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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_energy_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Materials-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Materials subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparation_of_semiconductor_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparation_of_semiconductor_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Preparation of semiconductor materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparation_of_semiconductor_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics_of_semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics_of_semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physics of semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physics_of_semiconductors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physics of semiconductors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physics_of_semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_bands_and_electrical_conduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_bands_and_electrical_conduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Energy bands and electrical conduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_bands_and_electrical_conduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charge_carriers_(electrons_and_holes)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charge_carriers_(electrons_and_holes)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Charge carriers (electrons and holes)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charge_carriers_(electrons_and_holes)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carrier_generation_and_recombination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carrier_generation_and_recombination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Carrier generation and recombination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carrier_generation_and_recombination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Doping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amorphous_semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amorphous_semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Amorphous semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amorphous_semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history_of_semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history_of_semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early history of semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_history_of_semiconductors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early history of semiconductors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_history_of_semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_transistors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_transistors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Early transistors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_transistors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 115 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-115" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">115 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfgeleier" title="Halfgeleier – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Halfgeleier" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbleiter" title="Halbleiter – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Halbleiter" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%84" title="شبه موصل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شبه موصل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80" title="অৰ্ধপৰিবাহী – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অৰ্ধপৰিবাহী" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yar%C4%B1mke%C3%A7irici" title="Yarımkeçirici – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yarımkeçirici" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A6%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="یاریم‌کئچیریجیلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یاریم‌کئچیریجیلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80" title="অর্ধপরিবাহী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অর্ধপরিবাহী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C3%A0n-t%C5%8D-th%C3%A9" title="Poàn-tō-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Poàn-tō-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D2%AF%D1%82%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Ярым үткәргес – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ярым үткәргес" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Паўправаднік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паўправаднік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Паўправаднік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Паўправаднік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полупроводник – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полупроводник" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoibloata" title="Hoibloata – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Hoibloata" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poluprovodnik" title="Poluprovodnik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Poluprovodnik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Хахад дамжуулагша – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хахад дамжуулагша" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%8F%D1%80%C4%83%D1%88" title="Çурма ярăш – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çурма ярăш" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polovodi%C4%8D" title="Polovodič – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Polovodič" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lled-ddargludydd" title="Lled-ddargludydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Lled-ddargludydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvleder" title="Halvleder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Halvleder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B5_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="نص دواز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="نص دواز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbleiter" title="Halbleiter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Halbleiter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pooljuht" title="Pooljuht – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pooljuht" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ημιαγωγός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ημιαγωγός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duonkonduktanto" title="Duonkonduktanto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Duonkonduktanto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdieroale" title="Erdieroale – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdieroale" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="نیم‌رسانا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیم‌رسانا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-conducteur" title="Semi-conducteur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Semi-conducteur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heallieder" title="Heallieder – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Heallieder" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leathsheolt%C3%B3ir" title="Leathsheoltóir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leathsheoltóir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicondutor" title="Semicondutor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Semicondutor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%B0%8E%E9%AB%94" title="半導體 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="半導體" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%98%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%B4" title="반도체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="반도체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կիսահաղորդիչներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կիսահաղորդիչներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="अर्धचालक पदार्थ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्धचालक पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poluvodi%C4%8D" title="Poluvodič – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poluvodič" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonduktor" title="Semikonduktor – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikonduktoro" title="Mikonduktoro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mikonduktoro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonduktor" title="Semikonduktor – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1lflei%C3%B0ari" title="Hálfleiðari – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hálfleiðari" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconduttore" title="Semiconduttore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Semiconduttore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%94" title="מוליך למחצה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוליך למחצה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonduktor" title="Semikonduktor – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%95" title="ಅರೆವಾಹಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅರೆವಾಹಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ნახევარგამტარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნახევარგამტარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96_%D3%A9%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%88%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Меншікті өткізгіштік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Меншікті өткізгіштік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonda" title="Semikonda – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Semikonda" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-kondikt%C3%A8" title="Semi-kondiktè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Semi-kondiktè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%AEvragihbar" title="Nîvragihbar – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nîvragihbar" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D3%A9%D1%82%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%87" title="Жарым өткөргүч – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жарым өткөргүч" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductrum" title="Semiconductrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Semiconductrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusvad%C4%ABt%C4%81js" title="Pusvadītājs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pusvadītājs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Зуртухудайди – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Зуртухудайди" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puslaidininkis" title="Puslaidininkis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Puslaidininkis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicondutor" title="Semicondutor – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Semicondutor" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lvezet%C5%91" title="Félvezető – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Félvezető" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полуспроводник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полуспроводник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpampita_tapany" title="Mpampita tapany – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mpampita tapany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="അർദ്ധചാലകം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അർദ്ധചാലകം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%95" title="अर्धवाहक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अर्धवाहक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="نیمه رسانا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="نیمه رسانا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separa_pengalir" title="Separa pengalir – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Separa pengalir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%87" title="Хагас дамжуулагч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хагас дамжуулагч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8" title="တပိုင်းလျှပ်ကူး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တပိုင်းလျှပ်ကူး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfgeleider_(vastestoffysica)" title="Halfgeleider (vastestoffysica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Halfgeleider (vastestoffysica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="अर्धचालक पदार्थ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अर्धचालक पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%B0%8E%E4%BD%93" title="半導体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="半導体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hualewleiter" title="Hualewleiter – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Hualewleiter" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvleder" title="Halvleder – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Halvleder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvleiar" title="Halvleiar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Halvleiar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarimo%CA%BBtkazgichning_turlari" title="Yarimoʻtkazgichning turlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yarimoʻtkazgichning turlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%95" title="ਅਰਧਚਾਲਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਧਚਾਲਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%88%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="سیمی کنڈکٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سیمی کنڈکٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikandokta" title="Semikandokta – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Semikandokta" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvleider" title="Halvleider – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Halvleider" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3%C5%82przewodniki" title="Półprzewodniki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Półprzewodniki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicondutor" title="Semicondutor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Semicondutor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuskan_pusaq" title="Kuskan pusaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kuskan pusaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полупроводник – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полупроводник" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoolichlaitere" title="Hoolichlaitere – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Hoolichlaitere" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjysm%C3%ABp%C3%ABrcjell%C3%ABsi" title="Gjysmëpërcjellësi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjysmëpërcjellësi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%9A" title="අර්ධ සන්නායක – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අර්ධ සන්නායක" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polovodi%C4%8D" title="Polovodič – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Polovodič" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polprevodnik" title="Polprevodnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Polprevodnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%DA%86%DB%95%DA%AF%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1" title="نیمچەگەیەنەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نیمچەگەیەنەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Полупроводник – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Полупроводник" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poluprovodnik" title="Poluprovodnik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Poluprovodnik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puolijohde" title="Puolijohde – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puolijohde" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvledare" title="Halvledare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Halvledare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonduktor" title="Semikonduktor – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="குறைகடத்தி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குறைகடத்தி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82" title="అర్ధవాహకం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అర్ధవాహకం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B6%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B3" title="สารกึ่งตัวนำ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สารกึ่งตัวนำ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8A" title="ಅರೆವಾಹಕೊ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅರೆವಾಹಕೊ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yar%C4%B1_iletken" title="Yarı iletken – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yarı iletken" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Напівпровідник – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Напівпровідник" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%84" title="نیم موصل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نیم موصل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%27veim" title="Pol'veim – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Pol'veim" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5t_b%C3%A1n_d%E1%BA%ABn" title="Chất bán dẫn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chất bán dẫn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semikonduktor" title="Semikonduktor – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%AF%BC%E4%BD%93" title="半导体 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="半导体" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%91-%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="האלב-דורכפירער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="האלב-דורכפירער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%B0%8E%E9%AB%94" title="半導體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="半導體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poslaid%C4%97nink%C4%93" title="Poslaidėninkē – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Poslaidėninkē" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For devices using semiconductors and their history, see <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor device</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Semiconductor (disambiguation)">Semiconductor (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg/180px-Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="481" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">ingot</a> of <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline silicon</a></figcaption></figure> <style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size: 110%"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor<br />device<br />fabrication</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG/100px-4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG/150px-4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG/200px-4-fach-NAND-C10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="967" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left;;text-align:center;"> <a href="/wiki/MOSFET#Scaling" title="MOSFET">MOSFET scaling</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">process nodes</a>)</td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left;"> <div style="padding-left:14px;"> <ul><li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/20_%CE%BCm_process" class="mw-redirect" title="20 μm process">20 μm</a> – 1968</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/10_%CE%BCm_process" class="mw-redirect" title="10 μm process">10 μm</a> – 1971</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/6_%CE%BCm_process" title="6 μm process">6 μm</a> – 1974</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/3_%CE%BCm_process" title="3 μm process">3 μm</a> – 1977</li> <li><span style="padding-left:0.05em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/1.5_%CE%BCm_process" title="1.5 μm process">1.5 μm</a> – 1981</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/1_%CE%BCm_process" title="1 μm process">1 μm</a> – 1984</li> <li><a href="/wiki/800_nm_process" title="800 nm process">800 nm</a> – 1987</li> <li><a href="/wiki/600_nm_process" title="600 nm process">600 nm</a> – 1990</li> <li><a href="/wiki/350_nm_process" title="350 nm process">350 nm</a> – 1993</li> <li><a href="/wiki/250_nm_process" title="250 nm process">250 nm</a> – 1996</li> <li><a href="/wiki/180_nm_process" title="180 nm process">180 nm</a> – 1999</li> <li><a href="/wiki/130_nm_process" title="130 nm process">130 nm</a> – 2001</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/90_nm_process" title="90 nm process">90 nm</a> – 2003</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/65_nm_process" title="65 nm process">65 nm</a> – 2005</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/45_nm_process" title="45 nm process">45 nm</a> – 2007</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/32_nm_process" title="32 nm process">32 nm</a> – 2009</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/28_nm_process" title="28 nm process">28 nm</a> – 2010</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/22_nm_process" title="22 nm process">22 nm</a> – 2012</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/14_nm_process" title="14 nm process">14 nm</a> – 2014</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span><a href="/wiki/10_nm_process" title="10 nm process">10 nm</a> – 2016</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/7_nm_process" title="7 nm process">7 nm</a> – 2018</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/5_nm_process" title="5 nm process">5 nm</a> – 2020</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/3_nm_process" title="3 nm process">3 nm</a> – 2022</li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left;"> <div style="padding-left:14px;">Future <ul><li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/2_nm_process" title="2 nm process">2 nm</a> ~ 2025</li> <li><span aria-hidden="true" style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">00</span><a href="/wiki/1_nm_process" title="1 nm process">1 nm</a> ~ 2027</li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left;"> <div style="padding-right:5px; padding-left:5px;"><hr /><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_shrink#Half-shrink" title="Die shrink">Half-nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_count#Transistor_density" title="Transistor count">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Device</a> (<a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">multi-gate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">Transistor count</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-right: 0.5em; font-weight: normal; text-align: right; font-size: 115%"> <div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semiconductor_manufacturing_processes" title="Template:Semiconductor manufacturing processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semiconductor_manufacturing_processes" title="Template talk:Semiconductor manufacturing processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semiconductor_manufacturing_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semiconductor manufacturing processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>semiconductor</b> is a material that is between the conductor and insulator in ability to conduct electrical current.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("<a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a>") into the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a>. When two differently doped regions exist in the same crystal, a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor junction">semiconductor junction</a> is created. The behavior of <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron holes</a>, at these junctions is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, and most modern <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>. Some examples of semiconductors are <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>, and elements near the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Metalloid_staircase" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalloid staircase">metalloid staircase</a>" on the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second-most common semiconductor and is used in <a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, microwave-frequency <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuits</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a> can display a range of different useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and having sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by doping and by the application of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching, and <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy conversion">energy conversion</a>. The term semiconductor is also used to describe materials used in high capacity, medium- to <a href="/wiki/High-voltage_cable" title="High-voltage cable">high-voltage cables</a> as part of their insulation, and these materials are often plastic XLPE (<a href="/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene" title="Cross-linked polyethylene">Cross-linked polyethylene</a>) with carbon black.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount (of the order of 1 in 10<sup>8</sup>) of pentavalent (<a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>) or trivalent (<a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a>) atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process is known as doping, and the resulting semiconductors are known as doped or <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor" title="Extrinsic semiconductor">extrinsic semiconductors</a>. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can be improved by increasing its temperature. This is contrary to the behavior of a metal, in which conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> to explain the movement of charge carriers in a <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal lattice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Feynman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feynman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a semiconductor is doped by Group V elements, they will behave like <a href="/wiki/Donor_(semiconductors)" title="Donor (semiconductors)">donors</a> creating free <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, known as "<a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor#N-type_semiconductors" title="Extrinsic semiconductor">n-type</a>" doping. When a semiconductor is doped by Group III elements, they will behave like <a href="/wiki/Acceptor_(semiconductors)" title="Acceptor (semiconductors)">acceptors</a> creating free holes, known as "<a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor#P-type_semiconductors" title="Extrinsic semiconductor">p-type</a>" doping. The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor device <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> can have many p- and n-type regions; the <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junctions</a> between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behavior. Using a <a href="/wiki/Hot-point_probe" title="Hot-point probe">hot-point probe</a>, one can determine quickly whether a semiconductor sample is p- or n-type.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid-19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">cat's-whisker detector</a>, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">radio</a> receivers. Developments in quantum physics led in turn to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> in 1947<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> in 1958. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_electrical_conductivity">Variable electrical conductivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variable electrical conductivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> requires the flow of electrons, and semiconductors have their <a href="/wiki/Valence_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence band">valence bands</a> filled, preventing the entire flow of new electrons. Several developed techniques allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Field_effect_(semiconductor)" title="Field effect (semiconductor)">gating</a>. These modifications have two outcomes: <b>n-type</b> and <b>p-type</b>. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively. A balanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow throughout the material.<sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homojunctions">Homojunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homojunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Homojunction" title="Homojunction">Homojunctions</a></b> occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined. For example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until an equilibrium is reached by a process called <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination (physics)">recombination</a>, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact with the migrating holes from the p-type.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of this process is a narrow strip of immobile <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, which causes an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> across the junction.<sup id="cite_ref-Feynman_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feynman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excited_electrons">Excited electrons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Excited electrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called <a href="/wiki/Ambipolar_diffusion" title="Ambipolar diffusion">ambipolar diffusion</a>. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the number of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature difference or <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, which can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The processes that create or annihilate electrons and holes are called <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">generation</a> and recombination, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_emission">Light emission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Light emission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Controlling the semiconductor composition and <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electrical current</a> allows for the manipulation of the emitted light's properties.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These semiconductors are used in the construction of <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</a> and fluorescent <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_thermal_conductivity">High thermal conductivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: High thermal conductivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semiconductors with high thermal conductivity can be used for heat dissipation and improving <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_(electronics)" title="Thermal management (electronics)">thermal management</a> of electronics. They play a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>, high-brightness <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LEDs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_module" title="Power module">power modules</a>, among other applications.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_energy_conversion">Thermal energy conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Thermal energy conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semiconductors have large <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_power_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoelectric power factor">thermoelectric power factors</a> making them useful in <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">thermoelectric generators</a>, as well as high <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_figure_of_merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoelectric figure of merit">thermoelectric figures of merit</a> making them useful in <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_cooler" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoelectric cooler">thermoelectric coolers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silicon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Silicon.jpg/220px-Silicon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Silicon.jpg/330px-Silicon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Silicon.jpg/440px-Silicon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="948" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> crystals are the most common semiconducting materials used in <a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">microelectronics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties, including:<sup id="cite_ref-Yacobi03_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yacobi03-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Certain pure elements are found in <a href="/wiki/Group_14_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Group 14 elements">group 14</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>; the most commercially important of these elements are <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>. Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, which gives them the ability to gain or lose electrons equally at the same time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary compound">Binary compounds</a>, particularly between elements in groups 13 and 15, such as <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>, groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between different group-14 elements, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a>.</li> <li>Certain ternary compounds, oxides, and alloys.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductors</a>, made of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>.</li> <li>Semiconducting <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93organic_framework" title="Metal–organic framework">metal–organic frameworks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous</a> and liquid semiconductors are also known. These include <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenated_amorphous_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogenated amorphous silicon">hydrogenated amorphous silicon</a> and mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a> in a variety of proportions. These compounds share with better-known semiconductors the properties of intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as well as occasional <a href="/wiki/Negative_resistance" title="Negative resistance">negative resistance</a>. Such disordered materials lack the rigid crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are generally used in <a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin film</a> structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparation_of_semiconductor_materials">Preparation of semiconductor materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Preparation of semiconductor materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors, with the most important aspect being the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC), which are found in <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">desktops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laptop_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laptop computer">laptops</a>, scanners, <a href="/wiki/Cell-phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell-phone">cell-phones</a>, and other electronic devices. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves due to the scale at which the materials are used.<sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in the crystal structure (such as <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">dislocations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal_twinning" title="Crystal twinning">twins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stacking_fault" title="Stacking fault">stacking faults</a>) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingots</a> between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter, grown as cylinders and sliced into <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafers</a>. The round shape characteristic of these wafers comes from <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">single-crystal ingots</a> usually produced using the <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a>. Silicon wafers were first introduced in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a combination of processes that are used to prepare semiconducting materials for ICs. One process is called <a href="/wiki/Thermal_oxidation" title="Thermal oxidation">thermal oxidation</a>, which forms <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> on the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. This is used as a <a href="/wiki/Gate_dielectric" title="Gate dielectric">gate insulator</a> and <a href="/wiki/LOCOS" title="LOCOS">field oxide</a>. Other processes are called <a href="/wiki/Photomask" title="Photomask">photomasks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photolithography" title="Photolithography">photolithography</a>. This process is what creates the patterns on the circuit in the integrated circuit. <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">Ultraviolet light</a> is used along with a <a href="/wiki/Photoresist" title="Photoresist">photoresist</a> layer to create a chemical change that generates the patterns for the circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not covered by the <a href="/wiki/Photoresist" title="Photoresist">photoresist</a> layer from the previous step can now be etched. The main process typically used today is called <a href="/wiki/Plasma_etching" title="Plasma etching">plasma etching</a>. Plasma etching usually involves an <a href="/wiki/Plasma_etching" title="Plasma etching">etch gas</a> pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>. A common etch gas is <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">chlorofluorocarbon</a>, or more commonly known <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a>. A high <a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-frequency">radio-frequency</a> <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> is what creates the plasma in the chamber. The <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">silicon wafer</a> is located on the cathode, which causes it to be hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The result is silicon that is etched <a href="/wiki/Anisotropy" title="Anisotropy">anisotropically</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Feynman_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feynman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last process is called <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">diffusion</a>. This is the process that gives the semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a>. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which creates the <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a>. To get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put in a 1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse with the silicon. After the process is completed and the silicon has reached room temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a> is almost prepared.<sup id="cite_ref-Feynman_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feynman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neamen_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neamen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics_of_semiconductors">Physics of semiconductors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physics of semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_bands_and_electrical_conduction">Energy bands and electrical conduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Energy bands and electrical conduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">Electronic band structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">Electrical resistivity and conductivity</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Band_filling_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Band_filling_diagram.svg/400px-Band_filling_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Band_filling_diagram.svg/600px-Band_filling_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Band_filling_diagram.svg/800px-Band_filling_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="171" /></a><figcaption>Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">equilibrium</a>. Here, height is energy while width is the <a href="/wiki/Density_of_states" title="Density of states">density of available states</a> for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac distribution</a> (<i>black</i>: all states filled, <i>white</i>: no state filled). In <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semimetal" title="Semimetal">semimetals</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a> <i>E</i><sub>F</sub> lies inside at least one band.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> In <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulators</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">semiconductors</a> the Fermi level is inside a <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a>; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">thermally populated</a> with electrons or <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a>. "intrin." indicates <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor" title="Intrinsic semiconductor">intrinsic semiconductors</a>. <div class="editsection noprint editlink plainlinks" align="right" style="float: right; margin-left: 5px;"><small><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Band_structure_filling_diagram&action=edit">edit</a></small></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior, somewhere between that of a conductor and an insulator.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The differences between these materials can be understood in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum states</a> for electrons, each of which may contain zero or one electron (by the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>). These states are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">electronic band structure</a> of the material. <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">Electrical conductivity</a> arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalized</a> (extending through the material), however in order to transport electrons a state must be <i>partially filled</i>, containing an electron only part of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the state is always occupied with an electron, then it is inert, blocking the passage of other electrons via that state. The energies of these quantum states are critical since a state is partially filled only if its energy is near the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac statistics</a>). </p><p>High conductivity in material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization. Metals are good <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductors</a> and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level. <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulators</a>, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gaps</a> with few energy states to occupy. Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap (<a href="/wiki/Valence_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence band">valence band</a>) and the band of states above the band gap (<a href="/wiki/Conduction_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction band">conduction band</a>). An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature, significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.<sup id="cite_ref-Kittel_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kittel-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A pure semiconductor, however, is not very useful, as it is neither a very good insulator nor a very good conductor. However, one important feature of semiconductors (and some insulators, known as <i>semi-insulators</i>) is that their conductivity can be increased and controlled by <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a> with impurities and <a href="/wiki/Field_effect_(semiconductor)" title="Field effect (semiconductor)">gating</a> with electric fields. Doping and gating move either the conduction or valence band much closer to the Fermi level and greatly increase the number of partially filled states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Wide-bandgap_semiconductor" title="Wide-bandgap semiconductor">wider-bandgap semiconductor</a> materials are sometimes referred to as <b>semi-insulators</b>. When undoped, these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped (making them as useful as semiconductors). Semi-insulators find niche applications in micro-electronics, such as substrates for <a href="/wiki/High-electron-mobility_transistor" title="High-electron-mobility transistor">HEMT</a>. An example of a common semi-insulator is <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a>, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other applications.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charge_carriers_(electrons_and_holes)"><span id="Charge_carriers_.28electrons_and_holes.29"></span>Charge carriers (electrons and holes)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Charge carriers (electrons and holes)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Electron hole</a></div> <p>The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band. The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination (physics)">recombination</a>) but they can move around for some time. The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gas</a>, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>. In most semiconductors, the conduction bands have a parabolic <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_relation" title="Dispersion relation">dispersion relation</a>, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much as they would in a vacuum, though with a different <a href="/wiki/Effective_mass_(solid-state_physics)" title="Effective mass (solid-state physics)">effective mass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kittel_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kittel-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the <a href="/wiki/Drude_model" title="Drude model">Drude model</a>, and introduce concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Electron_mobility" title="Electron mobility">electron mobility</a>. </p><p>For partial filling at the top of the valence band, it is helpful to introduce the concept of an <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron hole</a>. Although the electrons in the valence band are always moving around, a completely full valence band is inert, not conducting any current. If an electron is taken out of the valence band, then the trajectory that the electron would normally have taken is now missing its charge. For the purposes of electric current, this combination of the full valence band, minus the electron, can be converted into a picture of a completely empty band containing a positively charged particle that moves in the same way as the electron. Combined with the <i>negative</i> effective mass of the electrons at the top of the valence band, we arrive at a picture of a positively charged particle that responds to electric and magnetic fields just as a normal positively charged particle would do in a vacuum, again with some positive effective mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Kittel_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kittel-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This particle is called a hole, and the collection of holes in the valence band can again be understood in simple classical terms (as with the electrons in the conduction band). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carrier_generation_and_recombination">Carrier generation and recombination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Carrier generation and recombination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">Carrier generation and recombination</a></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination"><i>electron-hole pair generation</i></a>. Electron-hole pairs are constantly generated from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> as well, in the absence of any external energy source. </p><p>Electron-hole pairs are also apt to recombine. <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a> demands that these recombination events, in which an electron loses an amount of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> larger than the <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a>, be accompanied by the emission of thermal energy (in the form of <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a>) or radiation (in the form of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>). </p><p>In some states, the generation and recombination of electron–hole pairs are in equipoise. The number of electron-hole pairs in the <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a> at a given temperature is determined by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_statistical_mechanics" title="Quantum statistical mechanics">quantum statistical mechanics</a>. The precise <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanical</a> mechanisms of generation and recombination are governed by the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a>. </p><p>As the probability that electrons and holes meet together is proportional to the product of their numbers, the product is in the steady-state nearly constant at a given temperature, providing that there is no significant electric field (which might "flush" carriers of both types, or move them from neighbor regions containing more of them to meet together) or externally driven pair generation. The product is a function of the temperature, as the probability of getting enough thermal energy to produce a pair increases with temperature, being approximately <span class="nowrap">exp(−<i>E</i><sub>G</sub>/<i>kT</i>)</span>, where <i>k</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a>, <i>T</i> is the absolute temperature and <i>E</i><sub>G</sub> is bandgap. </p><p>The probability of meeting is increased by carrier traps – impurities or dislocations which can trap an electron or hole and hold it until a pair is completed. Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to reach the steady-state.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doping">Doping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Doping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">Doping (semiconductor)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg/400px-Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg/600px-Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg/800px-Silicon_doping_-_Type_P_and_N.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Doping of a pure <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> array. Silicon based intrinsic semiconductor becomes extrinsic when impurities such as <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> are introduced.</figcaption></figure> <p>The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">crystal lattice</a>. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as <b>doping</b>. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an <i><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor" title="Intrinsic semiconductor">intrinsic</a></i> (pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doped semiconductors are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor" title="Extrinsic semiconductor"><i>extrinsic</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By adding impurity to the pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1 cm<sup>3</sup> specimen of a metal or semiconductor has the order of 10<sup>22</sup> atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm<sup>3</sup> of metal contains on the order of 10<sup>22</sup> free electrons,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas a 1 cm<sup>3</sup> sample of pure germanium at 20<span class="nowrap"> </span>°C contains about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7022420000000000000♠"></span>4.2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>22</sup></span> atoms, but only <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7013250000000000000♠"></span>2.5<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>13</sup></span> free electrons and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7013250000000000000♠"></span>2.5<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>13</sup></span> holes. The addition of 0.001% of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> (an impurity) donates an extra 10<sup>17</sup> free electrons in the same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron <a href="/wiki/Acceptor_(semiconductors)" title="Acceptor (semiconductors)">acceptors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Donor_(semiconductors)" title="Donor (semiconductors)">donors</a>. Semiconductors doped with <i>donor</i> impurities are called <i>n-type</i>, while those doped with <i>acceptor</i> impurities are known as <i>p-type</i>. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's <a href="/wiki/Majority_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Majority carrier">majority carrier</a>. The opposite carrier is called the <a href="/wiki/Minority_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority carrier">minority carrier</a>, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, the pure semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> has four valence electrons that bond each silicon atom to its neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In silicon, the most common dopants are <a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">group III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Group_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Group V">group V</a> elements. Group III elements all contain three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state (an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the lattice and function as a charge carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped with <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> results in an n-type material.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">manufacture</a>, dopants can be diffused into the semiconductor body by contact with gaseous compounds of the desired element, or <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a> can be used to accurately position the doped regions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amorphous_semiconductors">Amorphous semiconductors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Amorphous semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some materials, when rapidly cooled to a glassy amorphous state, have semiconducting properties. These include B, <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Si</a>, Ge, Se, and Te, and there are multiple theories to explain them.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history_of_semiconductors">Early history of semiconductors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early history of semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device#History_of_semiconductor_device_development" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor device § History of semiconductor device development</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></div> <p>The history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials. The properties of the time-temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed starting in the early 19th century. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_Braun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/159px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/238px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/318px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_detector" title="Crystal detector">crystal detector</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">semiconductor device</a>, in 1874.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johann_Seebeck" title="Thomas Johann Seebeck">Thomas Johann Seebeck</a> was the first to notice that semiconductors exhibit special feature such that experiment concerning an <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect#Seebeck_effect" title="Thermoelectric effect">Seebeck effect</a> emerged with much stronger result when applying semiconductors, in 1821.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1833, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> reported that the resistance of specimens of <a href="/wiki/Silver_sulfide" title="Silver sulfide">silver sulfide</a> decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839, <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Edmond_Becquerel" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Edmond Becquerel">Alexandre Edmond Becquerel</a> reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte, when struck by light, the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>. In 1873, <a href="/wiki/Willoughby_Smith" title="Willoughby Smith">Willoughby Smith</a> observed that <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a> exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> observed conduction and <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectification</a> in metallic <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a>, although this effect had been discovered earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschöld (<a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Munck_af_Rosensch%C3%B6ld" class="extiw" title="sv:Peter Munck af Rosenschöld">sv</a>) writing for the <i>Annalen der Physik und Chemie</i> in 1835; Rosenschöld's findings were ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Simon Sze</a> stated that Braun's research was the earliest systematic study of semiconductor devices.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1874, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schuster" title="Arthur Schuster">Arthur Schuster</a> found that a copper oxide layer on wires had rectification properties that ceased when the wires are cleaned. <a href="/wiki/William_Grylls_Adams" title="William Grylls Adams">William Grylls Adams</a> and Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-JTIT10_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTIT10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>, which developed greatly in the first half of the 20th century. In 1878 <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Herbert_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Herbert Hall">Edwin Herbert Hall</a> demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the <a href="/wiki/Hall_effect" title="Hall effect">Hall effect</a>. The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> by <a href="/wiki/J.J._Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Thomson">J.J. Thomson</a> in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Baedeker_(scientist)" title="Karl Baedeker (scientist)">Karl Baedeker</a>, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johan_Koenigsberger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johan Koenigsberger (page does not exist)">Johan Koenigsberger</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Koenigsberger" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Koenigsberger">de</a>]</span> classified solid materials like metals, insulators, and "variable conductors" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term <i><b>Halbleiter</b></i> (a semiconductor in modern meaning) in his Ph.D. thesis in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a> published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930, <a href="/w/index.php?title=B._Gudden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B. Gudden (page does not exist)">B. Gudden</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Gudden" class="extiw" title="de:Bernhard Gudden">de</a>]</span> stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Herries_Wilson" title="Alan Herries Wilson">Alan Herries Wilson</a> and the concept of band gaps had been developed. <a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Schottky" title="Walter H. Schottky">Walter H. Schottky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93semiconductor_junction" title="Metal–semiconductor junction">metal–semiconductor junction</a>. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a> and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was sometimes poor. This was later explained by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> as due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercially pure materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results. This spurred the development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity. </p><p>Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge before semiconductor theory provided a guide to the construction of more capable and reliable devices. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> used the light-sensitive property of selenium to <a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">transmit sound</a> over a beam of light in 1880. A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fritts" title="Charles Fritts">Charles Fritts</a> in 1883, using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by <a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> in 1904; the <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">cat's-whisker detector</a> using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">development of radio</a>. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906, <a href="/wiki/H.J._Round" class="mw-redirect" title="H.J. Round">H.J. Round</a> observed light emission when electric current passed through <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> crystals, the principle behind the <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Losev" title="Oleg Losev">Oleg Losev</a> observed similar light emission in 1922, but at the time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> rectifiers.<sup id="cite_ref-JTIT10_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTIT10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">semiconductor devices</a> used <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a>, including German <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> Ferdinand Braun's <a href="/wiki/Crystal_detector" title="Crystal detector">crystal detector</a> in 1874 and Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose's <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> crystal detector in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-timeline_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-timeline-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-1901_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-1901-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years preceding World War II, infrared detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal detector became vital for microwave radio systems since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_transistors">Early transistors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early transistors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/220px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/330px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/440px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3073" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> developed the bipolar <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a> in 1947.</figcaption></figure> <p>Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier and were successful in developing a device called the <a href="/wiki/Point_contact_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Point contact transistor">point contact transistor</a> which could amplify 20 dB or more.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris90_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris90-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Losev" title="Oleg Losev">Oleg Losev</a> developed two-terminal, <a href="/wiki/Negative_resistance" title="Negative resistance">negative resistance</a> amplifiers for radio, but he died in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a> after successful completion. In 1926, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> patented a device resembling a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a>, but it was not practical. <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._Hilsch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. Hilsch (page does not exist)">R. Hilsch</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Hilsch" class="extiw" title="de:Rudolf Hilsch">de</a>]</span> and <a href="/wiki/R._W._Pohl" class="mw-redirect" title="R. W. Pohl">R. W. Pohl</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wichard_Pohl" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Wichard Pohl">de</a>]</span> in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using a structure resembling the control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a <a href="/wiki/Cut-off_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Cut-off frequency">cut-off frequency</a> of one cycle per second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first p–n junction in silicon was observed by <a href="/wiki/Russell_Ohl" title="Russell Ohl">Russell Ohl</a> about 1941 when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at the p–n boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light. </p><p>The first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at Bell Labs in 1947. Shockley had earlier theorized a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect amplifier</a> made from germanium and silicon, but he failed to build such a working device, before eventually using germanium to invent the point-contact transistor.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, during the war, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Matar%C3%A9" title="Herbert Mataré">Herbert Mataré</a> had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a germanium base. After the war, Mataré's group announced their "<a href="/wiki/Transistron" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistron">Transistron</a>" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs announced the "<a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>". </p><p>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">physical chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Morris_Tanenbaum" title="Morris Tanenbaum">Morris Tanenbaum</a> fabricated the first silicon <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, early <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a <a href="/wiki/Mass-production" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-production">mass-production</a> basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deathnium" title="Deathnium">Deathnium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductor industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_characterization_techniques" title="Semiconductor characterization techniques">Semiconductor characterization techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">Transistor count</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTatum2016" class="citation web cs1">Tatum, Jeremy (13 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibreTexts&rft.atitle=Resistance+and+Temperature&rft.date=2016-12-13&rft.aulast=Tatum&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FElectricity_and_Magnetism%2FElectricity_and_Magnetism_%28Tatum%29%2F04%253A_Batteries_Resistors_and_Ohm%27s_Law%2F4.03%253A_Resistance_and_Temperature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorzyk2009" class="citation book cs1">Worzyk, Thomas (11 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8QfRT_SYDgC&dq=carbon+black+cable&pg=PA20"><i>Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental Aspects</i></a>. 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Dresden: Qucosa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charge+transport+in+two-dimensional+materials+and+their+electronic+applications&rft.place=Dresden&rft.pub=Qucosa&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Arora&rft.aufirst=Himani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhimani-arora-ha.github.io%2Fpdf%2FDissertation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhard_Voelkel2012" class="citation journal cs1">Reinhard Voelkel (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Faot-2012-0013">"Wafer-scale micro-optics fabrication"</a>. <i>Advanced Optical Technologies</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 135. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AdOT....1..135V">2012AdOT....1..135V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Faot-2012-0013">10.1515/aot-2012-0013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:137606531">137606531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Optical+Technologies&rft.atitle=Wafer-scale+micro-optics+fabrication&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=135&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A137606531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Faot-2012-0013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012AdOT....1..135V&rft.au=Reinhard+Voelkel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Faot-2012-0013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._DoiI.D._MarinescuSyuhei_Kurokawa2012" class="citation book cs1">T. Doi; I.D. Marinescu; Syuhei Kurokawa (2012). <i>Advances in CMP Polishing Technologies, Chapter 6 – Progress of the Semiconductor and Silicon Industries – Growing Semiconductor Markets and Production Areas</i>. Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">297–</span>304. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-1-4377-7859-5.00006-5">10.1016/B978-1-4377-7859-5.00006-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advances+in+CMP+Polishing+Technologies%2C+Chapter+6+%E2%80%93+Progress+of+the+Semiconductor+and+Silicon+Industries+%E2%80%93+Growing+Semiconductor+Markets+and+Production+Areas&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E297-%3C%2Fspan%3E304&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-1-4377-7859-5.00006-5&rft.au=T.+Doi&rft.au=I.D.+Marinescu&rft.au=Syuhei+Kurokawa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu2010" class="citation book cs1">Yu, Peter (2010). <i>Fundamentals of Semiconductors</i>. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00709-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00709-5"><bdi>978-3-642-00709-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Semiconductors&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-642-00709-5&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As in the Mott formula for conductivity, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutlerMott1969" class="citation journal cs1">Cutler, M.; Mott, N. (1969). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1947%3A+Invention+of+the+Point-Contact+Transistor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Finvention-of-the-point-contact-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-transistors-offer-superior-operating-characteristics/">"1954: Morris Tanenbaum fabricates the first silicon transistor at Bell Labs"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1954%3A+Morris+Tanenbaum+fabricates+the+first+silicon+transistor+at+Bell+Labs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fsilicon-transistors-offer-superior-operating-characteristics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moskowitz-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moskowitz_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2016" class="citation book cs1">Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168"><i>Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470508923" title="Special:BookSources/9780470508923"><bdi>9780470508923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Materials+Innovation%3A+Managing+Global+Technology+in+the+21st+century&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780470508923&rft.aulast=Moskowitz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2STRDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2024" class="citation web cs1">Allen, Gregory (December 11, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/understanding-biden-administrations-updated-export-controls">"Understanding the Biden Administration's Updated Export Controls"</a>. <i>Center for Strategic and International Studies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Biden+Administration%27s+Updated+Export+Controls&rft.date=2024-12-11&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csis.org%2Fanalysis%2Funderstanding-biden-administrations-updated-export-controls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._A._BalandinK._L._Wang2006" class="citation book cs1">A. A. Balandin & K. L. Wang (2006). <i>Handbook of Semiconductor Nanostructures and Nanodevices (5-Volume Set)</i>. American Scientific Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58883-073-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58883-073-9"><bdi>978-1-58883-073-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Semiconductor+Nanostructures+and+Nanodevices+%285-Volume+Set%29&rft.pub=American+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-58883-073-9&rft.au=A.+A.+Balandin&rft.au=K.+L.+Wang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSze,_Simon_M.1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Sze, Simon M.</a> (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicsofsemicon00szes"><i>Physics of Semiconductor Devices (2nd ed.)</i></a></span>. John Wiley and Sons (WIE). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-05661-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-05661-4"><bdi>978-0-471-05661-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+of+Semiconductor+Devices+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons+%28WIE%29&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-471-05661-4&rft.au=Sze%2C+Simon+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicsofsemicon00szes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurley,_Jim2002" class="citation book cs1">Turley, Jim (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essentialguideto00turl_0"><i>The Essential Guide to Semiconductors</i></a></span>. Prentice Hall PTR. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-046404-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-046404-0"><bdi>978-0-13-046404-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Guide+to+Semiconductors&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall+PTR&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-13-046404-0&rft.au=Turley%2C+Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessentialguideto00turl_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu,_Peter_Y.Cardona,_Manuel2004" class="citation book cs1">Yu, Peter Y.; Cardona, Manuel (2004). <i>Fundamentals of Semiconductors: Physics and Materials Properties</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-41323-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-41323-3"><bdi>978-3-540-41323-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Semiconductors%3A+Physics+and+Materials+Properties&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-41323-3&rft.au=Yu%2C+Peter+Y.&rft.au=Cardona%2C+Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadao_Adachi2012" class="citation book cs1">Sadao Adachi (2012). <i>The Handbook on Optical Constants of Semiconductors: In Tables and Figures</i>. World Scientific Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4405-97-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4405-97-3"><bdi>978-981-4405-97-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+on+Optical+Constants+of+Semiconductors%3A+In+Tables+and+Figures&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-981-4405-97-3&rft.au=Sadao+Adachi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>G. B. Abdullayev, T. D. Dzhafarov, S. Torstveit (Translator), <i>Atomic Diffusion in Semiconductor Structures,</i> Gordon & Breach Science Pub., 1987 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-152-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-152-9">978-2-88124-152-9</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/III_14.html">Feynman's lecture on Semiconductors</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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