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<ul id="toc-Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regenerative_cells_or_Dye-sensitized_solar_cell_(Graetzel_cell)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regenerative_cells_or_Dye-sensitized_solar_cell_(Graetzel_cell)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Regenerative cells or Dye-sensitized solar cell (Graetzel cell)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regenerative_cells_or_Dye-sensitized_solar_cell_(Graetzel_cell)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" 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href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an active domain of investigation. One of the pioneers of this field of electrochemistry was the German electrochemist <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Gerischer" title="Heinz Gerischer">Heinz Gerischer</a>. The interest in this domain is high in the context of development of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">energy conversion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">storage</a> technology. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_approach">Historical approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Photoelectrochemistry has been intensively studied in the 1970-80s because of the <a href="/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">first peak oil crisis</a>. Because <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> are non-renewable, it is necessary to develop processes to obtain renewable resources and use <a href="/wiki/Clean_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean energy">clean energy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a>, photoelectrochemical <a href="/wiki/Water_splitting" title="Water splitting">water splitting</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Regenerative_solar_cell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Regenerative solar cell (page does not exist)">regenerative solar cells</a> are of special interest in this context. The <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a> was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Edmond_Becquerel" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Edmond Becquerel">Alexandre Edmond Becquerel</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Gerischer" title="Heinz Gerischer">Heinz Gerischer</a>, H. Tributsch, AJ. Nozik, AJ. Bard, A. Fujishima, K. Honda, PE. Laibinis, K. Rajeshwar, TJ Meyer, PV. Kamat, N.S. Lewis, R. Memming, <a href="/wiki/John_Bockris" title="John Bockris">John Bockris</a> are researchers which have contributed a lot to the field of photoelectrochemistry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semiconductor_electrochemistry">Semiconductor electrochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Semiconductor electrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction">Introduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> materials have energy <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gaps</a>, and will generate a pair of electron and hole for each absorbed <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> if the energy of the photon is higher than the band gap energy of the semiconductor. This property of semiconductor materials has been successfully used to convert solar energy into <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">photovoltaic devices</a>. </p><p>In photocatalysis the electron-hole pair is immediately used to drive a redox reaction. However, the electron-hole pairs suffer from fast recombination. In photoelectrocatalysis, a differential potential is applied to diminish the number of recombinations between the electrons and the holes. This allows an increase in the yield of light's conversion into chemical energy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductor-electrolyte_interface">Semiconductor-electrolyte interface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Semiconductor-electrolyte interface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a semiconductor comes into contact with a liquid (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> species), to maintain electrostatic equilibrium, there will be a charge transfer between the semiconductor and liquid phase if <a href="/wiki/Redox_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox potential">formal redox potential</a> of redox species lies inside semiconductor band gap. At thermodynamic equilibrium, the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a> of semiconductor and the formal redox potential of redox species are aligned at the interface between semiconductor and redox species. This introduces an upward <a href="/wiki/Band_bending" title="Band bending">band bending</a> in a <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type semiconductor</a> for n-type semiconductor/liquid junction (Figure 1(a)) and a downward band bending in a <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type semiconductor</a> for a p-type semiconductor/liquid junction (Figure 1(b)). This characteristic of semiconductor/liquid junctions is similar to a rectifying semiconductor/metal junction or <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93semiconductor_junction" title="Metal–semiconductor junction">Schottky junction</a>. Ideally to get a good <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">rectifying characteristics</a> at the semiconductor/liquid interface, the formal redox potential must be close to the valence band of the semiconductor for a <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type semiconductor</a> and close to the conduction band of the semiconductor for a p-type semiconductor. The semiconductor/liquid junction has one advantage over the rectifying semiconductor/metal junction in that the light is able to travel through to the semiconductor surface without much reflection; whereas most of the light is reflected back from the metal surface at a semiconductor/metal junction. Therefore, semiconductor/liquid junctions can also be used as <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">photovoltaic devices</a> similar to solid state <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a> devices. Both n-type and p-type semiconductor/liquid junctions can be used as photovoltaic devices to convert solar energy into electrical energy and are called <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectrochemical cells">photoelectrochemical cells</a>. In addition, a semiconductor/liquid junction could also be used to directly convert solar energy into <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a> by virtue of <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectrolysis">photoelectrolysis</a> at the semiconductor/liquid junction. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Figure 1(a) band diagram of n-type semiconductor/liquid junction"><img alt="Figure 1(a) band diagram of n-type semiconductor/liquid junction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/120px-N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/180px-N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/240px-N-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="462" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Figure 1(a) <a href="/wiki/Band_diagram" title="Band diagram">band diagram</a> of n-type semiconductor/liquid junction</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Figure 1(b) band diagram of p-type semiconductor/liquid junction"><img alt="Figure 1(b) band diagram of p-type semiconductor/liquid junction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/120px-P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/180px-P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png/240px-P-type_semiconductor_and_liquid_junction.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="438" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Figure 1(b) band diagram of p-type semiconductor/liquid junction</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_setup">Experimental setup</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Experimental setup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semiconductors are usually studied in a <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cell" title="Photoelectrochemical cell">photoelectrochemical cell</a>. Different configurations exist with a three electrode device. The phenomenon to study happens at the working electrode WE while the differential potential is applied between the WE and a reference electrode RE (saturated calomel, Ag/AgCl). The current is measured between the WE and the counter electrode CE (carbon vitreous, platinum gauze). The working electrode is the semiconductor material and the electrolyte is composed of a solvent, an electrolyte and a redox specie. </p><p>A UV-vis lamp is usually used to illuminate the working electrode. The photoelectrochemical cell is usually made with a quartz window because it does not absorb the light. A monochromator can be used to control the wavelength sent to the WE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_absorbers_used_in_photoelectrochemistry">Main absorbers used in photoelectrochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Main absorbers used in photoelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductor_IV">Semiconductor IV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Semiconductor IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Category:Group_IV_semiconductors" title="Category:Group IV semiconductors">Category:Group IV semiconductors</a></div> <p>C(diamond), Si, Ge, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">SiC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93germanium" title="Silicon–germanium">SiGe</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductor_III-V">Semiconductor III-V</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Semiconductor III-V"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>BN, BP, BAs, AlN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, GaP, GaAs, InN, InP, InAs... </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductor_II-VI">Semiconductor II-VI</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Semiconductor II-VI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CdS, CdSe, CdTe, ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_disulfide" title="Molybdenum disulfide">MoS<sub>2</sub></a>, MoSe<sub>2</sub>, MoTe<sub>2</sub>, WS<sub>2</sub>, WSe<sub>2</sub> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal_oxides">Metal oxides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Metal oxides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">TiO<sub>2</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper(I)_oxide" title="Copper(I) oxide">Cu<sub>2</sub>O</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_dyes">Organic dyes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Organic dyes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organic_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic dye">organic dye</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Methylene_blue" title="Methylene blue">Methylene blue</a>... </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organometallic_dyes">Organometallic dyes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Organometallic dyes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perovskites">Perovskites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Perovskites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perovskites" class="mw-redirect" title="Perovskites">Perovskites</a></div> <p>Very recently scalable all-perovskite based PEC photoelectrochemical system as solar hydrogen panel has been developed with >123 cm2 area. <sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photoelectrochemical_water_splitting">Photoelectrochemical water splitting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Photoelectrochemical water splitting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrolysis_of_water" title="Photoelectrolysis of water">Photoelectrolysis of water</a></div> <p>Photoelectrochemistry has been intensively studied in the field of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> from water and solar energy. The photoelectrochemical splitting of water was historically discovered by Fujishima and Honda in 1972 onto TiO<sub>2</sub> electrodes. Recently many materials have shown promising properties to split efficiently water but TiO<sub>2</sub> remains cheap, abundant, stable against photo-corrosion. The main problem of TiO<sub>2</sub> is its bandgap which is 3 or 3.2 eV according to its crystallinity (anatase or rutile). These values are too high and only the wavelength in the UV region can be absorbed. To increase the performances of this material to split water with solar wavelength, it is necessary to sensitize the TiO<sub>2</sub>. Currently Quantum Dots sensitization is very promising but more research is needed to find new materials able to absorb the light efficiently. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide">Photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide">Photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> is the natural process that converts CO<sub>2</sub> using light to produce hydrocarbon compounds such as sugar. The depletion of fossil fuels encourages scientists to find alternatives to produce hydrocarbon compounds. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a> is a promising method mimicking the natural photosynthesis to produce such compounds. The <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_reduction_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Photoelectrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide">photoelectrochemical reduction of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub></a> is much studied because of its worldwide impact. Many researchers aim to find new semiconductors to develop stable and efficient photo-anodes and photo-cathodes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regenerative_cells_or_Dye-sensitized_solar_cell_(Graetzel_cell)"><span id="Regenerative_cells_or_Dye-sensitized_solar_cell_.28Graetzel_cell.29"></span>Regenerative cells or Dye-sensitized solar cell (Graetzel cell)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Regenerative cells or Dye-sensitized solar cell (Graetzel cell)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Dye-sensitized solar cells">Dye-sensitized solar cells</a> or DSSCs use TiO<sub>2</sub> and dyes to absorb the light. This absorption induces the formation of electron-hole pairs which are used to oxidize and reduce the same redox couple, usually I<sup>−</sup>/I<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>. Consequently, a differential potential is created which induces a current. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photoelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/P04607">"Compendium of Chemical Terminology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.P04607">10.1351/goldbook.P04607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+Chemical+Terminology&rft.pub=IUPAC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1351%2Fgoldbook.P04607&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgoldbook.iupac.org%2Fterms%2Fview%2FP04607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotoelectrochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowledge.electrochem.org/encycl/">"Electrochemistry Encyclopedia"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electrochemistry+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fknowledge.electrochem.org%2Fencycl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotoelectrochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansora2024" class="citation journal cs1">Hansora, Dharmesh (2024-01-23). "All-perovskite-based unassisted photoelectrochemical water splitting system for efficient, stable and scalable solar hydrogen production". <i>Nature Energy</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 272–284. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024NatEn...9..272H">2024NatEn...9..272H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41560-023-01438-x">10.1038/s41560-023-01438-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2058-7546">2058-7546</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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