Scientific Institutions and Societies | Process of Science

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <base href="https://www.visionlearning.com"> <title>Scientific Institutions and Societies | Process of Science | Visionlearning</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162"> <meta name="description" content="Learn about the role of scientific institutions and societies in the process of science. Includes a discussion of research institutions, professional societies, and funding institutions."> <meta name="keywords" content="Gov grants, Grant funding, Scientific associations, History of science institution"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="D8E20F39AD48052260032E56DE409970"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org/", "@type": "Article", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162" }, "name": "Scientific Institutions and Societies", "headline": "Scientific Institutions and Societies: Types of institutions and their influence", "author": [ { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anne E. Egger, Ph.D." } , { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anthony Carpi, Ph.D." }], "datePublished": "2009-06-19 15:30:10", "dateModified": "2017-02-12T08:30:00+05:00", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_162-23061210061220.jpeg", "width": 696, "height": 464 }, "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc.", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "http://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png", "width": 278, "height": 60 } }, "description": "Scientific institutions and societies play an essential role in the process of science and contribute to the building of scientific knowledge. This module explores these different bodies and discusses three types in detail: research institutions, professional societies, and funding institutions. Specific examples highlight how these institutions are essential to progress in science.", "keywords": "Gov grants, Grant funding, Scientific associations, History of science institution", "inLanguage": { "@type": "Language", "name": "English", "alternateName": "en" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc." }, "copyrightYear": "2009"} </script> <meta property="og:url" content="https://visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162"> <meta property="og:title" content="Scientific Institutions and Societies | Process of Science | Visionlearning" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Visionlearning"> <meta property="og:description" content="Learn about the role of scientific institutions and societies in the process of science. 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and Bases I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/acids-and-bases-ii/272">Acids and Bases II</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-reactions-and-changes" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-reactions-and-changes" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Reactions and Changes </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-reactions-and-changes" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-reactions-and-changes" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/chemical-reactions/54">Chemical Reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/chemical-reactions-ii/278">Chemical Reactions II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/nuclear-chemistry-i/284">Nuclear Chemistry I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/carbon-chemistry/60">Carbon Chemistry</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" 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aria-controls="acc-panel-hazards" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Hazards </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/mass-extinctions/294">Mass Extinctions</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button 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<li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279">Ecosystem Services</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-general-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-general-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> General Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-general-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-general-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-scientific-method/45">The Scientific Method</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-measurement" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-measurement" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Measurement </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-measurement" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-measurement" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-metric-system/47">The Metric System</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-properties" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physical-properties" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physical Properties </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physical-properties" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physical-properties" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/temperature/48">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/density-and-buoyancy/37">Density and Buoyancy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-math-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-math-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Math in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-math-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-math-in-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-equations" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-equations" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Equations </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-equations" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-equations" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/unit-conversion/144">Unit Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/linear-equations/194">Linear Equations</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-i/206">Exponential Equations I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-ii/210">Exponential Equations II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/scientific-notation/250">Scientific Notation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/measurement/257">Measurement</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-statistics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-statistics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Statistics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-statistics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-statistics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-descriptive-statistics/218">Introduction to Descriptive Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-inferential-statistics/224">Introduction to Inferential Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/statistical-techniques/239">Statistical Techniques</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Trigonometric Functions </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/wave-mathematics/131">Wave Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physics" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-light-and-optics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-light-and-optics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Light and Optics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-light-and-optics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-light-and-optics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/the-nature-of-light/132">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/electromagnetism-and-light/138">Electromagnetism and Light</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-mechanics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-mechanics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Mechanics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-mechanics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-mechanics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/defining-energy/199">Defining Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/waves-and-wave-motion/102">Waves and Wave Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/gravity/118">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/thermodynamics-i/200">Thermodynamics I</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-process-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-process-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Process of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-process-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-process-of-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li class="current">Scientific Institutions and Societies</li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientists and Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientists-and-research" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/from-stable-chromosomes-to-jumping-genes/184">From Stable Chromosomes to Jumping Genes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/an-elegant-experiment-to-test-the-process-of-dna-replication/187">An Elegant Experiment to Test the Process of DNA Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/the-founding-of-neuroscience/233">The Founding of Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/tracking-endangered-jaguars-across-the-border/189">Tracking Endangered Jaguars across the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/revolutionizing-medicine-with-monoclonal-antibodies/220">Revolutionizing Medicine with Monoclonal Antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/uncovering-the-mysteries-of-chronic-mountain-sickness/238">Uncovering the Mysteries of Chronic Mountain Sickness</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Profiles in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-profiles-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-e.-miramontes/232">Luis E. Miramontes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/bernardo-houssay/237">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/craig-lee/256">Craig Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/david-ho/241">David Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/louis-tompkins-wright/244">Louis Tompkins Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/carlos-j.-finlay/217">Carlos J. Finlay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/cecilia-payne/290">Cecilia Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/jazmin-scarlett/291">Jazmin Scarlett</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ramari-stewart/292">Ramari Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/johnson-cerda/300">Johnson Cerda</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ellen-ochoa/201">Ellen Ochoa</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ruth-benerito/205">Ruth Benerito</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/franklin-chang-díaz/219">Franklin Chang Díaz</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/percy-lavon-julian/221">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-walter-alvarez/229">Luis Walter Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/france-anne-dominic-córdova/230">France Anne-Dominic Córdova</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li>  <button class="button" data-toggle="dropdown">Process of Science </button> <div class="nav__dropdown box-shadow-1 padding-1"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary font-size-sm"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li class="current">Scientific Institutions and Societies</li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="theTop"></div> <main id="skip-header-content"> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <article class="container wide module"> <header class="grid grid--sidebar-right module__header"> <div class="module__header__title"> <span class="subcategory"> <strong><em>The Culture of Science</em></strong> </span> <h1>Scientific Institutions and Societies: <sub><em>Types of institutions and their influence</em></sub></h1> <p class="byline">by Anne E. Egger, Ph.D., Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.</p> <nav class="module__header__tabs"> <ul class="tabs-nav tabs-nav--horizontal library"> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162/reading" aria-current="page" >Reading</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162/quiz">Quiz</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162/resources">Teach with this</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "AudioObject", "contentUrl": "https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_162.mp3", "description": "Recording of Scientific Institutions and Societies : Scientific institutions and societies play an essential role in the process of science and contribute to the building of scientific knowledge. This module explores these different bodies and discusses three types in detail: research institutions, professional societies, and funding institutions. Specific examples highlight how these institutions are essential to progress in science.", "encodingFormat": "mp3", "name": "module_162.mp3" } </script> <div class="module_header_audio"> <div class="audio-player border border-radius"> <audio id="audio"> <source src="https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_162.mp3" type="audio/mpeg"> Your browser does not support the audio element. </audio> <div class="audio-player__title"> <p>Listen to this reading</p> <span class="audio-player__timestamp" id="timestamp"> 00:00 </span> </div> <div class="audio-player__controls" id="controls"> <button class="button button--icon-only" id="play-pause-button"> <span class="icon icon-play" aria-hidden="true"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__progress" id="progress-bar" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="0" aria-label="Use arrow keys to forward or rewind the audio" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__progress__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> <div class="audio-player__volume-container"> <button id="mute-button"> <span class="icon icon-volume"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__volume" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="100" aria-label="Use arrow keys to adjust volume" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__volume__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <hr class="divider"/>   <div class="grid grid--sidebar-right grid--divider"> <div class="order-2 order-1--lg module__main"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto margin-y-5"> <div class="accordion margin-bottom-5">  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-key-concepts" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-key-concepts" aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0"> Did you know? </button> <div class="accordion__panel shown show" id="acc-panel-key-concepts" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-key-concepts" role="region"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <p>Did you know that science doesn't happen in isolation? We may picture scientists working alone to make discoveries, but being part of a larger community is essential to science. Even in the 16th century, Galileo, like modern scientists, relied on support from the university where he taught, funding from wealthy supporters, and membership in a scientific academy.</p> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-table-of-contents" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-table-of-contents" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Key concepts </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-table-of-contents" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-table-of-contents" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <ul class="bulleted"> <li><p>The community of science includes institutions and professional societies that support scientists physically, financially, and intellectually. </p></li> <li><p>Research institutions include universities, national laboratories, government agencies, and corporations that all provide physical space and support for scientific research. </p></li> <li><p>Professional societies promote interactions between individuals across institutions by organizing meetings and publications. </p></li> <li><p>Governments, private industry, and other institutions provide financial support for scientific research through grants and research contracts.</p></li> <li><p>All of these institutions affect the direction of scientific research, and may even bias it, by setting research priorities. </p></li> </ul> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Terms you should know </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <dl> <dt>foundation </dt> <dd> an organization or institution whose purpose is to provide financial support </dd> <dt>funds, funding </dt> <dd> money for a specific objective</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <section> <div class="container narrow"> <p>We all make use of different types of institutions. Banks provide us credit to make the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of buying and selling things easier. Telephone companies provide us with access to vast wireless and wired <mark class="term" data-term="network" data-term-def="An interconnected system; an interrelated net-like arrangement of parts." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/network/8740">networks</mark> that allow us to speak with friends by simply dialing their telephone number. And colleges and universities allow us to learn from experienced teachers and mentors that we might not otherwise meet in the course of our lives. You may not have thought of it this way before, but as part of an academic institution, you not only have access to the resources of that institution – professors, buildings, classes – but you are part of a community of people with shared interests and goals. Within that setting, there are clubs that students can join depending on their specific interests – sports teams, student groups, different living communities, even study groups – all of which are smaller collections of individuals with similar interests and/or skills. To each of these groups, we all bring our own interests and skills, and we benefit from the interactions with others.</p> <p>Scientists also have institutions that support them, and they work within a community of individuals with whom they share ideas. For example, academic institutions support <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> by scientists and other scholars as part of their broader educational missions, federal agencies and private foundations often provide funding to support researchers, and scientific societies support and promote communication and collaboration between scientists. And yet, it is easy to forget the role of these support structures and focus just on the scientists who make discoveries. </p><p>We picture <mark class="term" data-term="Galileo Galilei" data-term-def="The Italian physicist, mathematician, and astronomer born in Pisa in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1564-1642 CE). Among other things, Galileo&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Galileo+Galilei/3724">Galileo Galilei</mark> looking through his telescope in a remote Italian village or <mark class="term" data-term="Gregor Mendel" data-term-def="Austrian Augustinian monk and scientist born in Heizendorf (now Hynice, Chech Republic) (1822-1884). In 1865, Mendel wrote <i>Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybride (Treatises&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Mendel%2C+Gregor/4509">Gregor Mendel</mark> counting peas in the isolation of an Augustinian monastery – both alone, working. But Galileo had a position at the University of Pisa starting in 1588, which provided him with a stipend; in return, he tutored students and taught classes there. He sought funding for his work from the wealthy and influential Medici family. And he was a member of the Lyncean Academy, a small group of European scientists who met regularly to discuss science and who published several of Galileo's works. These various institutions with which he was involved were crucial to his career as a scientist and led to widespread recognition of some of his most fundamental <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_4429.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid162/Image/VLObject-4429-090519010558.jpg" alt="Figure 1: Undergraduate students presenting their research at a poster session. " /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 1:</b> Undergraduate students presenting their research at a poster session. </p> <span class="credit">image ©Visionlearning, Inc.</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Galileo was one of the first scientists to take on the many roles that are common among scientists today. As in any other human endeavor, individual scientists rely on the support of several institutions, and the nature of those institutions varies widely. A high-school teacher is an individual who possesses knowledge to teach students, but that teacher is part of a school and a school district, and may belong to other professional organizations that help support him or her as a teacher. Science is no different: Scientists are individuals with particular knowledge and understanding, but they cannot act alone. </p> <p><section id="toc_1" class=""> <h2>Types of scientific institutions</h2></p> <p>Scientists are supported by at least three different kinds of institutions: <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> institutions, funding institutions, and professional societies.</p><p><strong>Research institutions</strong> physically house scientists and provide <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> facilities; they include many colleges and universities, government organizations like the US Geological Survey, and corporations like DuPont or Exxon-Mobil.</p> <p><strong>Professional societies</strong> facilitate the communication of the results of scientific research and foster the development of scientific communities, hosting meetings like the one shown in Figure 1. These societies may be specific to a discipline, such as the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, or broad and all-encompassing, such as the <mark class="term" data-term="American Association for the Advancement of Science" data-term-def="A professional society established in 1848 that serves scientists in all disciplines. The mission of AAAS is to "advance science, engineering,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science/5484">American Association for the Advancement of Science</mark>.</p> <p><strong>Funding institutions</strong>, like the <mark class="term" data-term="National Science Foundation" data-term-def="A United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/National+Science+Foundation/4714">National Science Foundation</mark> and National Institutes of Health, provide grant money to scientists through a competitive <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> so that they can conduct research. </p><p>An individual scientist may work at one or more <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> institutions, belong to several professional societies, and receive funding from multiple sources – all of which can influence a scientist's research. Likewise, the institutions are influenced by the communities of scientists that make up their membership.</p></section> <section id="toc_2"> <h2>The role of the research institution</h2><p>We now consider it normal that many scientists are professors at universities, teaching classes while conducting <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> and advising students, but this has not always been the case. When Cambridge University was established in England in the 1200s, there were no professors; the men who taught courses of study (and they were, indeed, all men) had completed the same course of study themselves and were considered Masters. These men did not conduct any sort of research, and teaching was a matter of handing down the same information that they themselves had been taught.</p><p>During the 1500s and 1600s, the makeup of universities began to change when members of the English royalty endowed several professorships at Cambridge and Oxford, providing stipends for the recipients. Attaining one of these coveted positions meant going beyond the given course of study and conducting original <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>; as a result, the university became a place where new knowledge was generated. One of the most famous of the endowed professorships, the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, was established in 1663 at Cambridge University by Henry Lucas, a Member of Parliament (Bruen, 1995). The fame of this position derives from its second holder: Sir <mark class="term" data-term="Isaac Newton" data-term-def="English alchemist, physicist, astronomer and mathematician born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire (1643-1727). In 1672, Newton offered an experimental proof that light is&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Isaac+Newton/3725">Isaac Newton</mark>. Newton was appointed Lucasian Chair in 1669 and held the position until 1702, during which time he produced his most important works like the <em>Principia</em>. The support offered through the position at Cambridge gave <mark class="term" data-term="Isaac Newton" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Isaac+Newton" data-term-def="English alchemist, physicist, astronomer and mathematician born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire (1643-1727). In 1672, Newton offered an experimental proof that light is&hellip;">Newton</mark> the freedom to pursue research that was of interest to him, without which we may not have seen <mark class="term" data-term="newton" data-term-def="A metric (or SI) unit measuring force and named for English physicist Isaac Newton. One newton (N) represents the force needed&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/newton/5596">Newton</mark>'s <mark class="term" data-term="law" data-term-def="In science, a principle that describes a phenomenon, often mathematically." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/law/8686">Laws</mark> of Motion when we did. The Lucasian Chair still exists today, and the current holder of the position is another very well-known scientist: theoretical physicist <mark class="term" data-term="Stephen Hawking" data-term-def="British cosmologist and theoretical physicist, born in Oxford (1942-). His most important contributions to science have been his study of quantum&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Hawking%2C+Stephen/4457">Stephen Hawking</mark>.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_4430.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid162/Image/VLObject-4430-090519020509.jpg" alt="Figure 2: Scanned original of the first page of Einstein's first letter to FDR. Click on letter to see full-size versions of both pages." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 2:</b> Scanned original of the first page of Einstein's first letter to FDR. Click on letter to see full-size versions of both pages.</p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>The establishment of funds to support individual scientists within the university was a critical step in creating the scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> institution, but universities are not the only place where scientific research occurs. Many major research institutions are part of the government: In the United States, for example, government-run research institutions include the US Geological Survey (USGS), <mark class="term" data-term="Los Alamos National Laboratory" data-term-def="One of 17 national laboratories overseen by the US Department of Energy. LANL is located in Los Alamos, New Mexico, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory/5496">Los Alamos National Laboratory</mark> (LANL), and <mark class="term" data-term="NASA" data-term-def="The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a US government office established in 1958 to research flight in the Earth's atmosphere and beyond." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/NASA/5494">NASA</mark>. The establishment of these research institutions was often in response to a broad initiative within the government, such as the exploration of the western territories in the 1860s that led to the consolidation of several different groups of surveyors into the USGS. </p><p>Similarly, World War II strongly influenced the development of scientific institutions. In response to a series of letters in 1939 and 1940 from <mark class="term" data-term="Albert Einstein" data-term-def="Theoretical physicist, born in Württemberg, Germany (1879–1955), who became an American citizen in 1940. While working as a patent clerk in&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Einstein%2C+Albert/4458">Albert Einstein</mark> (see Figure 2) warning of the possibility of the development of nuclear weapons by Germany, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the War Department to begin work on an atomic bomb. His order led to the establishment of a number of national laboratories in 1943, including <mark class="term" data-term="LANL" data-term-def="Los Alamos National Laboratory" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/LANL/5495">LANL</mark> in New Mexico and <mark class="term" data-term="Oak Ridge National Laboratory" data-term-def="One of seventeen national laboratories overseen by the US Department of Energy. ORNL is located in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and was&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory/5497">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</mark> in Tennessee. Scientists hired to work at these new national labs were not completely free to focus on the <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> that interested them (like <mark class="term" data-term="Isaac Newton" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Isaac+Newton" data-term-def="English alchemist, physicist, astronomer and mathematician born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire (1643-1727). In 1672, Newton offered an experimental proof that light is&hellip;">Newton</mark> at Cambridge); instead they were asked by the government to focus on specific problems that fostered the development of nuclear weapons. The focus of research at LANL remained the development and testing of weapons until 1992, when the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed by President George H.W. Bush. Since then, LANL's mission has changed to focus on the science behind national security, which includes everything from securing nuclear weapons stockpiles to studying the possible effects of global warming.</p><p>Additionally, scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> takes place at commercial corporations, where it is often described as "research and development," or R&D. In 1970, for example, the Xerox Corporation established its Palo Alto Research Center, known as Xerox PARC, to bring together researchers in information science, physical science, and engineering to create the "architecture of information" (see Resources). In this venue, fundamental scientific research was supported to the extent that it could contribute to the development of new technologies or products that could contribute to the overall theme of the architecture of information. The effort led to the development of photocopiers, initially, but the research branch of Xerox is perhaps most famous for its development of the mouse, first used with the personal computer by Apple in the early 1980s.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5944"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Scientific research can take place at</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5944-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5944" type="radio" value="universities, national laboratories, and corporations." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> universities, national laboratories, and corporations. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5944-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5944-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5944" type="radio" value="universities and laboratories but <em>not</em> at corporations." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> universities and laboratories but <em>not</em> at corporations. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5944-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_3"> <h2>The role of the professional society</h2><p>Research institutions are important support <mark class="term" data-term="network" data-term-def="An interconnected system; an interrelated net-like arrangement of parts." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/network/8740">networks</mark> for most scientists. When those scientists are ready to share the results of their <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> with the broader scientific community, however, they often seek feedback and review from their peers through additional means – by presenting their work at meetings of societies like the <mark class="term" data-term="American Geophysical Union" data-term-def="A professional society established in 1919, originally as part of the National Academy of Sciences, but now an independent organization. The&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/American+Geophysical+Union/5485">American Geophysical Union</mark> (AGU), a professional scientific <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">society</mark> with over 45,000 members from 140 countries. Part of the mission of the <mark class="term" data-term="AGU" data-term-def="<a href="http://www.visionlearning.com/en/glossary/index/A#term-5485">American Geophysical Union</a>." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/AGU/5486">AGU</mark> is to "advance the various geophysical disciplines through scientific discussion, publication, and dissemination of information," accomplished through sponsoring meetings that bring members together and publishing journals of peer-reviewed work. Professional societies in other disciplines share similar missions, such as the Ecological Society of America, American Institute of Physics, and the <mark class="term" data-term="American Chemical Society" data-term-def="A professional society for chemists established in 1876. The mission of ACS is "to advance the broader chemistry enterprise and its&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/American+Chemical+Society/5487">American Chemical Society</mark>, to name only a few.</p><p>Professional societies play a critical role in fostering scientific progress. One of the longest-lived professional societies developed during the <mark class="term" data-term="Scientific Revolution" data-term-def="A term first coined by Alexandre Koyré in 1939, it refers to the remarkable scientific advances roughly extending from the publication&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Scientific+Revolution/3728">Scientific Revolution</mark> of the mid-1600s, when the concept of rigorous observation- and experiment-based science began to take hold in England. The Royal <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">Society</mark> of London originated in the ideas of <mark class="term" data-term="Francis Bacon" data-term-def="English statesman and philosopher born in London (1561-1626). In 1620, Bacon published the <i>Novum Organum</i>, in which he argued for a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Bacon%2C+Francis/3726">Francis Bacon</mark>. Bacon was not a scientist himself, but an English statesman and philosopher who published a book in 1620 entitled <em>Instauratio Magna</em> about the application of what we now might call the scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="method" data-term-def="A procedure or process; a systematic way of performing a task or conducting research." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/method/8238">method</mark>. In it, he described the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of inductive reasoning, in which facts are collected and a <mark class="term" data-term="theory" data-term-def="A scientific theory is an explanation inferred from multiple lines of evidence for some broad aspect of the natural world and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/theory/4854">theory</mark> is developed to explain those facts. This method stands in stark contrast to the Aristotelian process, known as deductive reasoning, in which reason was used instead of <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observation</mark> to determine explanations. Importantly, Bacon also viewed the scientific process as a community endeavor that required financial and philosophical support from institutions like governments and universities.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_4431.gif"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid162/Image/VLObject-4431-090519020519.gif" alt="Figure 3: Frontispiece from the 1667 History of the Royal Society by Thomas Sprat. The figure on the right is Francis Bacon; Lord Brouncker, the first president is to the left of the bust of Charles II, the first patron of the society. Bacon is pointing to Boyle's apparatus for his gas experiments." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 3:</b> Frontispiece from the 1667 History of the Royal Society by Thomas Sprat. The figure on the right is Francis Bacon; Lord Brouncker, the first president is to the left of the bust of Charles II, the first patron of the society. Bacon is pointing to Boyle's apparatus for his gas experiments.</p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Bacon died in 1626, but his philosophy lived well beyond him and spread. In 1648, a group of scientists at Oxford University in England formed what they called an "experimental science club," and began to hold regular meetings at which they would conduct <mark class="term" data-term="experiment" data-term-def="A test or trial carried out under controlled conditions so that specific actions can be performed and the results can be observed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/experiment/8292">experiments</mark> and discuss the results. By including the word "experimental" in their title, this group acknowledged their adherence to Bacon's ideas about science rather than <mark class="term" data-term="Aristotle" data-term-def="A Greek philosopher born in Stagira (384-322 BCE). He joined Plato's Academy in Athens (then being run by Eudoxus) at the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Aristotle/4466">Aristotle</mark>'s (see Figure 3). In November of 1660, the group became a more formal entity, drawing up a charter and naming themselves the Royal <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">Society</mark> of London. The original twelve fellows of the Society included <mark class="term" data-term="Christopher Wren" data-term-def="An English scientist (1632-1723) appointed as the Gresham Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge at the young age of 25. Wren was&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Wren%2C+Christopher/4462">Christopher Wren</mark> and <mark class="term" data-term="Robert Boyle" data-term-def="English chemist and theologian, born at Lismore Castle, Munster, Ireland (1627-1691). Boyle published on a broad array of topics, including chemistry,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Boyle%2C+Robert/4459">Robert Boyle</mark>, the scientist immortalized in <mark class="term" data-term="Boyle's Law" data-term-def="The relationship between a gas’s volume (V) and pressure (P), which was first observed by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. Boyle’s&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Boyle%27s+Law/9850">Boyle's Law</mark>, which relates the pressure and temperature of a given <mark class="term" data-term="mass" data-term-def="A fundamental property of matter which is a numerical measure of the inertia of an object or the amount of matter&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mass/3417">mass</mark> of <mark class="term" data-term="gas" data-term-def="The state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow. Unlike liquids, molecules within a gas remain far&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/gas/8725">gas</mark> to its <mark class="term" data-term="volume" data-term-def="The amount of space taken up by matter, commonly expressed in cubic centimeters (cm<sup>3</sup>) or milliliters (ml)." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/volume/8515">volume</mark> (eventually leading to the <mark class="term" data-term="ideal gas" data-term-def="A theoretical gas which behaves as predicted by the ideal gas equation. The molecules in an ideal gas are assumed to&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ideal+gas/9855">Ideal Gas</mark> Law). The fellows paid annual dues and met weekly to conduct scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> largely through experiments (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=150">Experimentation</a> module) or descriptive <mark class="term" data-term="method" data-term-def="A procedure or process; a systematic way of performing a task or conducting research." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/method/8238">methods</mark> (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=151">Description</a> module). This was a radical notion at the time – though several clubs existed where men would assemble to <em>discuss</em> science, the discussions at these clubs were not centered on developing new knowledge by actually conducting research (Gribbin, 2007). </p><p>The Fellows rotated responsibility for the weekly meetings, which soon proved challenging to coordinate. So in 1662, the <mark class="term" data-term="Royal Society of London" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Royal+Society+of+London" data-term-def="The longest continuously existing scientific society, established at Cambridge University in 1660. More information about the Royal Society is available on&hellip;">Royal Society</mark> hired Boyle's assistant, <mark class="term" data-term="Robert Hooke" data-term-def="An English physicist, born on the Isle of Wight (1635-1703). Hooke's studies were extremely diverse, encompassing biology, geology, physics, chemistry, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Hooke%2C+Robert/4460">Robert Hooke</mark>, as the Curator of Experiments, in which role he was responsible for devising and running the weekly <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> experiences. In 1665, the Society began publishing its journal, <em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</em>, which described not only the events at the weekly meetings but the results of scientific investigations of its members outside the weekly meetings (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a> module).</p> <p>The <mark class="term" data-term="Royal Society of London" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Royal+Society+of+London" data-term-def="The longest continuously existing scientific society, established at Cambridge University in 1660. More information about the Royal Society is available on&hellip;">Royal Society</mark> set the stage for the modern professional <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">society</mark>, officially recognizing the importance of the community in building scientific knowledge. Within the sciences, math, and engineering fields there are many thousands of professional societies all over the world. Individual scientists may belong to one or many, depending on their field, the variety of their interests, and the length of time they have been working as a scientist. For all scientists who wish to practice science, becoming a member of a professional society is an important step that gives them access to a community of peers from whom they can both learn and seek feedback on their own work.</p> <p>In addition, many professional societies give awards to members to recognize achievement in scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>. The <mark class="term" data-term="American Chemical Society" data-term-def="A professional society for chemists established in 1876. The mission of ACS is "to advance the broader chemistry enterprise and its&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/American+Chemical+Society/5487">American Chemical Society</mark>, for example, solicits nominations for 58 national awards in chemistry ranging from the Priestley Medal (in honor of Joseph Priestley), given to recognize distinguished services to chemistry, to the Paul J. Flory Education Award, which recognizes outstanding achievement by an individual in promoting undergraduate or graduate <mark class="term" data-term="polymer" data-term-def="A large molecule consisting of recurring units of a smaller molecule. A polymer can be thought of as a molecular chain,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/polymer/1593">polymer</mark> education. As in any other profession, these awards recognize individuals who excel in their work and they are considered significant achievements for a scientist.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5946"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Professional societies are important to science primarily because they provide scientists with</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5946-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5946" type="radio" value="a community of peers with whom to share research and receive feedback." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> a community of peers with whom to share research and receive feedback. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5946-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5946-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5946" type="radio" value="facilities where they can conduct their research." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> facilities where they can conduct their research. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5946-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_4"> <h2>The role of the funding institution</h2><p>Research institutions and professional societies are essential to scientific progress and to the individual scientist, but most scientists need to seek additional financial support from outside sources. Historically, funding was sought through personal relationship with wealthy patrons; for example, the Medici family funded the work of a number of famous scientists including Galileo, and in turn, Galileo named the four largest moons of Jupiter that he discovered <em>Medicea Sidera</em> (the Medician stars).</p><p>More recently, governments have played a large role in funding scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>. In the United States, the federal government is the largest single supporter of scientific research. Although the federal government has always supported research in the US (such as the scientific surveys of the West described in our module <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=151#Gilbert">Description in Scientific Research</a>), there were no federal agencies dedicated specifically to funding scientific research prior to World War II. In a way, WWII acted as a kind of "scientific revolution" in the United States, laying the groundwork for the establishment of federal funding agencies such as the <mark class="term" data-term="National Science Foundation" data-term-def="A United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/National+Science+Foundation/4714">National Science Foundation</mark> (NSF).</p><p>During WWII, <mark class="term" data-term="Vannevar Bush" data-term-def="American scientist and statesman, born in Everett, Massachusetts (1890-1974). Bush did seminal work in analog computing, and founded the American Appliance&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Bush%2C+Vannevar/4573">Vannevar Bush</mark> led the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), established at the onset of the war to financially support <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> that had immediate application to wartime activities. Although the OSRD's mission was to focus on research with "immediate application" to the war effort, Bush realized that many of these applications relied on basic scientific research into materials science, physics, and many other disciplines; as a result, government support for so-called "basic" research nearly tripled over the war period. As the war ended and this office was destined to disappear, Bush wrote an influential essay in 1945 entitled "Science – The Endless Frontier," which advocated the development of a National Research Foundation (Bush, 1945). Bush believed that:</p><blockquote class="blockquote"> <p>The Government should accept new responsibilities for promoting the flow of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the Government, for they vitally affect our health, our jobs, and our national security.</p> </p></blockquote> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_4432.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid162/Image/VLObject-4432-090519020529.jpg" alt="Figure 4: The logo of the National Science Foundation" /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 4:</b> The logo of the National Science Foundation</p> <span class="credit">image ©NSF</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Throughout history, many governments have supported <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> in development of national defense. But Bush strongly advocated for government support for basic scientific research that may not result in immediate applications, and he suggested that funding be disbursed to scientists through a competitive grant <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> rather than through favor. Over the next five years, his proposal underwent criticism, revisions, and political dealings (Mazuzan, 1994). Finally, in 1950, Congress approved the establishment of the <mark class="term" data-term="National Science Foundation" data-term-def="A United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/National+Science+Foundation/4714">National Science Foundation</mark> (NSF) (Figure 4) with an initial budget of $15 million, most of which would go to scientists to conduct research. Today, the <mark class="term" data-term="NSF" data-term-def="<a href="http://www.visionlearning.com/en/glossary/index/N#term-4714">National Science Foundation</a>." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/NSF/5480">NSF</mark> is one of the major funding institutions in the United States. In 2006, the NSF received 40,000 proposals, funded approximately 11,000 of them, and had a total agency budget of almost $5.6 billion, of which $4.3 billion went to scientific research.</p><p>Many other US government agencies provide funding for scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>, including the Department of Energy, the National Institutes of Health, and the Department of Defense. In fact, the development of this text that you are now reading was funded by the US Department of Education, and part of that money went to bringing experts together to discuss what should be included in a series of readings about the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of science and the role of scientific institutions in the scientific process. In 1997, total government spending on science and scientific research in the United States was recently estimated at 2.5% of total gross domestic product, or approximately $300 billion (May, 1997). Federal research funding proposals are commonly judged based on both their relevance to a funding agency's priorities and the scientific merit of the proposal as determined by <mark class="term" data-term="peer review" data-term-def="The process of subjecting scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/peer+review/4761">peer review</mark>, so proposals that are submitted to most agencies are reviewed internally as well as sent out to other scientists to be reviewed (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=159">Peer Review</a> module).</p><p>Private foundations and corporations offer another means of financial support for many scientists. The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, for example, is a private, non-profit organization that grants as much as $700 million per year, primarily for biomedical <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>, and about $80 million per year toward science education. You may be more familiar with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, started by the founder of Microsoft, which awards grants in global health and development projects.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5949"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Federal government agencies</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5949-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5949" type="radio" value="are not involved in scientific research." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> are not involved in scientific research. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5949-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5949-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5949" type="radio" value="are a primary source of funding for scientific research in the United States." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> are a primary source of funding for scientific research in the United States. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5949-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_5"> <h2>The influence of scientific institutions</h2><p>Together, these scientific institutions – <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> institutions, professional societies, and funding institutions – form a large part of the community of science. Through them, scientists interact with one another, share ideas, conduct <mark class="term" data-term="peer review" data-term-def="The process of subjecting scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/peer+review/4761">peer reviews</mark>, secure funding for research, and obtain access to space and facilities – all of which facilitate the research <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> and lead to scientific progress.</p><p>Each of these institutions also is capable of influencing the direction of scientific progress in its own way. Governments are strongly influenced by political and social motivating factors: Clearly, the United States' participation in World War II led to focused scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> into harnessing nuclear <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> to make weapons. Without the motivating factor of a world war, this research may never have been deemed critical by the government, and the scientific research may never have been pursued. Federal funding agencies continue to set research priorities and solicit grant applications from scientists that address these priorities. Similarly, universities can influence the direction that scientific research takes in their institutions. The institution's administration or faculty choose the research areas in which they hire new faculty – these decisions may come at the behest of a donor or they may reflect a desire to maintain existing strengths or develop new ones.</p><p>Professional societies generally have less influence over the direction that <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> takes, though they are often responsible for promoting particular research areas through publications. In addition, they may release position statements to the government and the public concerning their conclusions regarding how the scientific research their members have conducted affects the general public. For example, the <mark class="term" data-term="American Geophysical Union" data-term-def="A professional society established in 1919, originally as part of the National Academy of Sciences, but now an independent organization. The&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/American+Geophysical+Union/5485">American Geophysical Union</mark>'s position statement on global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change begins: </p><blockquote class="blockquote"> <p>Human activities are increasingly altering the Earth's climate. These effects add to natural influences that have been present over Earth's history. Scientific evidence strongly indicates that natural influences cannot explain the rapid increase in global near-surface temperatures observed during the second half of the 20th century. (AGU, 2003)</p> </p></blockquote><p>Such position statements are meant to emphasize the importance of scientific knowledge to policy decisions, and to be considered legitimate they must fall within the realm of <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> facilitated by the professional <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">society</mark> and be approved by a majority of its members. The development of such statements by institutions within the community of science should emphasize to the general public that issues such as <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change are strongly supported by multiple lines of <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark>.</p><p>Unfortunately, the influence that institutions have on the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of science is not always positive. Recent stories in the media have loudly decried the possible bias that pharmaceutical companies exert on <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> at medical institutions; and the tobacco industry's negative impacts on research regarding the health impacts of cigarette smoke is now widely accepted (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=152">Comparison</a> module). </p><p>Space exploration is another controversial area of scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>. President George W. Bush's announcement in 2005 of his initiative to send humans to Mars and return to the Moon met with criticism from institutions like the American Institute for Physics, whose members note that funding the Space Exploration Initiative has diverted funds from other programs, like maintenance and replacement of satellites that collect <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> on weather and <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> – data that helps communities prepare for severe weather events like <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark>. While we would like to imagine that scientists are driven purely by their curiosity and interest in research questions, the reality is that the availability of funding can often be one of the driving forces behind research, and these funding priorities change over time.</p><p>The biggest influence that all scientific institutions have, however, is on scientific progress. Consider again being a student – while it's not impossible to learn on your own, outside of the academic institution it would be more difficult to find knowledgeable people to help you when you needed it, to determine which books and resources would be most useful, and to work with a group of peers. The same is true for science. While a lot of scientific thinking can go on anywhere, our scientific institutions provide an important mechanism for supporting and communicating that work in order to build our scientific knowledge over time.</p> </div> </section> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <footer class="module__footer"> <p class="citation"> <em> Anne E. Egger, Ph.D., Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. “Scientific Institutions and Societies” Visionlearning Vol. POS-2 (4), 2009. </em> </p>  <div class="title-list" id="refs" name="refs"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> References </p> <ul class="title-list__list"> <li><p>AGU. (2003). Human impacts on climate [electronic version]. Retrieved from http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/policy/positions/climate_change.shtml</li> <li>Bruen, R. (1995). Lucasian chair [electronic version], 2007. Retrieved from http://www.lucasianchair.org/prof.html</li> <li>Bush, V. (1945). <i>Science - The endless frontier: A report to the president.</i> Retrieved from http://nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/vbush1945.jsp</li> <li>Gribbin, J. (2007). <i>The fellowship: Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton, and the story of a scientific revolution.</i> London: Overlook Hardcover.</li> <li>May, R. M. (1997). The scientific wealth of nations. <i>Science, 275</i>(5301), 793-796.</li> <li>Mazuzan, G. T. (1994). <i>The National Science Foundation: A brief history.</i> Retrieved from http://nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/nsf8816.jsp</p></li> </ul> </div>  <div class="title-list" name="further"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> Further Reading </p> <ul class="grid grid--column-2--md grid--column-3--md gap-1"> <li> <a class="no-hover-focus height-100" href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172"> <article class="flex-row align-items-center flex-column--md align-items-start--md height-100 theme-light padding-2 gap-2"> <div class="width-30 width-auto--md"> <img class="border-radius box-shadow-1" src="/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_172-23061210061158.jpeg" alt="Scientists and the Scientific Community"> </div> <div class="flex-grow-shrink"> <h2 class="h6 font-weight-normal"> Scientists and the Scientific Community: <em>The experiences that shape scientists</em> </h2> </div> </article> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div>   </div>  <div class="order-1 order-2--lg module__tools"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto position-sticky-top font-size-md"> <div class="padding-2 border-radius box-shadow-1--lg"> <div class="tabs" role="tablist"> <nav> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-in-this-module" aria-label="Table of Contents" aria-controls="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-selected="true" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-list" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="button__text">Contents</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-terms" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-glossary-highlight"></span> <span class="button__text">Glossary Terms</span> </button> </nav> <hr class="divider" /> <div class="tabs__panel shown" id="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-labelledby="tab-button-module__tools" role="tabpanel"> <p class="font-weight-bold margin-bottom-1"> Table of Contents </p> <div class="table-of-contents" id="module-toc"> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162#toc_1">Types of scientific institutions</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162#toc_2">The role of the research institution</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162#toc_3">The role of the professional society</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162#toc_4">The role of the funding institution</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162#toc_5">The influence of scientific institutions</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div>   <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-terms" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="termsToggleSwitch" id="terms-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Highlight Glossary Terms </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate glossary term highlighting to easily identify key terms within the module. 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Scientific Institutions and Societies | Process of Science | Visionlearning