Scientific Controversy | Process of Science

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <base href="https://www.visionlearning.com"> <title>Scientific Controversy | Process of Science | Visionlearning</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181"> <meta name="description" content="Learn how scientific controversy differs from other types, and the importance of controversy in advancing science."> <meta name="keywords" content="Biased samples, Scientific debates, Controversial science topics, Climate change debate, Is global warming real"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="D8E20F39AD48052260032E56DE409970"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org/", "@type": "Article", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181" }, "name": "Scientific Controversy", "headline": "Scientific Controversy: Development and resolution of controversies", "author": [ { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anne E. Egger, Ph.D." } , { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anthony Carpi, Ph.D." }], "datePublished": "2010-10-20 13:38:23", "dateModified": "2017-02-12T08:30:00+05:00", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_181-23061210061334.jpeg", "width": 696, "height": 464 }, "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc.", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "http://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png", "width": 278, "height": 60 } }, "description": "Controversy isn't always a bad thing. It exists in every field of science and in many cases clarifies and advances our scientific understanding. This module explains what scientific controversies are and how they differ from other kinds of controversy. Using the example of climate change, the module identifies factors that lead to controversies in science and explains how they are resolved.", "keywords": "Biased samples, Scientific debates, Controversial science topics, Climate change debate, Is global warming real", "inLanguage": { "@type": "Language", "name": "English", "alternateName": "en" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc." }, "copyrightYear": "2010"} </script> <meta property="og:url" content="https://visionlearning.com/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181"> <meta property="og:title" content="Scientific Controversy | Process of Science | Visionlearning" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Visionlearning"> <meta property="og:description" content="Learn how scientific controversy differs from other types, and the importance of controversy in advancing science."> <meta property="og:image" 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</button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/mass-extinctions/294">Mass Extinctions</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-environmental-science" data-accordion="button" 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Services</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-general-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-general-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> General Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-general-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-general-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-scientific-method/45">The Scientific Method</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-measurement" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-measurement" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Measurement </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-measurement" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-measurement" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-metric-system/47">The Metric System</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-properties" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physical-properties" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physical Properties </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physical-properties" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physical-properties" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/temperature/48">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/density-and-buoyancy/37">Density and Buoyancy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-math-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-math-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Math in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-math-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-math-in-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-equations" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-equations" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Equations </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-equations" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-equations" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/unit-conversion/144">Unit Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/linear-equations/194">Linear Equations</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-i/206">Exponential Equations I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-ii/210">Exponential Equations II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/scientific-notation/250">Scientific Notation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/measurement/257">Measurement</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-statistics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-statistics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Statistics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-statistics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-statistics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-descriptive-statistics/218">Introduction to Descriptive Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-inferential-statistics/224">Introduction to Inferential Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/statistical-techniques/239">Statistical Techniques</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Trigonometric Functions </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/wave-mathematics/131">Wave Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physics" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-light-and-optics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-light-and-optics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Light and Optics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-light-and-optics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-light-and-optics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/the-nature-of-light/132">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/electromagnetism-and-light/138">Electromagnetism and Light</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-mechanics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-mechanics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Mechanics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-mechanics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-mechanics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/defining-energy/199">Defining Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/waves-and-wave-motion/102">Waves and Wave Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/gravity/118">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/thermodynamics-i/200">Thermodynamics I</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-process-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-process-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Process of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-process-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-process-of-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li class="current">Scientific Controversy</li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientists and Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientists-and-research" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/from-stable-chromosomes-to-jumping-genes/184">From Stable Chromosomes to Jumping Genes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/an-elegant-experiment-to-test-the-process-of-dna-replication/187">An Elegant Experiment to Test the Process of DNA Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/the-founding-of-neuroscience/233">The Founding of Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/tracking-endangered-jaguars-across-the-border/189">Tracking Endangered Jaguars across the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/revolutionizing-medicine-with-monoclonal-antibodies/220">Revolutionizing Medicine with Monoclonal Antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/uncovering-the-mysteries-of-chronic-mountain-sickness/238">Uncovering the Mysteries of Chronic Mountain Sickness</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Profiles in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-profiles-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-e.-miramontes/232">Luis E. Miramontes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/bernardo-houssay/237">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/craig-lee/256">Craig Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/david-ho/241">David Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/louis-tompkins-wright/244">Louis Tompkins Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/carlos-j.-finlay/217">Carlos J. Finlay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/cecilia-payne/290">Cecilia Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/jazmin-scarlett/291">Jazmin Scarlett</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ramari-stewart/292">Ramari Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/johnson-cerda/300">Johnson Cerda</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ellen-ochoa/201">Ellen Ochoa</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ruth-benerito/205">Ruth Benerito</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/franklin-chang-díaz/219">Franklin Chang Díaz</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/percy-lavon-julian/221">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-walter-alvarez/229">Luis Walter Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/france-anne-dominic-córdova/230">France Anne-Dominic Córdova</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li>  <button class="button" data-toggle="dropdown">Process of Science </button> <div class="nav__dropdown box-shadow-1 padding-1"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary font-size-sm"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li class="current">Scientific Controversy</li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="theTop"></div> <main id="skip-header-content"> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <article class="container wide module"> <header class="grid grid--sidebar-right module__header"> <div class="module__header__title"> <span class="subcategory"> <strong><em>Ideas in Science</em></strong> </span> <h1>Scientific Controversy: <sub><em>Development and resolution of controversies</em></sub></h1> <p class="byline">by Anne E. Egger, Ph.D., Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.</p> <nav class="module__header__tabs"> <ul class="tabs-nav tabs-nav--horizontal library"> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181/reading" aria-current="page" >Reading</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181/quiz">Quiz</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181/resources">Teach with this</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "AudioObject", "contentUrl": "https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_181.mp3", "description": "Recording of Scientific Controversy : Controversy isn't always a bad thing. It exists in every field of science and in many cases clarifies and advances our scientific understanding. This module explains what scientific controversies are and how they differ from other kinds of controversy. Using the example of climate change, the module identifies factors that lead to controversies in science and explains how they are resolved.", "encodingFormat": "mp3", "name": "module_181.mp3" } </script> <div class="module_header_audio"> <div class="audio-player border border-radius"> <audio id="audio"> <source src="https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_181.mp3" type="audio/mpeg"> Your browser does not support the audio element. </audio> <div class="audio-player__title"> <p>Listen to this reading</p> <span class="audio-player__timestamp" id="timestamp"> 00:00 </span> </div> <div class="audio-player__controls" id="controls"> <button class="button button--icon-only" id="play-pause-button"> <span class="icon icon-play" aria-hidden="true"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__progress" id="progress-bar" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="0" aria-label="Use arrow keys to forward or rewind the audio" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__progress__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> <div class="audio-player__volume-container"> <button id="mute-button"> <span class="icon icon-volume"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__volume" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="100" aria-label="Use arrow keys to adjust volume" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__volume__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <hr class="divider"/>   <div class="grid grid--sidebar-right grid--divider"> <div class="order-2 order-1--lg module__main"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto margin-y-5"> <div class="accordion margin-bottom-5">  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-key-concepts" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-key-concepts" aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0"> Did you know? </button> <div class="accordion__panel shown show" id="acc-panel-key-concepts" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-key-concepts" role="region"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <p>Did you know that science is full of controversy? And that controversy in science can be a good thing? A scientific controversy is more than a disagreement between scientists. In fact, controversies are found in all scientific fields and usually lead to progress in science.</p> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-table-of-contents" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-table-of-contents" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Key concepts </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-table-of-contents" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-table-of-contents" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <ul class="bulleted"> <li><p>A scientific controversy is a sustained, public debate among the broader scientific community in which arguments are based on evidence.</p></li> <li><p>Controversies cause progress in science by encouraging research on the topic in question.</p></li> <li><p>Controversies are resolved when the evidence overwhelmingly favors one argument.</p></li> <li><p>Scientific controversies are distinct from political, ethical, and personal controversies, though sometimes they overlap or can have complex interactions.</p></li> </ul> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Terms you should know </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <dl> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/controversy">controversy </a></dt> <dd> an argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people </dd> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/debate">debate </a></dt> <dd> a reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument </dd> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/evidence">evidence </a></dt> <dd> support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <section> <div class="container narrow"> <p>The first offshore oil well out-of-sight from land was drilled in 1947 by the Kerr-McGee Corporation, off the coast of Louisiana (see Figure 1). Within a few years, there were a dozen such wells in the Gulf of Mexico, followed by wells drilled off of the coast of California and other locations. In the early 1950s, the United States government passed legislation that gave the federal government jurisdiction over the submerged continental shelf, and allowed the Department of the Interior to lease these areas for <mark class="term" data-term="mineral" data-term-def="A naturally formed, inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and characteristic crystal structure. Examples of minerals include quartz (SiO<sub>2</sub>), salt&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mineral/2978">mineral</mark> development. By the late 1950s, these offshore oil leases were one of the largest revenue generators in the United States, second only to income taxes (Freudenburg and Gramling, 1994).</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5262.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5262-101019031046.jpg" alt="Figure 1: The first out-of-sight offshore drilling platform. The platform was located 14 km off the coast of Louisiana in 4 m of water, and operated until 1984. ©Petrobras" /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 1:</b> The first out-of-sight offshore drilling platform. The platform was located 14 km off the coast of Louisiana in 4 m of water, and operated until 1984. ©Petrobras</p> <span class="credit">image ©Geo ExPro</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>On January 28, 1969, just as oil workers completed the fifth well on an offshore platform off the coast of Santa Barbara, a blowout occurred that would eventually spill millions of gallons of oil into the water, <mark class="term" data-term="soil" data-term-def="The loose top layer of Earth’s surface where plants grow, made up of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic material." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/soil/8563">soil</mark> popular beaches, and bring the previously out-of-sight drilling practice back into view. A <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> that had previously seemed to have largely positive effects – revenue generation for the government and a domestic source of <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> – now had visible detrimental effects: Local beaches were blackened by oil, dead and dying seabirds littered the area, and scores of coastal communities reeked with the stench of oil. </p><p>On March 21, President Nixon visited the spill and told the assembled crowd of residents and reporters that he would consider a ban on offshore drilling and would convert the area into a permanent ecological preserve. But the ban was lifted on April 1, angering local residents and sparking a <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> over the merits of offshore drilling. Were the benefits worth the risks? Some felt that having a reliable source of domestic oil provided security for the country, and outweighed environmental concerns. Others cited the toxic effects of oil spills on fisheries, tourism, and the <mark class="term" data-term="environment" data-term-def="The conditions that surround and affect an organism." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/environment/8270">environment</mark> in general as a reason to shut down offshore drilling. The government placed some coastal areas off-limits to drilling, such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, while in other regions, such as the Gulf of Mexico, drilling moved further and further offshore into deeper water. </p><p>A massive blow-out from one of these wells in April 2010 reinvigorated the <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> over whether or not offshore drilling should be allowed and how it should be regulated. People on all sides of the controversy are using different <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> as <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> to support their position: a decline in shrimp fishing industry, lax regulation of drilling companies, domestic security and the need for <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> resources, the interaction between <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> and <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> oil. Though it is unlikely that the controversy will ever be resolved to the point where everyone agrees, additional legislation and regulations put in place by the government will determine the future of offshore drilling.</p><p>Science is also full of <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark>. Similar to the controversy over offshore drilling, scientists appeal to <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> to support their claims, and the nature of the <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> changes as new evidence comes to light. But there are some key differences between a <mark class="term" data-term="scientific controversy" data-term-def="A sustained debate within the broader scientific community, in which arguments are supported by data. See our module <a href =&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scientific+controversy/5218">scientific controversy</mark> and other types of controversy. For example, many people think that the controversy over offshore drilling is holding up progress, whether that progress is economic, environmental, or political. In contrast, a controversy in science often creates progress because it spurs new <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> and therefore is an essential part of the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of science.</p> <p><section id="toc_1" class=""> <h2>What is scientific controversy?</h2></p> <p>Scientists can disagree about lots of things, from the mundane (like what is the best kind of analytical instrument to use) to the profound (whether or not string <mark class="term" data-term="theory" data-term-def="A scientific theory is an explanation inferred from multiple lines of evidence for some broad aspect of the natural world and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/theory/4854">theory</mark>, a recently developed theory in physics, is an accurate representation of reality). Two scientists disagreeing over an instrument or string theory – or even the <mark class="term" data-term="interpretation" data-term-def="An explanation of patterns observed in the data." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/interpretation/8235">interpretation</mark> of <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> – does not count as a <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark>, however. A true <mark class="term" data-term="scientific controversy" data-term-def="A sustained debate within the broader scientific community, in which arguments are supported by data. See our module <a href =&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scientific+controversy/5218">scientific controversy</mark> involves a sustained <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> within the broader scientific community (McMullin, 1987). In other words, a significant number of people must be actively engaged in <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> that addresses the controversy over time. No matter what the content of the disagreement, the scientists involved all share some fundamental knowledge and agree that the subject matter is worth being concerned about and that the various arguments are legitimate.</p><p>What makes the arguments legitimate is that they are based on <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark>. It is not enough for scientists to simply say, “I don’t agree with you.” Instead, they must conduct the <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> to garner enough <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> to support their claim. An argument must explain the majority of data available – not just the data collected to support one side. This is not necessarily the case in public controversies such as that over offshore drilling, where a group or individual can decide that some data are more important than other data – the number of birds that died or the economic impact of drilling or the percentage of oil imports. In a scientific <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark>, all of the data must be explained and taken into account.</p><p>Though controversies are often discussed in informal settings (the same way you might discuss a controversial issue with your friends), the real <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> is carried out at <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> meetings and through the publication of journal articles (see our <a href="http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=158&l=">Scientific Journal Articles</a href> module). It is only through this <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> that the debate becomes part of the scientific literature (see our <a href = "http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=173&l=">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a href> module) and helps science progress. There is no authoritative body in science that decides what the right answer in a <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> is, nor does it require complete consensus among all scientists. The resolution to a controversy comes when one argument is widely accepted and other arguments fade away. Often, the <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> in favor of one side of the controversy becomes so overwhelming that people simply stop arguing about it. Usually, that happens when multiple lines of evidence coming from multiple research <mark class="term" data-term="method" data-term-def="A procedure or process; a systematic way of performing a task or conducting research." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/method/8238">methods</mark> (and perhaps multiple disciplines) all converge. </p><p>Controversies are ongoing in every field of science on a regular basis. For example, as of 2010, geophysicists are engaged in a <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> about the existence of <mark class="term" data-term="mantle" data-term-def="The middle portion of the interior of the Earth, starting below the crust at 5-70 km below the Earth’s surface and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mantle/889">mantle</mark> plumes, thin columns of hot rock that rise from the Earth’s <mark class="term" data-term="core" data-term-def="The innermost layer of the Earth, which starts at ~2900 km depth. The core is composed mainly of iron and consists&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/core/1663">core</mark> to the <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> and cause volcanic activity (see, for example, Kerr, 2010). The concept of a mantle plume as a non-moving source of <mark class="term" data-term="magma" data-term-def="Molten rock below the surface of the Earth." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/magma/869">magma</mark> for island chains like Hawaii (Figure 2) was first postulated by <mark class="term" data-term="J. Tuzo Wilson" data-term-def="Canadian geophysicst, born in Ottawa, Ontario (1908-1993). Wilson is best known for proposing the hotspot hypothesis to explain island chains such&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Wilson%2C+J.+Tuzo/4488">J. Tuzo Wilson</mark> shortly after the development of the <mark class="term" data-term="theory" data-term-def="A scientific theory is an explanation inferred from multiple lines of evidence for some broad aspect of the natural world and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/theory/4854">theory</mark> of <mark class="term" data-term="plate tectonics" data-term-def="The study of the processes by which the earth's crust has attained its present structure." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/plate+tectonics/11229">plate tectonics</mark> (see our <a href = "http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=65&l=">Plate Tectonics I</a> module) and was widely accepted over the next thirty years. In 2003, however, a group of scientists led by John Tarduno, a geophysicist at the University of Rochester, presented strong <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> that the mantle plume thought to be responsible for forming the Hawaiian islands had moved more than 1000 km over time (Tarduno et al., 2003). That paper launched a multitude of additional studies that began to question the very existence of mantle plumes. The ongoing debate has been heated at times, but has also caused a tremendous leap in our understanding of the volcanic processes associated with mantle plumes, and our scientific knowledge has advanced.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5263.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5263-101014101015.jpg" alt="Figure 2: Conceptual cross-section through the Earth at the Hawaiian islands, showing the proposed mantle plume." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 2:</b> Conceptual cross-section through the Earth at the Hawaiian islands, showing the proposed mantle plume.</p> <span class="credit">image ©USGS</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>The <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> over the existence of <mark class="term" data-term="mantle" data-term-def="The middle portion of the interior of the Earth, starting below the crust at 5-70 km below the Earth’s surface and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mantle/889">mantle</mark> plumes is clearly a scientific <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark>, and most scientific controversies similarly have little to do with personal, ethical, or political controversies. On the other end of the <mark class="term" data-term="spectrum" data-term-def="(plural: <b>spectra</b>) A continuing range such as of color or frequency; a series of colors arranged by wavelength as in a rainbow." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/spectrum/8261">spectrum</mark>, the controversy about the use of stem <mark class="term" data-term="cell" data-term-def="The basic structural unit of all living things." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/cell/8286">cells</mark> harvested from human embryos in biomedical <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> is not a <mark class="term" data-term="scientific controversy" data-term-def="A sustained debate within the broader scientific community, in which arguments are supported by data. See our module <a href =&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scientific+controversy/5218">scientific controversy</mark> – scientists agree about what stem cells are and how they work. Instead, the controversy revolves around whether or not it is ethical to use stem cells. Sometimes, however, the lines between scientific controversy and other kinds of controversy get blurred. Scientists are human, after all, and what starts as a scientific controversy may also include personal disagreements (see our <a href = "http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=172&l=">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a href> module). In other cases, the media may exaggerate a scientific controversy and turn it into a political debate. One example of this kind of blurring of the lines is the study of the relationship between <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> and <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5900"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">A scientific controversy ends when</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5900-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5900" type="radio" value="all scientists come to an agreement on a resolution." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> all scientists come to an agreement on a resolution. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5900-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5900-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5900" type="radio" value="evidence in support of one side of the controversy becomes convincing." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> evidence in support of one side of the controversy becomes convincing. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5900-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_2"> <h2>Development and resolution of a scientific controversy: Will global warming increase hurricanes?</h2><p>On his second voyage, the explorer Christopher Columbus encountered a storm while on the island of Hispaniola in 1494: "Eyes never beheld the seas so high, angry, and covered by foam," he wrote in a letter to his benefactor, Queen Isabella. "Never did the sky look more terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace. The flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought the ships would be blasted. All this time, the water never ceased to fall from the sky" (Barnes and Lyons, 2007). Though this was, perhaps, a new experience for Columbus, the storms were well known to the Caribbean locals, who called them <em>furacano</em>, a word that became common in English around 1650 as <em>hurricane</em>. Columbus wrote the first account of a <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricane</mark> in the Atlantic (Millás and Pardue, 1968), but there were many more to come.</p><p>Throughout the 1800s, <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> were observed and described. Early on, several observers noted that these storms were vortices, rotating in a counter-clockwise direction. By the middle part of the century, weather observatories had been established in many locations in North America, and some scientists were recording hurricane tracks. After a major hurricane struck the city of Galveston, Texas, in 1900, killing at least 8,000 people (see Figure 3), <mark class="term" data-term="analysis" data-term-def="The careful study of data to look for patterns." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/analysis/8553">analysis</mark> of these <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observations</mark> took on a new urgency.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5264.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5264-101019031047.jpg" alt="Figure 3: Galveston residents sifting through the wreckage of the 1900 hurricane." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 3:</b> Galveston residents sifting through the wreckage of the 1900 hurricane.</p> <span class="credit">image ©B.L. Singley</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Many of the earliest studies of <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark>, also called tropical cyclones (or typhoons in the Pacific Ocean), were carried out by scientists who had studied with <mark class="term" data-term="Vilhelm Bjerknes" data-term-def="Norwegian mathematician, physicist and meteorologist born in Christiana, Norway (now Oslo) (1862-1951). Bjerknes proposed the concept of numerical weather prediction, developed&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Bjerknes%2C+Vilhelm/4455">Vilhelm Bjerknes</mark>, a physicist who had determined the equations that govern <mark class="term" data-term="circulation" data-term-def="Generally, movement within a system. 1. [Atmospheric] the movement of air masses within the troposphere, driven by the redistribution of energy&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/circulation/10355">circulation</mark> in the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> (see our <a href = "http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=153&l=">Modeling in Scientific Research</a> module for more information). In 1917, Bjerknes started the Bergen School of <mark class="term" data-term="meteorology" data-term-def="The scientific study of the atmosphere including the processes that cause particular weather conditions." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/meteorology/11227">Meteorology</mark> in Bergen, Norway, bringing together a group of well-known and accomplished meteorologists (Liljequist, 1980). Their initial <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> focus was on cyclonic weather <mark class="term" data-term="system" data-term-def="A group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent components that form a complex whole. The size of the system is defined for&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/system/3904">systems</mark> in the <mark class="term" data-term="temperate zones" data-term-def="The regions of the earth that lie between the Tropic of Cancer (~23° N) and the Arctic Circle (~66° N) in&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/temperate+zones/3903">temperate zones</mark>, the <mark class="term" data-term="latitude" data-term-def="the angular distance of a place north or south of the Earth’s equator, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/latitude/12930">latitude</mark> of most of Europe. </p></section> <section id="toc_3"> <h2>A new research direction: Water temperature and hurricanes</h2><p>By 1928, the group felt that their <mark class="term" data-term="method" data-term-def="A procedure or process; a systematic way of performing a task or conducting research." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/method/8238">methods</mark> and understanding of these <mark class="term" data-term="system" data-term-def="A group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent components that form a complex whole. The size of the system is defined for&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/system/3904">systems</mark> were mature, and could be applied to rarer and more complicated storm systems – tropical cyclones (Bergeron, 1954). Erik Palmén, a Finnish meteorologist who moved to Chicago after his time at Bergen, recognized that <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> formed only above sea water that was warmer than 26–27° C (~80° F), a critically important <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observation</mark> that he published in 1948 (Palmén, 1948). His publication included a map of sea <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> temperature during the warmest part of the year – called "hurricane season" – with arrows showing the tracks of major hurricanes (see Figure 4). All of the arrows began in a narrow band of the ocean where water temperatures were highest.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5267.png"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5267-101014101031.png" alt="Figure 4: Original Figure 4 from Palmén (1948), with band of higher temperatures highlighted." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 4:</b> Original Figure 4 from Palmén (1948), with band of higher temperatures highlighted.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Palmen</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Sea <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> temperature is one manifestation of <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark>. As global climate changes, the distribution of warmer and colder waters on the sea surface also changes. Tor Bergeron, another member of the Bergen group, went beyond thinking about how sea surface temperature changes annually and considered what happened over longer periods of time, placing <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> in the context of long-term climate changes. In a review paper in 1954, Bergeron speculated that the frequency and intensity of hurricanes, as well as where and when they formed, could have changed dramatically over geologic time with small changes in Earth's orbit and solar intensity – both of which affect global climate (Bergeron, 1954). He urged scientists who studied climate in the past to keep that in mind. At the time, however, the techniques available to assess past climate to the level of detail of individual hurricanes simply didn't exist, and few scientists took up the challenge.</p></section> <section id="toc_4"> <h2>New data fuels controversy: <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">Climate</mark> change and hurricanes</h2><p>Starting in the 1980s, however, this idea re-emerged as scientists began to see variability in the frequency and intensity of <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> that correlated well with short-term climatic cycles that operate on the order of 10-12 years, like the <mark class="term" data-term="El Niño-Southern Oscillation" data-term-def="A 2- to 7-year climatic cycle in the Tropical Pacific. In El Niño years, the trade winds die down, leading to&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/El+Ni%C3%B1o~Southern+Oscillation/5215">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</mark> (ENSO) in the tropical Pacific. <mark class="term" data-term="El Niño-Southern Oscillation" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/El+Ni%C3%B1o~Southern+Oscillation" data-term-def="A 2- to 7-year climatic cycle in the Tropical Pacific. In El Niño years, the trade winds die down, leading to&hellip;">El Niño</mark> is familiar to many people around the world for its effects on local weather patterns, but now there was <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> showing that this cycle in the tropical Pacific affected hurricane generation in the Atlantic Ocean (Gray, 1984). At the same time, more and more scientists began to recognize that global sea <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> temperatures were steadily rising as the <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> warmed, and they began to explore the links between how global warming would affect both the climatic cycles and hurricane formation (Emanuel, 2003). Most who studied the phenomena found that sea surface temperature changes of the <mark class="term" data-term="magnitude" data-term-def="Magnitude is a number assigned to a quantity and refers to the size or extent of something. There are several differing&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/magnitude/11226">magnitude</mark> they were seeing would, indeed, influence hurricane formation, but not nearly as much as natural variability within the climatic cycles.</p><p>That general sentiment began to be questioned, however, as more data came in. In June of 2005, Kevin Trenberth, a climate scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), published a short article in <em>Science</em> entitled "Uncertainty in Hurricanes and Global Warming" (Trenberth, 2005). In it, he stated:</p> <blockquote class="blockquote"> <p>During the 2004 hurricane season in the North Atlantic, an unprecedented four hurricanes hit Florida; during the same season in the Pacific, 10 tropical cyclones or typhoons hit Japan (the previous record was six). Some scientists say that this increase is related to global warming; others say that it is not. Can a trend in hurricane activity in the North Atlantic be detected? Can any such trend be attributed to human activity? Are we even asking the right questions?</p> </p></blockquote><p>Trenberth was highlighting a <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> that was just beginning to develop at the time, pointing out that we did not yet have enough <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> or enough theoretical understanding of the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> to make valid, reliable <mark class="term" data-term="interpretation" data-term-def="An explanation of patterns observed in the data." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/interpretation/8235">interpretations</mark>. His questions inspired several other scientists to analyze the available data, searching for trends (see our <a href = "http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=154&l=">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a> module for more information on this process) and to begin new <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> into the issue. Among those was a group of four atmospheric scientists, three from the Georgia Institute of Technology and one from <mark class="term" data-term="NCAR" data-term-def="National Center for Atmospheric Research" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/NCAR/5492">NCAR</mark>. They worked through the early part of the summer and submitted their work for publication in August 2005.</P></section> <section id="toc_5"> <h2>Hurricane Katrina: Scientific controversy goes public</h2><p>Prior to publication, however, a dramatic and pertinent event occurred: on Monday, August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall near New Orleans, Louisiana (Figure 5). The <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricane</mark> brought with it widespread physical destruction and loss of life, and created a social, political, and economic crisis. Within hours of landfall, however, a question arose in the media: Was this particularly destructive hurricane caused by global warming? While this was not a scientific question or one that could be answered through <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>, it brought the public into the scientific <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> about the relationship between <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change and hurricanes.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5265.jpg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5265-101014101000.png" alt="Figure 5: GOES satellite image of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, with sea surface temperatures." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 5:</b> GOES satellite image of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, with sea surface temperatures.</p> <span class="credit">image ©NASA</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>A little over two weeks later, on September 16, the work by the scientists at Georgia Tech and <mark class="term" data-term="NCAR" data-term-def="National Center for Atmospheric Research" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/NCAR/5492">NCAR</mark> was published in <em>Science</em>. Their <mark class="term" data-term="analysis" data-term-def="The careful study of data to look for patterns." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/analysis/8553">analysis</mark> showed that, although the number of total <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> had not increased significantly since 1970, the proportion of hurricanes that were category-4 and -5, the strongest storms, had (Webster et al., 2005). In other words, they concluded that there had been more intense hurricanes, even though the total number had not changed. They correlated these changes with an increase in global sea-surface temperature (SST), which had been steadily rising as global atmospheric temperatures increased. In a very general way, the work by Webster and colleagues implied that there could be more hurricanes like Katrina in the future.</p></section> <section id="toc_6"> <h2>Social and political implications of scientific controversy</h2><p>The results of their work had significant social and political implications: If global warming caused more intense <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark>, there would be additional reason to take action to reduce the <mark class="term" data-term="magnitude" data-term-def="Magnitude is a number assigned to a quantity and refers to the size or extent of something. There are several differing&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/magnitude/11226">magnitude</mark> of warming in order to reduce destruction. As a result, the authors of the article received an unusually high number of responses to their work, both responses from scientists that are typical of scientific publications and letters, and personal responses from the general public. In an article published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society the following year, three of the original four authors reported on those responses (Curry et al., 2006). Some of the comments they received were valid scientific arguments, but unfortunately, that was not always the case. Many of the comments were based in political and social concerns, and some involved personal attacks on the scientists.</p><p>For example, one of the frequent comments that the authors received is that they weren't qualified to analyze the <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricane</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark>, despite the fact that the researchers were all atmospheric scientists who had been working on similar types of <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> data for decades (Curry et al., 2006). This type of personal attack can be damaging and create <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> in the media, but it is not a component of the <mark class="term" data-term="scientific controversy" data-term-def="A sustained debate within the broader scientific community, in which arguments are supported by data. See our module <a href =&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scientific+controversy/5218">scientific controversy</mark>. Of course, scientists are people, and any public <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> involves differences in personality and opinion, but those personal differences are not based on the data.</p><p>In contrast, some of the points raised in response to the article had a valid scientific basis. For example, one of these more substantial arguments centered on the reliability of the early part of the <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricane</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="record" data-term-def="A written account or description. <br> <b>[verb]</b> To write an account or description." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/record/8239">record</mark>. Accurate, worldwide tracking of hurricanes is a relatively recent phenomenon that only became easy with satellites, starting in the 1970s. Aircraft started recording hurricanes in the mid-1940s, but the <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> were limited to common flight lines over the oceans. Prior to that, the majority of <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observations</mark> about hurricanes were made from land, and even that record only goes back to 1851. Given that hurricanes spend most of their time over the ocean, this meant that the data could be inaccurate and thus difficult to interpret.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5907"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Scientific controversy can spur people to take action in society or pass legislation.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5907-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5907" type="radio" value="true" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> true </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5907-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5907-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5907" type="radio" value="false" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> false </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5907-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_7"> <h2>Scientific controversy spurs new research</h2><p>Many scientists recognized that much more work was needed in order to make progress in our understanding. As a result, the number of studies addressing the relationship between global warming and <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> proliferated over the next few years (see Figure 6). Some scientists used detailed global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="model" data-term-def="A representation, pattern, or mathematical description that can help scientists replicate a system." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/model/8236">models</mark> and found that natural, local climate variability seemed to have a greater effect on hurricane intensity than current global warming (Vecchi and Soden, 2007). Others reanalyzed older hurricane <mark class="term" data-term="record" data-term-def="A written account or description. <br> <b>[verb]</b> To write an account or description." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/record/8239">records</mark> to correct for systematic bias, removing some storms that were poorly constrained from the record and adding new ones (Landsea et al., 2008). Still others extended the record further back in time by collecting descriptions of independent records that did not rely on human <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observations</mark> (Mann et al., 2009). Throughout this <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark>, scientists disagreed and debated what was really going on with hurricanes as Earth's climate warmed. Were they increasing in frequency? Intensity? No change? A NOVA documentary in 2006 pitted MIT scientist Kerry Emanuel against Chris Landsea, a meteorologist at the Miami Hurricane Center, suggesting that the two scientists had a fundamental disagreement about the nature of strong hurricanes (Public Broadcasting Service, 2006).</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_5266.png"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid181/Image/VLObject-5266-101014101013.png" alt="Figure 6: Graph showing the number of scientific publications annually with the words "hurricane" and "climate change" included as keywords. Data is from ISI Web of Science." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><b>Figure 6:</b> Graph showing the number of scientific publications annually with the words "hurricane" and "climate change" included as keywords. Data is from ISI Web of Science.</p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Within a few years, however, much of the disagreement had subsided. In 2010, the Expert Team on <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">Climate</mark> Impacts on Tropical Cycles, a group of scientists assembled by the <mark class="term" data-term="World Meteorological Organization" data-term-def="A specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as an authoritative voice on the Earth's atmosphere. More information about the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/World+Meteorological+Organization/5220">World Meteorological Organization</mark> (WMO), attempted to bring all of the new <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> together and summarize what scientists had learned since 2005. The team, which included both Kerry Emanuel and Chris Landsea, published an article in <em>Nature Geoscience</em> entitled "Tropical cyclones and climate change" (Knutson et al., 2010). In the <mark class="term" data-term="abstract" data-term-def="In science, an abstract is a brief statement of essential information contained within a document or presentation. An abstract is not&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/abstract/5214">abstract</mark>, they summarize the state of the scientific controversy:</p><blockquote class="blockquote"> <p>Whether the characteristics of tropical cyclones have changed or will change in a warming climate – and if so, how – has been the subject of considerable investigation, often with conflicting results. Large amplitude fluctuations in the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones greatly complicate both the detection of long-term trends and their attribution to rising levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases. Trend detection is further impeded by substantial limitations in the availability and quality of global historical records of tropical cyclones. Therefore, it remains uncertain whether past changes in tropical cyclone activity have exceeded the variability expected from natural causes. However, future projections based on theory and high-resolution dynamical models consistently indicate that greenhouse warming will cause the globally averaged intensity of tropical cyclones to shift towards stronger storms, with intensity increases of 2–11% by 2100. Existing modeling studies also consistently project decreases in the globally averaged frequency of tropical cyclones, by 6–34%.</p> </p></blockquote><p>In other words, the authors acknowledge the complexity of the issue, noting what aspects make it a difficult subject to study (large natural fluctuations, a limited historical dataset), and that these complexities have caused mixed results from different scientific studies. They also point out, however, where there is agreement: There is consistency in all of the <mark class="term" data-term="model" data-term-def="A representation, pattern, or mathematical description that can help scientists replicate a system." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/model/8236">models</mark> that predict more strong storms in the future as global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> changes. Their statement also emphasizes that science is a work in progress that relies on the creativity of scientists to overcome problems, and <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> is a natural <mark class="term" data-term="outcome" data-term-def="Result." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/outcome/8247">outcome</mark> of that <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark>.</p><p>This <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> on the relationship between tropical storms and global warming fulfills the requirements for a scientific <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> – it involves a large number of scientists doing active <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> into the issue, and the debate took place (and continues to take place) in public, through a peer-reviewed <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark>, over a sustained period of time. The nature of the <mark class="term" data-term="subject" data-term-def="A person or animal used in a research study." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/subject/8252">subject</mark> under investigation meant that some social and political components were involved, but ultimately the scientific progress that was made was unrelated to a particular storm or situation.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc5908"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Scientific controversy generally</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-5908-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-5908" type="radio" value="causes hostility within the scientific community." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> causes hostility within the scientific community. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5908-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-5908-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-5908" type="radio" value="inspires scientists to begin new research." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> inspires scientists to begin new research. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-5908-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_8"> <h2>The resolution of controversy</h2><p>Does the publication of the article by the <mark class="term" data-term="WMO" data-term-def="World Meteorological Organization" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/WMO/5502">WMO</mark> team mean that the <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> is resolved? Well, yes and no. As stated in the article, most of the <mark class="term" data-term="current" data-term-def="a flow, as of electricity or water. In oceanography and hydrology, a channel of water that flows together at the same velocity" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/current/8278">current</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> suggests that the occurrence of <mark class="term" data-term="hurricane" data-term-def="Also called tropical cyclone; "hurricane" is the name used more commonly for tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean basin and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hurricane/5216">hurricanes</mark> will be affected by <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change, and the number of publications concerning the topic so far seems to have peaked in 2008 (see Figure 5). Other arguments have not faded away completely, however, and there will undoubtedly be more <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> in this field as new <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> are collected, the resolution and power of computer <mark class="term" data-term="model" data-term-def="A representation, pattern, or mathematical description that can help scientists replicate a system." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/model/8236">models</mark> increases, and as warming continues.</p><p>More complete resolution is possible, however, such as in the <mark class="term" data-term="debate" data-term-def="A reasoned discussion of opposing points in an argument." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/debate/8242">debate</mark> over plate tectonic <mark class="term" data-term="theory" data-term-def="A scientific theory is an explanation inferred from multiple lines of evidence for some broad aspect of the natural world and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/theory/4854">theory</mark> that occurred in the 1960s, where the accumulated <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> became overwhelming in support of <mark class="term" data-term="plate tectonics" data-term-def="The study of the processes by which the earth's crust has attained its present structure." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/plate+tectonics/11229">plate tectonics</mark>. In other cases, resolution awaits the development of a new technology or technique that can acquire the kind of <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> that can really address the question. For example, the definition of "race" in humans was the <mark class="term" data-term="subject" data-term-def="A person or animal used in a research study." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/subject/8252">subject</mark> of significant study and <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> throughout much of human history, but it wasn't until the sequencing of the human <mark class="term" data-term="genome" data-term-def="All of the genetic material of an organism, carried in its DNA." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/genome/8517">genome</mark> that scientists were truly able to examine claims for a genetic basis for race and found none (Jorde and Wooding, 2004).</p><p>In most cases, <mark class="term" data-term="controversy" data-term-def="An argument, disagreement, or difference of opinion that involves many people. A true scientific controversy involves a sustained debate within the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/controversy/8241">controversy</mark> is a sign of health in the scientific endeavor, and the more people that are involved in the controversy, conducting <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> to address the issues, the more rapidly progress is made. Sometimes the scientists involved in a controversy are portrayed as rivals, similar to the environmentalists vs. the oil companies in the controversy over offshore drilling, but this is not an accurate portrayal. The "winner" in scientific controversies is not one side, but the entire scientific community.</p> </div> </section> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <footer class="module__footer"> <p class="citation"> <em> Anne E. Egger, Ph.D., Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. “Scientific Controversy” Visionlearning Vol. POS-3 (1), 2010. </em> </p>  <div class="title-list" id="refs" name="refs"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> References </p> <ul class="title-list__list"> <li>Barnes, J., & Lyons, S. (2007). <em>Florida's hurricane history.</em> Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.</li> <li>Bergeron, T. (1954). The problem of tropical hurricanes. <em>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 80</em>, 131-164.</li> <li>Curry, J. A., Webster, P.J., & Holland, G.J. (2006). Mixing politics and science in testing the hypothesis that greenhouse warming is causing a global increase in hurricane intensity. <em>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 87</em>, 1025-1037.</li> <li>Emanuel, K. (2003). Tropical cyclones. <em>Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 31</em>, 75-104.</li> <li>Freudenburg, W. R., & Gramling, R. (1994). <em>Oil in troubled waters: Perception, politics, and the battle over offshore drilling.</em> Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.</li> <li>Gray, W. M. (1984). Atlantic seasonal hurricane frequency. Part I: El Niño and 30 mb quasi-biennial oscillation influences. <em>Monthly Weather Review, 112</em>, 1649-1668.</li> <li>Jorde, L. B., & Wooding, S. P. (2004). Genetic variation, classification and 'race'. <em>Nature Genetics, 36</em>, S28-S33.</li> <li>Kerr, R. A. (2010). Another quarry sighted in the great mantle plume hunt? <em>Science, 328</em>(5986), 1622-a.</li> <li>Knutson, T. R., McBride, J. L., Chan, J., Emanuel, K., Holland, G., Landsea, C., . . . Sugi, M. (2010). Tropical cyclones and climate change. <em>Nature Geoscience, 3</em>, 157-163.</li> <li>Landsea, C. W., Glenn, D. A., Bredemeyer, W., Chenoweth, M., Ellis, R., Gamache, J., . . . Woolcock, L. (2008). A reanalysis of the 1911-20 Atlantic hurricane database. <em>Journal of Climate, 21</em>, 2138-2168.</li> <li>Liljequist, G. H. (1980). Tor Bergeron: A biography. <em>Pure and Applied Geophysics, 119</em>, 409-442.</li> <li>Mann, M. E., Woodruff, J. D., Donnelly, J. P., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Atlantic hurricanes and climate over the past 1,500 years. <em>Nature, 460</em>, 880-883.</li> <li>McMullin, E. (1987). Scientific controversy and its termination. In Engelhardt Jr., H. T., & Caplan, A. L. (Eds.). <em>Scientific controversies: Case studies in resolution and closure of disputes in science and technology.</em> Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Millás, J. C., & Pardue, L. (1968). <em>Hurricanes of the Caribbean and adjacent regions, 1492-1800.</em> Miami, FL: Academy of the Arts and Sciences of the Americas.</li> <li>Palmén, E. (1948). On the formation and structure of tropical hurricanes. <em>Geophysica, 3</em>, 26-38.</li> <li>Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). (2006). Stronger hurricanes. <em>NOVA</em>, WGBH.</li> <li>Simkin, T., Tilling, R. I., Vogt, P. R., Kirby, S. H., Kimberley, P., & Stewart, D. B. (2006). This dynamic planet: Geological investigations map I-2800. US Geological Survey.</li> <li>Tarduno, J. A., Duncan, R. A., Scholl, D. W., Cottrell, R. D., Steinberger, B., Thordarson, T., . . . Carvallo, C. (2003). The Emperor Seamounts: Southward motion of the Hawaiian hotspot plume in Earth's mantle. <em>Science, 301</em>(5636). 1064-1069.</li> <li>Trenberth, K. (2005). Climate: Uncertainty in hurricanes and global warming. <em>Science, 308</em>(5729), 1753-1754.</li> <li>Vecchi, G. A., & Soden, B. J. (2007). Increased tropical Atlantic wind shear in model projections of global warming. <em>Geophysical Research Letters, 34</em>, L08702.</li> <li>Webster, P. J., Holland, G. J., Curry, J. A., & Chang, H. R. (2005). Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment. <em>Science, 309</em>(5742), 1844-1846.</li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div>   </div>  <div class="order-1 order-2--lg module__tools"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto position-sticky-top font-size-md"> <div class="padding-2 border-radius box-shadow-1--lg"> <div class="tabs" role="tablist"> <nav> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-in-this-module" aria-label="Table of Contents" aria-controls="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-selected="true" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-list" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="button__text">Contents</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-terms" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-glossary-highlight"></span> <span class="button__text">Glossary Terms</span> </button> </nav> <hr class="divider" /> <div class="tabs__panel shown" id="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-labelledby="tab-button-module__tools" role="tabpanel"> <p class="font-weight-bold margin-bottom-1"> Table of Contents </p> <div class="table-of-contents" id="module-toc"> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_1">What is scientific controversy?</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_2">Development and resolution of a scientific controversy: Will global warming increase hurricanes?</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_3">A new research direction: Water temperature and hurricanes</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_4">New data fuels controversy: Climate change and hurricanes</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_5">Hurricane Katrina: Scientific controversy goes public</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_6">Social and political implications of scientific controversy</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_7">Scientific controversy spurs new research</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181#toc_8">The resolution of controversy</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div>   <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-terms" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="termsToggleSwitch" id="terms-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Highlight Glossary Terms </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate glossary term highlighting to easily identify key terms within the module. Once highlighted, you can click on these terms to view their definitions. </em> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-ngss" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-ngss" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="ngssToggleSwitch" id="ngss-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Show NGSS Annotations </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate NGSS annotations to easily identify NGSS standards within the module. 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