut">Alexis Claude Clairaut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Laplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Simon Laplace">Pierre Simon Laplace</a>, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology, including the <a href="/wiki/Spectroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscope">spectroscope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">photography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer" title="Joseph von Fraunhofer">Joseph von Fraunhofer</a> discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> ascribed to the presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">masses</a>, and sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-short_history_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-short_history-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deep_space_astronomy">Deep space astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts,_29_December_1888.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg/220px-Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg/330px-Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg/440px-Andromeda_Nebula_-_Isaac_Roberts%2C_29_December_1888.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="2117" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> in the earliest known photograph of the Great Andromeda "Nebula", by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Roberts" title="Isaac Roberts">Isaac Roberts</a> from 29 December 1888. With the calculation of its distance in 1923 <a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergalactic space">intergalactic space</a> was proven, allowing the calculation of the age and expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, as its own group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Belkora2003_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belkora2003-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919, when the <a href="/wiki/Hooker_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooker Telescope">Hooker Telescope</a> was completed, the prevailing view was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way Galaxy. Using the Hooker Telescope, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> identified <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variables</a> in several spiral nebulae and in 1922–1923 proved conclusively that <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Nebula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triangulum_Nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangulum Nebula">Triangulum</a> among others, were entire galaxies outside our own, thus proving that the universe consists of a multitude of galaxies.<sup id="cite_ref-SharovNovikov1993_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SharovNovikov1993-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this Hubble formulated the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble constant">Hubble constant</a>, which allowed for the first time a calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe, which became increasingly precise with better meassurements, starting at 2 billion years and 280 million light-years, until 2006 when data of the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> allowed a very accurate calculation of the age of the Universe and size of the Observable Universe.<sup id="cite_ref-p537_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p537-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">blazars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">radio galaxies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a> made huge advances during the 20th century. In the early 1900s the model of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory was formulated, heavily evidenced by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">cosmological abundances of elements</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescopes</a> have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2016, it was revealed that the <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> project had <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">detected evidence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a> in the previous September.<sup id="cite_ref-Discovery_2016_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Discovery_2016-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abbot_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbot-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observational_astronomy">Observational astronomy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg/350px-Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg/525px-Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg/700px-Openstax_Astronomy_EM_spectrum_and_atmosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="861" /></a><figcaption>Overview of types of observational astronomy by observed wavelengths and their observability</figcaption></figure> <p>The main source of information about <a href="/wiki/Celestial_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial body">celestial bodies</a> and other objects is <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, or more generally <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> on which the observations are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields is given below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_astronomy">Radio astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg/220px-USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg/330px-USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg/440px-USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Array" title="Very Large Array">Very Large Array</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, an example of a <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescope</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a></div> <p>Radio astronomy uses radiation with <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> greater than approximately one millimeter, outside the visible range.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a> can be treated as <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a> rather than as discrete <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a> of radio waves, whereas this is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although some <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a> are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of <a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">thermal emission</a>, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>, which is produced when <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> orbit <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a number of <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral lines</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar gas">interstellar gas</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-shu1982_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shu1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A wide variety of other objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a>, interstellar gas, <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galactic nuclei">active galactic nuclei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shu1982_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shu1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrared_astronomy">Infrared astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:In_Search_of_Space.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/In_Search_of_Space.jpg/220px-In_Search_of_Space.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/In_Search_of_Space.jpg/330px-In_Search_of_Space.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/In_Search_of_Space.jpg/440px-In_Search_of_Space.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1174" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Atacama_Large_Millimeter_Array" title="Atacama Large Millimeter Array">ALMA</a> Observatory is one of the highest observatory sites on Earth. Atacama, Chile.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared astronomy</a></div> <p>Infrared astronomy is founded on the detection and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> radiation, wavelengths longer than red light and outside the range of our vision. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light, such as planets, <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar disk">circumstellar disks</a> or nebulae whose light is blocked by dust. The longer wavelengths of infrared can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light, allowing the observation of young stars embedded in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a> and the cores of galaxies. Observations from the <a href="/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer" title="Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer">Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer</a> (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic <a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">protostars</a> and their host <a href="/wiki/Star_clusters" class="mw-redirect" title="Star clusters">star clusters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wright_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wright-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ma2013_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ma2013-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exception of infrared <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> close to visible light, such radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, or masked, as the atmosphere itself produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places on Earth or in space.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared. This allows the study of the chemistry of space; more specifically it can detect water in comets.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_astronomy">Optical astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG/220px-The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG/330px-The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG/440px-The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="926" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Subaru_Telescope" title="Subaru Telescope">Subaru Telescope</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Keck_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a> (center) on <a href="/wiki/Mauna_Kea" title="Mauna Kea">Mauna Kea</a>, both examples of an observatory that operates at near-infrared and visible wavelengths. The <a href="/wiki/NASA_Infrared_Telescope_Facility" title="NASA Infrared Telescope Facility">NASA Infrared Telescope Facility</a> (right) is an example of a telescope that operates only at near-infrared wavelengths.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Optical_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical astronomy">Optical astronomy</a></div> <p>Historically, optical astronomy, which has been also called visible light astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-moore1997_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore1997-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Images of observations were originally drawn by hand. In the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, images were made using photographic equipment. Modern images are made using digital detectors, particularly using <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled devices</a> (CCDs) and recorded on modern medium. Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 <a href="/wiki/%C3%85ngstrom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ångstrom">Å</a> to 7000 Å (400 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> to 700 nm),<sup id="cite_ref-moore1997_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore1997-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that same equipment can be used to observe some <a href="/wiki/Near-ultraviolet" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-ultraviolet">near-ultraviolet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Near-infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-infrared">near-infrared</a> radiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultraviolet_astronomy">Ultraviolet astronomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet astronomy</a></div> <p>Ultraviolet astronomy employs <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm).<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Light at those wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, requiring observations at these wavelengths to be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> (<a href="/wiki/OB_star" title="OB star">OB stars</a>) that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include <a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">planetary nebulae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">supernova remnants</a>, and active galactic nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar dust">interstellar dust</a>, an adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="X-ray_astronomy">X-ray astronomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B30727.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/B30727.jpg/220px-B30727.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/B30727.jpg/330px-B30727.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/B30727.jpg/440px-B30727.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>X-ray jet made from a supermassive black hole found by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, made visible by light from the early Universe</figcaption></figure> <p>X-ray astronomy uses <a href="/wiki/X-radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="X-radiation">X-ray wavelengths</a>. Typically, X-ray radiation is produced by <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrotron emission">synchrotron emission</a> (the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines), <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bremsstrahlung radiation">thermal emission from thin gases</a> above 10<sup>7</sup> (10 million) <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blackbody_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody radiation">thermal emission from thick gases</a> above 10<sup>7</sup> Kelvin.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since X-rays are absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, all X-ray observations must be performed from <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_balloon" title="High-altitude balloon">high-altitude balloons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>, or <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray astronomy satellite">X-ray astronomy satellites</a>. Notable <a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_X-ray_source" title="Astrophysical X-ray source">X-ray sources</a> include <a href="/wiki/X-ray_binaries" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray binaries">X-ray binaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">supernova remnants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptical galaxies">elliptical galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clusters_of_galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Clusters of galaxies">clusters of galaxies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galactic nuclei">active galactic nuclei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gamma-ray_astronomy">Gamma-ray astronomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma ray astronomy">Gamma ray astronomy</a></div> <p>Gamma ray astronomy observes astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the <a href="/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory" title="Compton Gamma Ray Observatory">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a> or by specialized telescopes called <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_Cherenkov_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric Cherenkov telescope">atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cherenkov telescopes do not detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-spectrum_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spectrum-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma-ray</a> emitting sources are actually <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray bursts</a>, objects which only produce gamma radiation for a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10% of gamma-ray sources are non-transient sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars, <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> candidates such as active galactic nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fields_not_based_on_the_electromagnetic_spectrum">Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum</h3></div> <p>In addition to electromagnetic radiation, a few other events originating from great distances may be observed from the Earth. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">neutrino astronomy</a>, astronomers use heavily shielded <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino observatory">underground facilities</a> such as <a href="/wiki/SAGE_(ruSsian_American_Gallium_Experiment)" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE (ruSsian American Gallium Experiment)">SAGE</a>, <a href="/wiki/GALLEX" title="GALLEX">GALLEX</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kamioka_Observatory" title="Kamioka Observatory">Kamioka II/III</a> for the detection of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>. The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, but 24 neutrinos were also detected from <a href="/wiki/Supernova_1987A" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova 1987A">supernova 1987A</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic rays</a>, which consist of very high energy particles (atomic nuclei) that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, result in a cascade of secondary particles which can be detected by current observatories.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some future <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">neutrino detectors</a> may also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-cox2000_52-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cox2000-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a> is an emerging field of astronomy that employs <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational-wave detector">gravitational-wave detectors</a> to collect observational data about distant massive objects. A few observatories have been constructed, such as the <i>Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory</i> <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a>. LIGO made its <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">first detection</a> on 14 September 2015, observing gravitational waves from a <a href="/wiki/Binary_black_hole" title="Binary black hole">binary black hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PRL-20160211_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRL-20160211-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational wave</a> was detected on 26 December 2015 and additional observations should continue but <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a> require extremely sensitive instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The combination of observations made using electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos or gravitational waves and other complementary information, is known as <a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">multi-messenger astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrometry_and_celestial_mechanics">Astrometry and celestial mechanics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial mechanics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg/220px-EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg/330px-EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg/440px-EmissionNebula_NGC6357.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3140" data-file-height="5057" /></a><figcaption>Star cluster <a href="/wiki/Pismis_24" class="mw-redirect" title="Pismis 24">Pismis 24</a> with a nebula</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the oldest fields in astronomy, and in all of science, is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects. Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a> (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> </p><p>Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbations</a>, and an ability to determine past and future positions of the planets with great accuracy, a field known as <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a>. More recently the tracking of <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">near-Earth objects</a> will allow for predictions of close encounters or potential collisions of the Earth with those objects.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The measurement of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">stellar parallax</a> of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">cosmic distance ladder</a> that is used to measure the scale of the Universe. Parallax measurements of nearby stars provide an absolute baseline for the properties of more distant stars, as their properties can be compared. Measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">radial velocity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">proper motion</a> of stars allow astronomers to plot the movement of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy. Astrometric results are the basis used to calculate the distribution of speculated <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> in the galaxy.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1990s, the measurement of the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wobble" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar wobble">stellar wobble</a> of nearby stars was <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_extrasolar_planets#Astrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Methods of detecting extrasolar planets">used to detect</a> large <a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a> orbiting those stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolszczan_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolszczan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_astronomy">Theoretical astronomy</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto;background:#F8F9FA"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="border-bottom: 2px solid #ccf"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/85px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/128px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/170px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="484" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova nucleosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">Cosmic ray spallation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F8F9FA; border-top: 2px solid #ccf; border-bottom: 2px solid #ccf"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">R-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">S-process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top: 2px solid #ccf"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleosynthesis" title="Template:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleosynthesis" title="Template talk:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleosynthesis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleosynthesis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy" title="Theoretical astronomy">Theoretical astronomy</a></div> <p>Theoretical astronomers use several tools including <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">analytical models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computational</a> <a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical simulations</a>; each has its particular advantages. Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models reveal the existence of phenomena and effects otherwise unobserved.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models that are based on existing observations and known physics, and to predict observational consequences of those models. The observation of phenomena predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists also modify existing models to take into account new observations. In some cases, a large amount of observational data that is inconsistent with a model may lead to abandoning it largely or completely, as for <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentric theory">geocentric theory</a>, the existence of <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady-state model</a> of cosmic evolution. </p><p>Phenomena modeled by theoretical astronomers include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">stellar dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the universe">large-scale distribution</a> of matter in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li>the origin of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>, including <a href="/wiki/String_cosmology" title="String cosmology">string cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">astroparticle physics</a>.</li></ul> <p>Modern theoretical astronomy reflects dramatic advances in observation since the 1990s, including studies of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>, distant <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Redshift_survey" title="Redshift survey">galaxy redshifts</a>, which have led to the development of a <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">standard model of cosmology</a>. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a> whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.<sup id="cite_ref-PDG_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PDG-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_subfields">Specific subfields</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_(circular_layout_english_annotations).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png/220px-Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png/330px-Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png/440px-Observable_Universe_logarithmic_illustration_%28circular_layout_english_annotations%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Astrophysics applies <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> to understand the measurements made by astronomy. Representation of the Observable Universe that includes images from <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a> and other <a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">telescopes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> "to ascertain the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical objects</a>, rather than their positions or motions in space".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the objects studied are the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa.gov_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa.gov-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their emissions are examined across all parts of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, and the properties examined include <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a> composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, <i>astrophysicists</i> typically apply many disciplines of physics, including <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">atomic and molecular physics</a>. </p><p>In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical</a> and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a>; whether or not <a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">time travel</a> is possible, <a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">wormholes</a> can form, or the <a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">multiverse</a> exists; and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">origin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">ultimate fate of the universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa.gov_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa.gov-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Solar System formation and evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">stellar dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galaxy formation and evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">magnetohydrodynamics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the universe">large-scale structure</a> of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> in the universe; origin of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>; <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>, including <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string</a> cosmology and <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">astroparticle physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></div> <p>Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>, and their interaction with <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>. The study of the abundance of elements and <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> ratios in Solar System objects, such as <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>, is also called <a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">cosmochemistry</a>, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular gas clouds</a> is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar systems form. Studies in this field contribute to the understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Formation_of_the_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation of the Solar System">formation of the Solar System</a>, Earth's origin and geology, <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>, and the origin of climate and oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></div> <p>Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">origins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">early evolution</a>, distribution, and future of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>. Astrobiology considers the question of whether <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">extraterrestrial life</a> exists, and how humans can detect it if it does.<sup id="cite_ref-about_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term exobiology is similar.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Astrobiology makes use of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, astronomy, <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoplanetology" class="mw-redirect" title="Exoplanetology">exoplanetology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biospheres</a> that might be different from that on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">The origin</a> and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific data</a>, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> that fit firmly into existing <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific theories">scientific theories</a>. </p><p>This <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field encompasses research on the origin of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">planetary systems</a>, origins of <a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">organic compounds in space</a>, rock-water-carbon interactions, <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a> on Earth, <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">planetary habitability</a>, research on <a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a> for life detection, and studies on the potential for <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">life to adapt to challenges</a> on Earth and in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goals2016_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goals2016-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20151218-jc_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20151218-jc-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_cosmology">Physical cosmology</h3></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Nature timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature_timeline" title="Template:Nature timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature_timeline" title="Template talk:Nature timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.15em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−13 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.33em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:43.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−12 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:39.89em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−11 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.83em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.20em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.57em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.95em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:18.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.32em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.69em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.07em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.25em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.44em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#e5cc7f"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:49.503em;height:0.497em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.3em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.248em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe#Dark_Ages" title="Chronology of the universe"><span style="color:white;">Dark Ages</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#555555;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.421em;height:3.083em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.5em;left:0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.541em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization"><span style="color:white;">Reionization</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#666666;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.465em;height:29.956em;left:0.000em;width:13.000em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.7em;left:0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.978em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Scale_factor_(cosmology)#Matter-dominated_era" title="Scale factor (cosmology)"><span style="color:#99ffff;">Matter-dominated<br />era</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7aa3cc;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:15.957em;left:0.130em;width:12.870em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:10em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe"><span style="color:#99ffff;">Accelerated expansion</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7aa3cc;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:15.957em;left:0.520em;width:12.480em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:7.25em;left:1.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Water#On_Earth" title="Water"><span style="color:white;">Water on Earth</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:14.506em;left:0.520em;width:12.480em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:6.4em;left:0.75em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.253em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:12.693em;left:1.560em;width:11.440em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3.25em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.347em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffdb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:6.709em;left:2.210em;width:10.790em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.355em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular<br />life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#cc9900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.886em;left:2.860em;width:10.140em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.943em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate"><span style="color:white;">Vertebrates</span></a></div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.5em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Earliest Universe</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:49.322em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.05em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_population#Population_III_stars" title="Stellar population">Earliest stars</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.803em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/HD1_(galaxy)" class="mw-redirect" title="HD1 (galaxy)">Earliest galaxy</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.509em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span class="nowrap">Earliest <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">black hole</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:41.778em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Omega_Centauri" title="Omega Centauri">Omega Centauri</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:36.266em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.914em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Milky_Way#Formation" title="Milky Way">Milky Way spirals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.661em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/NGC_188" title="NGC 188">NGC 188 star cluster</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:23.573em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.566em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">Earth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Solar System</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.506em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.693em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.885em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.253em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.440em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:2.901em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#Colonization_of_land" title="Evolutionary history of plants">plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.962em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Earliest mammals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.091em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.627em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:1.25em;left:-16.4em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">L<br />i<br />f<br />e</a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float: left;">(<a href="/wiki/Billion_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Billion years">billion years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> (from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κόσμος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">kosmos</i></span>) "world, universe" and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λόγος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">logos</i></span>) "word, study" or literally "logic") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_(full_resolution).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png/220px-Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png/330px-Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png/440px-Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field_%28full_resolution%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="2078" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Extreme_Deep_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble Extreme Deep Field">Hubble Extreme Deep Field</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Observations of the <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_Universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the Universe">large-scale structure of the Universe</a>, a branch known as <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. Fundamental to modern cosmology is the well-accepted theory of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, wherein our Universe began at a single <a href="/wiki/Point_in_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Point in time">point in time</a>, and thereafter <a href="/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric expansion of space">expanded</a> over the course of 13.8 billion years<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to its present condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodelson2003_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodelson2003-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of the Big Bang can be traced back to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">microwave background radiation</a> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodelson2003_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodelson2003-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the course of this expansion, the Universe underwent several evolutionary stages. In the very early moments, it is theorized that the Universe experienced a very rapid <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, which homogenized the starting conditions. Thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a> produced the elemental abundance of the early Universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodelson2003_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodelson2003-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also <a href="/wiki/Nucleocosmochronology" title="Nucleocosmochronology">nucleocosmochronology</a>.) </p><p>When the first neutral <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. The expanding Universe then underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar energy sources.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmology_101_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmology_101-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space. Matter accumulated in the densest regions, forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars, the <a href="/wiki/Population_III_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Population III stars">Population III stars</a>. These massive stars triggered the <a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">reionization</a> process and are believed to have created many of the heavy elements in the early Universe, which, through nuclear decay, create lighter elements, allowing the cycle of nucleosynthesis to continue longer.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps. Gradually, organizations of gas and dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies. Over time, these pulled in more matter, and were often organized into <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">groups and clusters</a> of galaxies, then into larger-scale superclusters.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fundamental to the structure of the Universe is the existence of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>. These are now thought to be its dominant components, forming 96% of the mass of the Universe. For this reason, much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extragalactic_astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg/220px-Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg/330px-Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg/440px-Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2022" data-file-height="2022" /></a><figcaption>This image shows several blue, loop-shaped objects that are multiple images of the same galaxy, duplicated by the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lens</a> effect of the cluster of yellow galaxies near the middle of the photograph. The lens is produced by the cluster's gravitational field that bends light to magnify and distort the image of a more distant object.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</a></div> <p>The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">formation and evolution of galaxies</a>, their morphology (description) and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">classification</a>, the observation of <a href="/wiki/Active_galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Active galaxy">active galaxies</a>, and at a larger scale, the <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" title="Galaxy groups and clusters">groups and clusters of galaxies</a>. Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">large-scale structure of the cosmos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> are organized into distinct shapes that allow for classification schemes. They are commonly divided into <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">Irregular</a> galaxies.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipse</a>. The stars move along <a href="/wiki/Randomness" title="Randomness">random</a> orbits with no preferred direction. These galaxies contain little or no interstellar dust, few star-forming regions, and older stars.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 877–878">: 877–878 </span></sup> Elliptical galaxies may have been formed by other galaxies merging.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 939">: 939 </span></sup> </p><p>A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat, rotating disk, usually with a prominent bulge or bar at the center, and trailing bright arms that spiral outward. The arms are dusty regions of star formation within which massive young stars produce a blue tint. Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars. Both the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> and one of our nearest galaxy neighbors, the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>, are spiral galaxies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 875">: 875 </span></sup> </p><p>Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance, and are neither spiral nor elliptical.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 879">: 879 </span></sup> About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An active galaxy is a formation that emits a significant amount of its energy from a source other than its stars, dust and gas. It is powered by a compact region at the core, thought to be a supermassive black hole that is emitting radiation from in-falling material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 907">: 907 </span></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Radio_galaxy" title="Radio galaxy">radio galaxy</a> is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas. Active galaxies that emit shorter frequency, high-energy radiation include <a href="/wiki/Seyfert_galaxy" title="Seyfert galaxy">Seyfert galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">blazars</a>. Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous objects in the known universe.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_cosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the cosmos">large-scale structure of the cosmos</a> is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies. This structure is organized into a hierarchy of groupings, with the largest being the <a href="/wiki/Supercluster" title="Supercluster">superclusters</a>. The collective matter is formed into <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">filaments</a> and walls, leaving large <a href="/wiki/Void_(astronomy)" title="Void (astronomy)">voids</a> between.<sup id="cite_ref-evolving_universe_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evolving_universe-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galactic_astronomy">Galactic astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg/220px-Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg/330px-Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg/440px-Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Observed structure of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>'s spiral arms</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> orbits within the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Barred_spiral_galaxy" title="Barred spiral galaxy">barred spiral galaxy</a> that is a prominent member of the <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a> of galaxies. It is a rotating mass of gas, dust, stars and other objects, held together by mutual gravitational attraction. As the Earth is located within the dusty outer arms, there are large portions of the Milky Way that are obscured from view.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 837–842, 944">: 837–842, 944 </span></sup> </p><p>In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a> at its center. This is surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the core. This is a region of active star formation that contains many younger, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_population" title="Stellar population">population I</a> stars. The disk is surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Galactic_spheroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic spheroid">spheroid halo</a> of older, <a href="/wiki/Population_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Population II">population II</a> stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as <a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between the stars lies the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>, a region of sparse matter. In the densest regions, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">molecular hydrogen</a> and other elements create star-forming regions. These begin as a compact <a href="/wiki/Pre-stellar_core" title="Pre-stellar core">pre-stellar core</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dark_nebula" title="Dark nebula">dark nebulae</a>, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the <a href="/wiki/Jeans_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeans length">Jeans length</a>) to form compact protostars.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2004_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2004-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an <a href="/wiki/H_II_region" title="H II region">H II region</a> (ionized atomic hydrogen) of glowing gas and plasma. The <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">stellar wind</a> and supernova explosions from these stars eventually cause the cloud to disperse, often leaving behind one or more young <a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">open clusters</a> of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter. A <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter_halo" title="Dark matter halo">dark matter halo</a> appears to dominate the mass, although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stellar_astronomy">Stellar astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ant_Nebula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ant_Nebula.jpg/220px-Ant_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ant_Nebula.jpg/330px-Ant_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Ant_Nebula.jpg/440px-Ant_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="708" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mz_3" title="Mz 3">Mz 3</a>, often referred to as the Ant planetary nebula. Ejecting gas from the dying central star shows symmetrical patterns unlike the chaotic patterns of ordinary explosions.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Star</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solar_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar astronomy">Solar astronomy</a></div> <p>The study of stars and <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a> is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe. The astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and from computer simulations of the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos7_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos7-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a> occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as <a href="/wiki/Dark_nebula" title="Dark nebula">giant molecular clouds</a>. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity, to form a <a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">protostar</a>. A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>, thus creating a <a href="/wiki/Main-sequence_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-sequence star">main-sequence star</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2004_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2004-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost all elements heavier than <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> were <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">created</a> inside the cores of stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos7_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos7-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass. The more massive the star, the greater its luminosity, and the more rapidly it fuses its hydrogen fuel into helium in its core. Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolve</a>. The fusion of helium requires a higher core temperature. A star with a high enough core temperature will push its outer layers outward while increasing its core density. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">red giant</a> formed by the expanding outer layers enjoys a brief life span, before the helium fuel in the core is in turn consumed. Very massive stars can also undergo a series of evolutionary phases, as they fuse increasingly heavier elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Amos_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amos-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming core collapse <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while smaller stars blow off their outer layers and leave behind the inert core in the form of a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>. The ejection of the outer layers forms a <a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">planetary nebula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remnant of a supernova is a dense <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a>, or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun, a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_atlas_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_atlas-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Closely orbiting binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planetary nebulae and supernovae distribute the "<a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metals</a>" produced in the star by fusion to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_astronomy">Solar astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uvsun_trace_big.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Uvsun_trace_big.jpg/220px-Uvsun_trace_big.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Uvsun_trace_big.jpg/330px-Uvsun_trace_big.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Uvsun_trace_big.jpg/440px-Uvsun_trace_big.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> image of the Sun's active <a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">photosphere</a> as viewed by the NASA's <a href="/wiki/TRACE" title="TRACE">TRACE</a> space telescope.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg/220px-Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg/330px-Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg/440px-Observat%C3%B3rium_Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Solar observatory <a href="/wiki/Lomnick%C3%BD_%C5%A1t%C3%ADt" title="Lomnický štít">Lomnický štít</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>) built in 1962</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solar_telescope" title="Solar telescope">Solar telescope</a></div> <p>At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, a typical main-sequence <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_star" title="Dwarf star">dwarf star</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar class">stellar class</a> G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered a <a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">variable star</a>, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the <a href="/wiki/Sunspot_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunspot cycle">sunspot cycle</a>. This is an 11-year oscillation in <a href="/wiki/Wolf_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf number">sunspot number</a>. Sunspots are regions of lower-than-average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-solar_FAQ_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-solar_FAQ-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Environmental_issues_:_essential_primary_sources._107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Environmental_issues_:_essential_primary_sources.-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Maunder_minimum" class="mw-redirect" title="Maunder minimum">Maunder minimum</a>, for example, is believed to have caused the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> phenomenon during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-future-sun_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-future-sun-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the center of the Sun is the core region, a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> to occur. Above the core is the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">radiation zone</a>, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation. Above that is the <a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">convection zone</a> where the gas material transports energy primarily through physical displacement of the gas known as convection. It is believed that the movement of mass within the convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates sunspots.<sup id="cite_ref-solar_FAQ_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-solar_FAQ-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the <a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">photosphere</a>. Above this layer is a thin region known as the <a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">chromosphere</a>. This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly increasing temperatures, and finally by the super-heated <a href="/wiki/Solar_corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar corona">corona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 498–502">: 498–502 </span></sup> </p><p>A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the <a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">heliopause</a>. As the solar wind passes the Earth, it interacts with the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>) and deflects the solar wind, but traps some creating the <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belts</a> that envelop the Earth. The <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">aurora</a> are created when solar wind particles are guided by the magnetic flux lines into the Earth's polar regions where the lines then descend into the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planetary_science">Planetary science</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg/220px-Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg/330px-Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg/440px-Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>The black spot at the top is a <a href="/wiki/Dust_devil" title="Dust devil">dust devil</a> climbing a crater wall on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. This moving, swirling column of <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Martian atmosphere</a> (comparable to a terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a>) created the long, dark streak.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></div> <p>Planetary science is the study of the assemblage of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">moons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, and other bodies orbiting the Sun, as well as extrasolar planets. The <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> has been relatively well-studied, initially through telescopes and then later by spacecraft. This has provided a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of the Sun's planetary system, although many new discoveries are still being made.<sup id="cite_ref-geology_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geology-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Solar System is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner Solar System">inner Solar System</a> (subdivided into the inner planets and the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">asteroid belt</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Outer_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Solar System">outer Solar System</a> (subdivided into the outer planets and <a href="/wiki/Centaurs_(minor_planets)" class="mw-redirect" title="Centaurs (minor planets)">centaurs</a>), comets, the trans-Neptunian region (subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">scattered disc</a>) and the farthest regions (e.g., boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Oort_Cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Oort Cloud">Oort Cloud</a>, which may extend as far as a light-year). The inner <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> consist of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, Earth, and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. The outer <a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">giant planets</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">gas giants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">ice giants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-planets_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-planets-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> that surrounded the early Sun. Through a process that included gravitational attraction, collision, and accretion, the disk formed clumps of matter that, with time, became protoplanets. The <a href="/wiki/Radiation_pressure" title="Radiation pressure">radiation pressure</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> then expelled most of the unaccreted matter, and only those planets with sufficient mass retained their gaseous atmosphere. The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact craters</a> on the Moon. During this period, some of the protoplanets may have collided and one such collision may have <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact hypothesis">formed the Moon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Montmerle2006_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montmerle2006-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials of different densities segregate within, during <a href="/wiki/Planetary_differentiation" title="Planetary differentiation">planetary differentiation</a>. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their own <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A planet or moon's interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body, by the decay of radioactive materials (<i>e.g.</i> <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/26Al" class="mw-redirect" title="26Al"><sup>26</sup>Al</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Tidal_acceleration" title="Tidal acceleration">tidal heating</a> caused by interactions with other bodies. Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and tectonics. Those that accumulate or retain an <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> can also undergo surface <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> from wind or water. Smaller bodies, without tidal heating, cool more quickly; and their geological activity ceases with the exception of impact cratering.<sup id="cite_ref-new_solar_system_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_solar_system-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interdisciplinary_studies">Interdisciplinary studies</h2></div> <p>Astronomy and astrophysics have developed significant interdisciplinary links with other major scientific fields. <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilizing <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> evidence. <a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a> is the study of the advent and evolution of biological systems in the Universe, with particular emphasis on the possibility of non-terrestrial life. <a href="/wiki/Astrostatistics" title="Astrostatistics">Astrostatistics</a> is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilbe_2017_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilbe_2017-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a> found in space, including their formation, interaction and destruction, is called <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">astrochemistry</a>. These substances are usually found in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a>, although they may also appear in low-temperature stars, brown dwarfs and planets. <a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> ratios. Both of these fields represent an overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry. As "<a href="/wiki/Forensic_astronomy" title="Forensic astronomy">forensic astronomy</a>", finally, methods from astronomy have been used to solve problems of art history<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and occasionally of law.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amateur_astronomy">Amateur astronomy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telescope_trailer_22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Telescope_trailer_22.jpg/170px-Telescope_trailer_22.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Telescope_trailer_22.jpg/255px-Telescope_trailer_22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Telescope_trailer_22.jpg/340px-Telescope_trailer_22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Amateur astronomers can build their own equipment, and hold star parties and gatherings, such as <a href="/wiki/Stellafane" title="Stellafane">Stellafane</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur astronomy</a></div> <p>Astronomy is one of the sciences to which amateurs can contribute the most.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with consumer-level equipment or <a href="/wiki/Amateur_telescope_making" title="Amateur telescope making">equipment that they build themselves</a>. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun, the Moon, planets, stars, comets, <a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">meteor showers</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Deep-sky_object" title="Deep-sky object">deep-sky objects</a> such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky. One branch of amateur astronomy, <a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">astrophotography</a>, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Many amateurs like to specialize in the observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but many experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Guthe_Jansky" title="Karl Guthe Jansky">Karl Jansky</a>, who started observing the sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s. A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (<i>e.g.</i> the <a href="/wiki/One-Mile_Telescope" title="One-Mile Telescope">One-Mile Telescope</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amateur astronomers continue to make scientific contributions to the field of astronomy and it is one of the few scientific disciplines where amateurs can still make significant contributions. Amateurs can make occultation measurements that are used to refine the orbits of minor planets. They can also discover comets, and perform regular observations of variable stars. Improvements in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive advances in the field of astrophotography.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unsolved_problems_in_astronomy">Unsolved problems in astronomy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy" title="List of unsolved problems in astronomy">List of unsolved problems in astronomy</a></div> <p>In the 21st century there remain important unanswered questions in astronomy. Some are cosmic in scope: for example, what are <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>? These dominate the evolution and fate of the cosmos, yet their true nature remains unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-physics_questions_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physics_questions-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What will be the <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">ultimate fate of the universe</a>?<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Why is the abundance of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> in the cosmos four times lower than predicted by the standard <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> model?<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others pertain to more specific classes of phenomena. For example, is the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> normal or atypical?<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the <a href="/wiki/Initial_mass_function" title="Initial mass function">initial mass function</a>—apparently regardless of the initial conditions?<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, questions remain about the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Protogalaxy" title="Protogalaxy">first galaxies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the origin of <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black holes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the source of <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_cosmic_ray" title="Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray">ultra-high-energy cosmic rays</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more. </p><p>Is there other <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">life in the Universe</a>? Especially, is there <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Extraterrestrial intelligence">other intelligent life</a>? If so, what is the explanation for the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_paradox" title="Fermi paradox">Fermi paradox</a>? The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and philosophical implications.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a> – Theory or model concerning the origin of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline of astronomy</a> – Overview of the scientific field of astronomy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Outline of space science</a> – Overview of and topical guide to space science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a> – Exploration of space, planets, and moons</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lists">Lists</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary of astronomy</a> – List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the study of astronomy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments" title="List of astronomical instruments">List of astronomical instruments</a> – Devices for observing, measuring, or recording astronomical data</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories" title="List of astronomical observatories">List of astronomical observatories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" title="List of astronomy acronyms">List of astronomy acronyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_for_astronomy_research_and_education" title="List of software for astronomy research and education">List of software for astronomy research and education</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLosev2012" class="citation journal cs1">Losev, Alexandre (2012). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Astronomy' or 'astrology': A brief history of an apparent confusion". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Astronomical_History_and_Heritage" title="Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage">Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1): 42–46. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1006.5209">1006.5209</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JAHH...15...42L">2012JAHH...15...42L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2012.01.05">10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2012.01.05</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1440-2807">1440-2807</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51802196">51802196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Astronomical+History+and+Heritage&rft.atitle=%27Astronomy%27+or+%27astrology%27%3A+A+brief+history+of+an+apparent+confusion&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42-46&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51802196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012JAHH...15...42L&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1006.5209&rft.issn=1440-2807&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3724%2FSP.J.1440-2807.2012.01.05&rft.aulast=Losev&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-new_cosmos-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-new_cosmos_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnsöldBaschek,_Bodo2001" class="citation book cs1">Unsöld, Albrecht; Baschek, Bodo (2001). <i>The New Cosmos: An Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. 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(January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609102139/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30">"What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics?"</a>. <i>Curious About Astronomy</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=30">the original</a> on 9 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Curious+About+Astronomy&rft.atitle=What+is+the+difference+between+astronomy+and+astrophysics%3F&rft.date=2002-01&rft.aulast=Scharringhausen&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcurious.astro.cornell.edu%2Fquestion.php%3Fnumber%3D30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-odenwald-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-odenwald_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-odenwald_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdenwald" class="citation web cs1">Odenwald, Sten. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070708092148/http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q449.html">"Archive of Astronomy Questions and Answers: What is the difference between astronomy and astrophysics?"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Penn+State+Erie&rft.atitle=School+of+Science-Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.date=2005-07-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erie.psu.edu%2Facademic%2Fscience%2Fdegrees%2Fastronomy%2Fastrophysics.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mw-astronomy-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mw-astronomy_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy">"astronomy"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Online</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070617131203/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astronomy">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+Online&rft.atitle=astronomy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.m-w.com%2Fdictionary%2Fastronomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mw-astrophysics-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mw-astrophysics_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics">"astrophysics"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Online</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120921/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/astrophysics">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Mill Valley, California: University Science Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-935702-05-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-935702-05-7"><bdi>978-0-935702-05-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physical+Universe&rft.place=Mill+Valley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+Science+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-935702-05-7&rft.aulast=Shu&rft.aufirst=F.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicaluniverse00shuf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meller_2021-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meller_2021_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeller2021" class="citation book cs1">Meller, Harald (2021). "The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/80363367"><i>Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany</i></a>. 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Holt. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/royalkingdomsofg00patr/page/103">103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-4259-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-4259-7"><bdi>978-0-8050-4259-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+royal+kingdoms+of+Ghana%2C+Mali%2C+and+Songhay%3A+life+in+medieval+Africa&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=H.+Holt&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-4259-7&rft.aulast=McKissack&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft.au=McKissack%2C+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froyalkingdomsofg00patr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkCarrington,_Damian2002" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Stuart; Carrington, Damian (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html">"Eclipse brings claim of medieval African observatory"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430173144/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Eclipse+brings+claim+of+medieval+African+observatory&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Carrington%2C+Damian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn3137-eclipse-brings-claim-of-medieval-african-observatory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammer2016" class="citation book cs1">Hammer, Joshua (2016). <i>The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts</i>. 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Thebe; <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Urama" title="Johnson Urama">Johnson Urama</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182"><i>African Cultural Astronomy</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6638-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6638-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-6638-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817020340/https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA182">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Cultural+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-6638-2&rft.aulast=Holbrook&rft.aufirst=Jarita+C.&rft.au=Medupe%2C+R.+Thebe&rft.au=Johnson+Urama&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DJpDW6IAukC%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031203055223/http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/november/cosmic.htm">"Cosmic Africa explores Africa's astronomy"</a>. Science in Africa. 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Icon Books Ltd, 2009, 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1909">Forbes 1909</a>, pp. 49–58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-f58-64-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-f58-64_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1909">Forbes 1909</a>, pp. 58–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chambers, Robert (1864) <i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Book_of_Days" title="Chambers Book of Days">Chambers Book of Days</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1909">Forbes 1909</a>, pp. 79–81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1909">Forbes 1909</a>, pp. 74–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belkora2003-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Belkora2003_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelkora,_Leila2003" class="citation book cs1">Belkora, Leila (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qBM-wez94WwC"><i>Minding the heavens: the story of our discovery of the Milky Way</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 1–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0730-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0730-7"><bdi>978-0-7503-0730-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027093857/https://books.google.com/books?id=qBM-wez94WwC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minding+the+heavens%3A+the+story+of+our+discovery+of+the+Milky+Way&rft.pages=1-14&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0730-7&rft.au=Belkora%2C+Leila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqBM-wez94WwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SharovNovikov1993-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SharovNovikov1993_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharovNovikov1993" class="citation book cs1">Sharov, Aleksandr Sergeevich; Novikov, Igor Dmitrievich (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34"><i>Edwin Hubble, the discoverer of the big bang universe</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41617-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41617-7"><bdi>978-0-521-41617-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130623075250/http://books.google.com/books?id=ttEwkEdPc70C&pg=PA34">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edwin+Hubble%2C+the+discoverer+of+the+big+bang+universe&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41617-7&rft.aulast=Sharov&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+Sergeevich&rft.au=Novikov%2C+Igor+Dmitrievich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DttEwkEdPc70C%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p537-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-p537_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/programs/cosmictimes/educators/guide/age_size.html">"Cosmic Times"</a>. <i>Imagine the Universe!</i>. 8 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-17560-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-17560-2"><bdi>978-3-642-17560-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012300/https://books.google.com/books?id=6QXqlCHLjJkC&pg=PA313">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Alabama. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901074027/http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/classify.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Galactic+Centre&rft.pub=Max-Planck-Institut+f%C3%BCr+extraterrestrische+Physik&rft.date=2006-08-24&rft.aulast=Ott&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mpe.mpg.de%2Fir%2FGC%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith2004-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith2004_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith2004_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Michael David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UVgBoqZg8a4C">"Cloud formation, Evolution and Destruction"</a>. <i>The Origin of Stars</i>. Imperial College Press. pp. 53–86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86094-501-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86094-501-4"><bdi>978-1-86094-501-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813210429/https://books.google.com/books?id=UVgBoqZg8a4C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cosmic+Search+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Quest+for+Extraterrestrial+Intelligence&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bigear.org%2Fvol1no2%2Fsagan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewcombClerke1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Newcomb, Simon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke" title="Agnes Mary Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Astronomy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Astronomy">"Astronomy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 800–819.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Astronomy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=800-819&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Newcomb&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Clerke%2C+Agnes+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarpaz1994" class="citation book cs1">Harpaz, Amos (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C"><i>Stellar Evolution</i></a>. A K Peters, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-012-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-012-6"><bdi>978-1-56881-012-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stellar+Evolution&rft.pub=A+K+Peters%2C+Ltd&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-56881-012-6&rft.aulast=Harpaz&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkd4VEZv8oo0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnsöldBaschek,_B.2001" class="citation book cs1">Unsöld, A.; Baschek, B. (2001). <i>The New Cosmos: An Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67877-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67877-9"><bdi>978-3-540-67877-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cosmos%3A+An+Introduction+to+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-540-67877-9&rft.aulast=Uns%C3%B6ld&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Baschek%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._Ren%C3%A9e_James" title="C. Renée James">James, C. Renée</a> (2023). <i>Things That Go Bump in the Universe: How Astronomers Decode Cosmic Chaos</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1421446936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1421446936"><bdi>978-1421446936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Things+That+Go+Bump+in+the+Universe%3A+How+Astronomers+Decode+Cosmic+Chaos&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1421446936&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=C.+Ren%C3%A9e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstronomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Astronomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Astronomy"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Astronomy</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, 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System">Astrophysics Data System</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template talk:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IAU_designated_constellations" title="IAU designated constellations">IAU</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">Photometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">Planetarium</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Notable_astronomers" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">Women</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_telescope" title="X-ray telescope">X-ray telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">history</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_telescopes" title="Lists of telescopes">lists</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></span></li></ul> 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_System" title="Template:Solar System"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_System" title="Template talk:Solar System"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solar_System" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solar System"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_System" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div><figure class="mw-default-size noresize" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="The Sun, the planets, their moons, and several trans-Neptunian objects" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Solar_System_Template_2.png" decoding="async" width="666" height="36" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="36" usemap="#ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136" /></span><map name="ImageMap_95c11910eb0c3136"><area href="/wiki/Sun" shape="rect" coords="0,0,90,35" alt="The Sun" title="The Sun" /><area href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" shape="circle" coords="112,18,6" alt="Mercury" title="Mercury" /><area href="/wiki/Venus" shape="circle" coords="153,18,8" alt="Venus" title="Venus" /><area href="/wiki/Moon" shape="circle" coords="204,10,4" alt="The Moon" title="The Moon" /><area href="/wiki/Earth" shape="circle" coords="195,18,8" alt="Earth" title="Earth" /><area href="/wiki/Mars" shape="circle" coords="233,18,8" alt="Mars" title="Mars" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" shape="circle" coords="241,13,3" alt="Phobos and Deimos" title="Phobos and Deimos" /><area href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="271,18,5" alt="Ceres" title="Ceres" /><area href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" shape="rect" coords="256,0,288,35" alt="The main asteroid belt" title="The main asteroid belt" /><area href="/wiki/Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="316,19,15" alt="Jupiter" title="Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" shape="circle" coords="329,6,6" alt="Moons of Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" shape="rect" coords="298,18,335,20" alt="Rings of Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter" /><area href="/wiki/Saturn" shape="circle" coords="372,18,12" alt="Saturn" title="Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" shape="circle" coords="381,7,6" alt="Moons of Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" shape="rect" coords="353,5,389,31" alt="Rings of Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn" /><area href="/wiki/Uranus" shape="circle" coords="418,18,12" alt="Uranus" title="Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" shape="circle" coords="427,10,6" alt="Moons of Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" shape="rect" coords="408,4,429,34" alt="Rings of Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus" /><area href="/wiki/Neptune" shape="circle" coords="462,18,12" alt="Neptune" title="Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" shape="circle" coords="471,10,5" alt="Moons of Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" shape="rect" coords="441,9,485,28" alt="Rings of Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune" /><area href="/wiki/Pluto" shape="circle" coords="504,18,12" alt="Pluto" title="Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" shape="circle" coords="510,13,8" alt="Moons of Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto" /><area href="/wiki/Haumea" shape="circle" coords="534,18,12" alt="Haumea" title="Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" shape="circle" coords="540,13,8" alt="Moons of Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea" /><area href="/wiki/Makemake" shape="circle" coords="567,18,12" alt="Makemake" title="Makemake" /><area href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" shape="circle" coords="571,13,8" alt="S/2015 (136472) 1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1" /><area href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" shape="rect" coords="490,0,580,35" alt="The Kuiper Belt" title="The Kuiper Belt" /><area href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" shape="circle" coords="596,18,12" alt="Eris" title="Eris" /><area href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" shape="circle" coords="602,13,8" alt="Dysnomia" title="Dysnomia" /><area href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" shape="rect" coords="581,0,610,35" alt="The Scattered Disc" title="The Scattered Disc" /><area href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" shape="rect" coords="623,0,640,35" alt="The Hills Cloud" title="The Hills Cloud" /><area href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" shape="rect" coords="641,0,666,35" alt="The Oort Cloud" title="The Oort Cloud" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orcus_(dwarf_planet)" title="Orcus (dwarf planet)">Orcus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaoar" title="Quaoar">Quaoar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonggong_(dwarf_planet)" title="Gonggong (dwarf planet)">Gonggong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sedna_(dwarf_planet)" title="Sedna (dwarf planet)">Sedna</a></i></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Planets,dwarfs" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planets</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarfs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrials</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">Giants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">Dwarfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus_(dwarf_planet)" title="Orcus (dwarf planet)">Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haumea" title="Haumea">Haumea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaoar" title="Quaoar">Quaoar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonggong_(dwarf_planet)" title="Gonggong (dwarf planet)">Gonggong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedna_(dwarf_planet)" title="Sedna (dwarf planet)">Sedna</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Earth <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claimed_moons_of_Earth" title="Claimed moons of Earth">other near-Earth objects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Mars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">Jupiter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter#List" title="Moons of Jupiter">all 95</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">Saturn</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_(moon)" title="Rhea (moon)">Rhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)" title="Iapetus (moon)">Iapetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dione_(moon)" title="Dione (moon)">Dione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tethys_(moon)" title="Tethys (moon)">Tethys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimas" title="Mimas">Mimas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperion_(moon)" title="Hyperion (moon)">Hyperion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoebe_(moon)" title="Phoebe (moon)">Phoebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn#List" title="Moons of Saturn">all 146</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus" title="Moons of Uranus">Uranus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titania_(moon)" title="Titania (moon)">Titania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberon_(moon)" title="Oberon (moon)">Oberon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbriel" title="Umbriel">Umbriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_(moon)" title="Ariel (moon)">Ariel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_(moon)" title="Miranda (moon)">Miranda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus#List" title="Moons of Uranus">all 28</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune" title="Moons of Neptune">Neptune</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triton_(moon)" title="Triton (moon)">Triton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteus_(moon)" title="Proteus (moon)">Proteus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nereid_(moon)" title="Nereid (moon)">Nereid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune#List" title="Moons of Neptune">all 16</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus_(dwarf_planet)" title="Orcus (dwarf planet)">Orcus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vanth_(moon)" title="Vanth (moon)">Vanth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Pluto" title="Moons of Pluto">Pluto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charon_(moon)" title="Charon (moon)">Charon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nix_(moon)" title="Nix (moon)">Nix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(moon)" title="Hydra (moon)">Hydra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerberos_(moon)" title="Kerberos (moon)">Kerberos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styx_(moon)" title="Styx (moon)">Styx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Haumea" title="Moons of Haumea">Haumea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hi%CA%BBiaka_(moon)" title="Hiʻiaka (moon)">Hiʻiaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaka_(moon)" title="Namaka (moon)">Namaka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaoar" title="Quaoar">Quaoar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weywot" title="Weywot">Weywot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makemake" title="Makemake">Makemake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1" title="S/2015 (136472) 1">S/2015 (136472) 1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonggong_(dwarf_planet)" title="Gonggong (dwarf planet)">Gonggong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiangliu_(moon)" title="Xiangliu (moon)">Xiangliu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)" title="Dysnomia (moon)">Dysnomia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Rings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Earth" title="Rings of Earth">Earth</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Jovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturnian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Rhea" title="Rings of Rhea">Rhean</a>?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Chariklo" title="Rings of Chariklo">Charikloan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2060_Chiron#Rings" title="2060 Chiron">Chironean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Uranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Neptunian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haumea#Ring" title="Haumea">Haumean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaoar#Rings" title="Quaoar">Quaoarian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Small_Solar_System_body" title="Small Solar System body">Small<br />Solar<br />System<br />bodies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">Comets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damocloid" title="Damocloid">Damocloids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">Meteoroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">Minor planets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meanings_of_minor-planet_names" title="Meanings of minor-planet names">names and meanings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor-planet_moon" title="Minor-planet moon">moons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li>Planetary orbit-crossing minor planets <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mercury-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mercury-crossing minor planets">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Venus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Venus-crossing minor planets">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth-crossing_asteroids" title="List of Earth-crossing asteroids">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Jupiter-crossing minor planets">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Saturn-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Saturn-crossing minor planets">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Uranus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Uranus-crossing minor planets">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neptune-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Neptune-crossing minor planets">Neptune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_(celestial_body)" title="Trojan (celestial body)">Trojans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2013_ND15" title="2013 ND15">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_trojan" title="Earth trojan">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_trojan" title="Jupiter trojan">Jupiter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter_trojans_(Trojan_camp)" title="List of Jupiter trojans (Trojan camp)">Trojan camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter_trojans_(Greek_camp)" title="List of Jupiter trojans (Greek camp)">Greek camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-orbital_configuration#Trojan_moons" title="Co-orbital configuration">Saturn Moons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranus_trojans" title="Uranus trojans">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_trojan" title="Neptune trojan">Neptune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">Asteroid belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Pallas" title="2 Pallas">Pallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10_Hygiea" title="10 Hygiea">Hygiea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_asteroid" title="Active asteroid">active</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets:_1%E2%80%931000" title="List of minor planets: 1–1000">first 1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_family" title="Asteroid family">families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">PHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids" title="List of exceptional asteroids">exceptional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_gap" title="Kirkwood gap">Kirkwood gap</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body)" title="Centaur (small Solar System body)">Centaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_trojan" title="Neptune trojan">Neptune trojans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object" title="Trans-Neptunian object">Trans-Neptunian objects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Kuiper_belt_object" title="Classical Kuiper belt object">Cubewanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutino" title="Plutino">Plutinos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sednoid" title="Sednoid">Sednoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_Solar_System_objects" title="List of hypothetical Solar System objects">Hypothetical <br />objects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five-planet_Nice_model" title="Five-planet Nice model">Fifth giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeton_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Phaeton (hypothetical planet)">Phaeton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet_Nine" title="Planet Nine">Planet Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet_V" title="Planet V">Planet V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planets_beyond_Neptune#Planet_X" title="Planets beyond Neptune">Planet X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsatellite" title="Subsatellite">Subsatellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyche_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Tyche (hypothetical planet)">Tyche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(hypothetical_planet)" title="Vulcan (hypothetical planet)">Vulcan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanoid" title="Vulcanoid">Vulcanoids</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration" title="Outline of space exploration">outline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System" title="Discovery and exploration of the Solar System">Discovery</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_models_of_the_Solar_System" title="Historical models of the Solar System">historical models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration" title="Timeline of Solar System exploration">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_probes" title="List of Solar System probes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crewed_spacecraft" title="List of crewed spacecraft">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight_programs" title="Human spaceflight programs">programs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mercury" title="Exploration of Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon" title="Exploration of the Moon">Moon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_resources" title="Lunar resources">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)#Exploration" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid#Exploration" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_comets" title="List of missions to comets">Comets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Jupiter" title="Exploration of Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Saturn" title="Exploration of Saturn">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Uranus" title="Exploration of Uranus">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Neptune" title="Exploration of Neptune">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Pluto" title="Exploration of Pluto">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_space_exploration" title="Deep space exploration">Deep space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation,<br />evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk#Excretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Excretion disk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coatlicue_(star)" title="Coatlicue (star)">Coatlicue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_disk" title="Debris disk">Debris disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">EXCEDE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exozodiacal_dust" title="Exozodiacal dust">Exozodiacal dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_materials" title="Extraterrestrial materials">Extraterrestrial materials</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Sample curation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics)" title="Frost line (astrophysics)">Frost/Ice/Snow line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_sphere" title="Hill sphere">Hill sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">Interplanetary dust cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium/space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">Interstellar cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space#Interstellar_space" title="Outer space">Interstellar space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_cliff" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuiper cliff">Kuiper cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_migration" title="Planetary migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Formation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision#Formation_of_planets" title="Stellar collision">Merging stars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roche_limit" title="Roche limit">Roche limit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roche_limit#Roche_limit,_Hill_sphere_and_radius_of_the_planet" title="Roche limit">vs. Hill sphere</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_comets" title="Lists of comets">Comets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possible_dwarf_planets" title="List of possible dwarf planets">Possible dwarf planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gravitationally_rounded_objects_of_the_Solar_System" title="List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System">Gravitationally rounded objects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets" title="List of minor planets">Minor planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_satellites" title="List of natural satellites">Natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System_model" title="Solar System model">Solar System models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects" title="List of Solar System objects">Solar System objects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects_by_size" title="List of Solar System objects by size">by size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons" title="Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons">by discovery date</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">Interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_planet" title="Double planet">Double planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Lagrange point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlet" title="Moonlet">Moonlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syzygy_(astronomy)" title="Syzygy (astronomy)">Syzygy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">Tidal locking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;padding:0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Solar_System" title="Outline of the Solar System">Outline of the Solar System</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/22px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/34px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/45px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/28px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/42px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/56px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Interstellar_Cloud" title="Local Interstellar Cloud">Local Interstellar Cloud</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Gould_Belt" title="Gould Belt">Gould Belt</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Orion_Arm" title="Orion Arm">Orion Arm</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way" title="Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way">Milky Way subgroup</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Group" title="Local Group">Local Group</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Sheet" title="Local Sheet">Local Sheet</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster" title="Virgo Supercluster">Virgo Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster" title="Laniakea Supercluster">Laniakea Supercluster</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Local_Hole" title="Local Hole">Local Hole</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">Observable universe</a> <span style="font-size:120%">→</span> <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">Each arrow (<span style="font-size:120%">→</span>) may be read as "within" or "part of".</span> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar 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scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4003311-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85009003">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Astronomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13318302r">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Astronomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13318302r">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572840">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="astronomie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114088&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Astronomía"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX4576265">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000048014&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998006351">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007295074605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008255">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637421">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=44545">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> 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