Ecosystem Services | Environmental Science

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <base href="https://www.visionlearning.com"> <title>Ecosystem Services | Environmental Science | Visionlearning</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279"> <meta name="description" content="This module explores the role ecosystems provide in supplying humans with a wealth of life-supporting resources like clean water, climate control, nutrient cycling, and many others. These are called ecosystem services. Further in the module, we’ll explore the financial value placed on ecosystem services and how this value helps guide decisions regarding use of land and water."> <meta name="keywords" content="ecosystem, ecosystem services, environment, economics, economy, ecology, resources"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="D8E20F39AD48052260032E56DE409970"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org/", "@type": "Article", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://visionlearning.com/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279" }, "name": "Ecosystem Services", "headline": "Ecosystem Services: Categories and valuation", "author": { "@type": "Person", "name": "Devin Reese, PhD." }, "datePublished": "2022-08-19 11:01:33", "dateModified": "2017-02-12T08:30:00+05:00", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_279-23061209063850.jpeg", "width": 696, "height": 464 }, "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc.", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "http://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png", "width": 278, "height": 60 } }, "description": "This module explores the role ecosystems provide in supplying humans with a wealth of life-supporting resources like clean water, climate control, nutrient cycling, and many others. These are called ecosystem services. Further in the module, we’ll explore the financial value placed on ecosystem services and how this value helps guide decisions regarding use of land and water.", "keywords": "ecosystem, ecosystem services, environment, economics, economy, ecology, resources", "inLanguage": { "@type": "Language", "name": "English", "alternateName": "en" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc." }, "copyrightYear": "2022"} </script> <meta property="og:url" content="https://visionlearning.com/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279"> <meta property="og:title" content="Ecosystem Services | Environmental Science | Visionlearning" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Visionlearning"> <meta property="og:description" content="This module explores the role ecosystems provide in supplying humans with a wealth of life-supporting resources like clean water, climate control, nutrient cycling, and many others. These are called ecosystem services. Further in the module, we’ll explore the financial value placed on ecosystem services and how this value helps guide decisions regarding use of land and water."> <meta property="og:image" content="https://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png"> <meta property="fb:admins" content="100000299664514"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/visionlearning.css">  <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/css/visionlearning-icons.css">  <link rel="preload" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com"> <link rel="preload" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Open+Sans:ital,wght@0,400;0,700;1,400;1,700&family=Schoolbell&display=swap"> <style> textarea.myEditor { width: 90%; height: 350px; } </style> <script type="text/x-mathjax-config" src="/js/mathjax-config.js"></script> <script id="MathJax-script" async src="/js/mathjax/tex-svg.js"></script> <script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-9561344156007092" 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aria-controls="acc-panel-hazards" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Hazards </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/mass-extinctions/294">Mass Extinctions</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button 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class="current">Ecosystem Services</li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" 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role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-metric-system/47">The Metric System</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-properties" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physical-properties" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physical Properties </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physical-properties" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physical-properties" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/temperature/48">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/density-and-buoyancy/37">Density and Buoyancy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-math-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-math-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Math in Science 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href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/scientific-notation/250">Scientific Notation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/measurement/257">Measurement</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-statistics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-statistics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Statistics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-statistics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-statistics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-descriptive-statistics/218">Introduction to Descriptive Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-inferential-statistics/224">Introduction to Inferential Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/statistical-techniques/239">Statistical Techniques</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Trigonometric Functions </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/wave-mathematics/131">Wave Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physics" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-light-and-optics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-light-and-optics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Light and Optics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-light-and-optics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-light-and-optics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/the-nature-of-light/132">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/electromagnetism-and-light/138">Electromagnetism and Light</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-mechanics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-mechanics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Mechanics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-mechanics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-mechanics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/defining-energy/199">Defining Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/waves-and-wave-motion/102">Waves and Wave Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/gravity/118">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/thermodynamics-i/200">Thermodynamics I</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-process-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-process-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Process of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-process-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-process-of-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> 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href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientists and Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientists-and-research" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/from-stable-chromosomes-to-jumping-genes/184">From Stable Chromosomes to Jumping Genes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/an-elegant-experiment-to-test-the-process-of-dna-replication/187">An Elegant Experiment to Test the Process of DNA Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/the-founding-of-neuroscience/233">The Founding of Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/tracking-endangered-jaguars-across-the-border/189">Tracking Endangered Jaguars across the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/revolutionizing-medicine-with-monoclonal-antibodies/220">Revolutionizing Medicine with Monoclonal Antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/uncovering-the-mysteries-of-chronic-mountain-sickness/238">Uncovering the Mysteries of Chronic Mountain Sickness</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Profiles in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-profiles-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-e.-miramontes/232">Luis E. Miramontes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/bernardo-houssay/237">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/craig-lee/256">Craig Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/david-ho/241">David Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/louis-tompkins-wright/244">Louis Tompkins Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/carlos-j.-finlay/217">Carlos J. Finlay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/cecilia-payne/290">Cecilia Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/jazmin-scarlett/291">Jazmin Scarlett</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ramari-stewart/292">Ramari Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/johnson-cerda/300">Johnson Cerda</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ellen-ochoa/201">Ellen Ochoa</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ruth-benerito/205">Ruth Benerito</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/franklin-chang-díaz/219">Franklin Chang Díaz</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/percy-lavon-julian/221">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-walter-alvarez/229">Luis Walter Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/france-anne-dominic-córdova/230">France Anne-Dominic Córdova</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li>  <button class="button" data-toggle="dropdown">Environmental Science </button> <div class="nav__dropdown box-shadow-1 padding-1"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary font-size-sm"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-ecology" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-ecology" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ecology </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-ecology" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-ecology" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/biodiversity-i/276">Biodiversity I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/biodiversity-ii/281">Biodiversity II</a></li> <li class="current">Ecosystem Services</li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="theTop"></div> <main id="skip-header-content"> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <article class="container wide module"> <header class="grid grid--sidebar-right module__header"> <div class="module__header__title"> <span class="subcategory"> <strong><em>Ecology</em></strong> </span> <h1>Ecosystem Services: <sub><em>Categories and valuation</em></sub></h1> <p class="byline">by Devin Reese, PhD.</p> <nav class="module__header__tabs"> <ul class="tabs-nav tabs-nav--horizontal library"> <li> <a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279/reading" aria-current="page" >Reading</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279/quiz">Quiz</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279/resources">Teach with this</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "AudioObject", "contentUrl": "https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_279.mp3", "description": "Recording of Ecosystem Services : This module explores the role ecosystems provide in supplying humans with a wealth of life-supporting resources like clean water, climate control, nutrient cycling, and many others. These are called ecosystem services. Further in the module, we’ll explore the financial value placed on ecosystem services and how this value helps guide decisions regarding use of land and water.", "encodingFormat": "mp3", "name": "module_279.mp3" } </script> <div class="module_header_audio"> <div class="audio-player border border-radius"> <audio id="audio"> <source src="https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_279.mp3" type="audio/mpeg"> Your browser does not support the audio element. </audio> <div class="audio-player__title"> <p>Listen to this reading</p> <span class="audio-player__timestamp" id="timestamp"> 00:00 </span> </div> <div class="audio-player__controls" id="controls"> <button class="button button--icon-only" id="play-pause-button"> <span class="icon icon-play" aria-hidden="true"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__progress" id="progress-bar" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="0" aria-label="Use arrow keys to forward or rewind the audio" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__progress__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> <div class="audio-player__volume-container"> <button id="mute-button"> <span class="icon icon-volume"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__volume" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="100" aria-label="Use arrow keys to adjust volume" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__volume__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <hr class="divider"/>   <div class="grid grid--sidebar-right grid--divider"> <div class="order-2 order-1--lg module__main"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto margin-y-5"> <div class="accordion margin-bottom-5">  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-key-concepts" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-key-concepts" aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0"> Did you know? </button> <div class="accordion__panel shown show" id="acc-panel-key-concepts" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-key-concepts" role="region"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <p>Did you know that ecosystems naturally provide an array of life-sustaining services to humans? For example, earth’s ecosystems filter and regulate both the water we drink and the air we breath, ensuring many of our essential needs are met. But what is the cost of these services? Nothing in life is free.</p> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-table-of-contents" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-table-of-contents" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Key concepts </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-table-of-contents" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-table-of-contents" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <ul class="bulleted"><li><p>Ecosystems have long been recognized for their roles in naturally generating harvestable provisions, whether honey, timber, soils, or others. </li></p> <li><p>Studies have found that ecosystems also supply a myriad of essential services, such as water filtration and climate regulation.</li></p> <li><p>A full consideration of ecosystem services includes provisions (products), regulation of processes, support of biodiversity, and satisfaction of cultural needs.</li></p> <li><p>Ascribing monetary value to ecosystem services positions them more effectively in the cost-benefit evaluations that guide decision-making about land use.</li></p></ul> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Terms you should know </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <dl> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/precipitation">Precipitation </a></dt> <dd> Water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground in any form </dd> <dt>Biogeochemical cycle </dt> <dd> The cycle in which elements and simple substances are transferred between living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem </dd> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/lichen">Lichen </a></dt> <dd> Fungi that exist in a mutually beneficial (symbiotic) relationship with algae or bacteria </dd> <dt>Bioindicators </dt> <dd> Organisms that can be analyzed to determine the health of an ecosystem </dd> <dt>Biofuel </dt> <dd> Fuel derived directly from living matter</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <section> <div class="container narrow"> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid279/Image/VLObject-12461-22062204062309.jpg" alt="Figure 1: Boys drink water from rehabilitated wells by AMISOM in EL-Ma’an, Bal’ad District of HirShabelle State, Somalia." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 1:</strong> Boys drink water from rehabilitated wells by AMISOM in EL-Ma’an, Bal’ad District of HirShabelle State, Somalia.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Public Domain</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>When we drink water from a tap, we know that it quenches our thirst. But few of us fully appreciate what went into creating that glass of water. Depending on where you live, tap water may have been through water <mark class="term" data-term="treatment" data-term-def="In science, a treatment refers to a method for fixing or manipulating an independent variable in the course of scientific research.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/treatment/3799">treatment</mark> to kill <mark class="term" data-term="bacteria" data-term-def="(plural of bacterium) A large group of one-celled organisms that are found almost everywhere." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/bacteria/8679">bacteria</mark> or remove other contaminants. It has likely been transported through ditches or pipes to where you receive it. If you pay for your water, you’re paying for the management of the water that allows you to access it. </p> <p>What you are <em>not</em> paying for is a huge, hidden <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark>, far greater than the cost of the infrastructure for transport and/or treatment where available. Where does your water really come from, and what investments keep it flowing?</p> <p>Take a few minutes to think about that question because the answer is multi-faceted.</p> <p><section id="toc_1" class=""> <h2>Ecosystem Services</h2></p> <p style="text-align: left;">“Ecosystem services transform natural assets (soil, plants and animals, air and water) into things that we <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark>.”</p> <p style="text-align: right;">-EJOLT (Environmental Justice, Organizations, Liability and Trade), 2013</p> <p>Water is one of the many resources that are naturally supplied by <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark>. As it cycles from ocean to <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> to <mark class="term" data-term="precipitation" data-term-def="Water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground in any form, such as rain, snow, hail, or sleet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/precipitation/8562">precipitation</mark>, vegetation, <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> runoff, and underground supplies, water sustains the living cover on Earth. It’s one of the many “provisions” supplied for free by Earth, and it’s acted on by “services,” such as cycling and filtering, that are also supplied by Earth’s ecosystems.  Looking closely at the graphic, which we will return to later in the module, how many of these natural ecosystem services do you personally benefit from? Are there any that are not relevant to your life?</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid279/Image/VLObject-12484-22071410070819.jpg" alt="Figure 2: A range of services naturally supplied by ecosystems." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 2:</strong> A range of services naturally supplied by ecosystems.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Visionlearning - Inspired by graphic from TEEB Europe</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Thinking about how natural <mark class="term" data-term="system" data-term-def="A group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent components that form a complex whole. The size of the system is defined for&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/system/3904">systems</mark> supply us with goods and services we need, American ecologist Walter E. Westman formalized the term “ecosystem services” with his 1977 publication of a paper titled, “How Much Are Nature’s Services Worth? “.   This paper was a call to evaluate the benefits of natural <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystem</mark> functioning to human welfare and argued that ecosystems had been mostly valued for their provision of harvestable materials, such as trees and rocks, and not for other services (Westman, 1977).</p> <p>The idea that ecosystem services support and sustain human life gained more traction over time and culminated in a four-year study (Milennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)<span style="font-family: -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Open Sans', 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;"> that drew on the expertise of more than 1300 scientists. Its goal was to assess how the world’s ecosystems support human well-being and the implications for ecosystem <mark class="term" data-term="conservation" data-term-def="Careful use of natural resources to minimize waste or damage to the natural world and to maintain natural resources for long-term&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/conservation/5592">conservation</mark>. <mark id="ngss-454" class="ngss">The study found, for example, that wetlands supply a huge range of services, such as water purification, <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> regulation, food provision, <mark class="term" data-term="nutrient" data-term-def="A chemical substance (e.g., minerals, vitamins, proteins) that is needed by an organism to survive and grow. See also: macronutrient and micronutrient." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/nutrient/7058">nutrient</mark> cycling, recreational opportunities, and <mark class="term" data-term="soil" data-term-def="The loose top layer of Earth’s surface where plants grow, made up of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic material." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/soil/8563">soil</mark> formation, that directly benefit millions of people. </span></mark></p> <p>Many studies have since looked at how specific ecosystems supply services to people. For example, <mark id="ngss-455" class="ngss">South African Emma Mandishona studied how farming communities in eastern Zimbabwe rely on wetlands. She chose six wetlands and, through interviews, conversations with village heads, and <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observations</mark> of daily life, Mandishona discovered that people rely on wetlands for a range of activities - watering fruits and vegetable crops, harvesting grasshoppers and other food sources, farming fish, reeds for weaving baskets - making wetlands a crucial economic hub</mark> (Mandishona and Knight, 2022).</p> <p>Whether you live in rural Zimbabwe or New York City, ecosystems are important to your water supply. Huge reservoirs up in the Catskill Mountains and Hudson River Valley deliver more than a billion gallons of water daily to New York City residents. By protecting the natural filtration role of the watersheds around the reservoirs, the City has saved billions of dollars in the costs of building and running filtration plants. In addition, the more than 5000 acres of wetlands within New York City help reduce flood risks, filter pollution, and keep the local climate cooler.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc12466"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Historically, attention to ecosystem services was mostly about _______.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-12466-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-12466" type="radio" value="products that could be extracted." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> products that could be extracted. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12466-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12466-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-12466" type="radio" value="processes that should be maintained." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> processes that should be maintained. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12466-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12466-2-option-c" name="quiz-option-12466" type="radio" value="biodiversity that warranted protection." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">c.</span> biodiversity that warranted protection. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12466-2"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12466-5-option-" name="quiz-option-12466" type="radio" value="biodiversidad que merecía protección." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">.</span> biodiversidad que merecía protección. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12466-5"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_2"> <h2>Categories of <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">Ecosystem</mark> Service</h2><p>Looking again at the wheel graphic above, consider how you would <mark class="term" data-term="group" data-term-def="A column of elements in the periodic table." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/group/8566">group</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystem</mark> services to take into account that some are things we consume, like drinking water or food, while others are jobs done by ecosystems, like filtering or regulating? </p> <p>Ecosystem services are typically grouped into several categories like these:</p></section> <section id="toc2_1"><h3>Provisions and Supplies</h3><p>“We get food for our physical needs from plants, trees and farm animals…Even the microorganisms are important in decomposing waste and are a source of medicines and <mark class="term" data-term="vaccine" data-term-def="A preparation of a weakened or killed pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus, or of a portion of the pathogen's&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/vaccine/3765">vaccines</mark>. In a way, these life-forms support our sustenance.”</p> <p style="text-align: right;">― Salman Ahmed Shaikh, Islamic Economics Project, 2020   </p><p><mark id="ngss-456" class="ngss">Ecosystems provide a wealth of raw materials, such as water, <mark class="term" data-term="mineral" data-term-def="A naturally formed, inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and characteristic crystal structure. Examples of minerals include quartz (SiO<sub>2</sub>), salt&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mineral/2978">minerals</mark>, fuels, wood, fibers, fruits, and other living or nonliving things. Materials such as <mark class="term" data-term="soil" data-term-def="The loose top layer of Earth’s surface where plants grow, made up of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic material." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/soil/8563">soil</mark>, sand, and glass are naturally manufactured by <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark>. We typically <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> those materials in some way to meet our needs, whether it's converting wood into paper, generating medicines from plant extracts, or fashioning minerals into gems. </mark></p> <p>Are all the materials supplied by ecosystems essential to our well-being?</p></section> <section id="toc2_2"><h3>Regulation and Maintenance</h3><p>Ecosystems also provide regulation and maintenance services. Vegetation cleans the air, <mark class="term" data-term="control" data-term-def="In science, a control is a system for which the expected change or outcome is well known and is measured or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/control/3801">controls</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="erosion" data-term-def="The action or process of eroding: wearing away by the action of water, wind, glacial ice, etc." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/erosion/2193">erosion</mark>, moderates water supply, and helps cycle <mark class="term" data-term="mineral" data-term-def="A naturally formed, inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and characteristic crystal structure. Examples of minerals include quartz (SiO<sub>2</sub>), salt&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mineral/2978">minerals</mark> and <mark class="term" data-term="nutrient" data-term-def="A chemical substance (e.g., minerals, vitamins, proteins) that is needed by an organism to survive and grow. See also: macronutrient and micronutrient." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/nutrient/7058">nutrients</mark> through their <mark class="term" data-term="biogeochemical" data-term-def="Of or relating to the partitioning and cycling of chemical elements and compounds between the living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/biogeochemical/2179">biogeochemical</mark> cycles. Plants sequester carbon, a service that has become increasingly important in <mark class="term" data-term="light" data-term-def="A form of electromagnetic radiation. Visible light is that associated with stimulating the organs of sight, which for normal human&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/light/1498">light</mark> of the ongoing <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change caused by the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide. (See our <a href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Factors-that-Control-Earths-Temperature/234">Factors that Control Earth's Temperature</a> module)</p> <p><mark id="ngss-457" class="ngss">Portuguese ecologist Joana Vieira studied how vegetation structure relates to air purification. Her team selected a large (150 acre) park in Almada, Portugal with a mix of original woodland vegetation interspersed with plantings and lawns. Across types of vegetation, they measured <mark class="term" data-term="lichen" data-term-def="Fungi that live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae or bacteria." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/lichen/6541">lichen</mark> diversity. Lichens are considered good bioindicators because they are vulnerable to pollutants, given that they get all their nutrients from the air. The study also attached lichens raised in clean air conditions to trees, waited three months, and assayed the lichens for pollutants such as mercury and lead. The researchers found that less managed woodlands more effectively filtered pollutants than managed fields or plantations, demonstrating that at least in that case wilder <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark> provide better services (Vieira et al. 2017).</mark></p></section> <section id="toc2_3"><h3>Support</h3><p>Ecosystems also supply the service of supporting a diverse suite of living <mark class="term" data-term="organism" data-term-def="Any connected living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, or bacterium. Organisms may be composed of a single cell or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/organism/2171">organisms</mark> by providing <mark class="term" data-term="habitat" data-term-def="The place or type of environment where a wild plant, animal, or other organism naturally lives or grows." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/habitat/5593">habitats</mark> for plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms such as <mark class="term" data-term="bacteria" data-term-def="(plural of bacterium) A large group of one-celled organisms that are found almost everywhere." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/bacteria/8679">bacteria</mark>. <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">Ecosystems</mark> are the engines that transfer <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> from producers, such as plants, to consumers such as animals that eat plants, and on up through the food web.</p></section> <section id="toc2_4"><h3>Cultural and Spiritual Connections</h3><p>Ecosystems are also recognized as supporting spiritual and cultural practices. Human <mark class="term" data-term="evolution" data-term-def="Change in the gene pool of a population from generation to generation by such processes as mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evolution/5284">evolution</mark> has mostly taken place in close association with natural <mark class="term" data-term="habitat" data-term-def="The place or type of environment where a wild plant, animal, or other organism naturally lives or grows." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/habitat/5593">habitats</mark>. As such, <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark> serve humans not only for the harvest of goods, but also for cognitive <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark>, spiritual practices, cultural events, recreation, inspiration, and other deep-seated needs.</p> <p><mark id="ngss-458" class="ngss">As a Master’s student in environmental science, South African Peter De Lacy examined the services provided by gardens at sacred sites such as cemeteries. At 30 such sites, De Lacy inventoried shrubs and trees, coupled with a survey of people visiting each site to assess how valuable they deemed it from spiritual, ecological, and economic perspectives. The results showed that the gardens ecosystems provided primarily spiritual services with ecological services ranked second and economic services last (De Lacy and Shackleton 2017).</mark></p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc12478"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">The supply of free-running rivers for salmon to swim upstream and spawn could be categorized as _______.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="provisions and supplies." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> provisions and supplies. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="support and production." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> support and production. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-2-option-c" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="cultural and spiritual connections." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">c.</span> cultural and spiritual connections. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-2"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-3-option-d" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="more than one of these groupings." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">d.</span> more than one of these groupings. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-3"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-5-option-" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="conexiones culturales y espirituales." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">.</span> conexiones culturales y espirituales. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-5"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12478-6-option-" name="quiz-option-12478" type="radio" value="más de una de estas agrupaciones." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">.</span> más de una de estas agrupaciones. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12478-6"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_3"> <h2>Ecosystem Valuation</h2><p>“And yet, in the inexorable quest to rationalize the activities of the civilization, policy-makers in Western societies have increasingly asked the monetary <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark> of items and qualities formerly regarded as priceless: clean air and water, untamed wildlife, wilderness itself. Behind this search has been the hope that, by weighing the benefits to <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">society</mark> of nature in the undeveloped state against the benefits of resource <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark>, an objective basis for decision-making will be achieved.”</p> <p style="text-align: right;">– Walter E. Westman in How Much are Nature’s Services Worth? 1977</p> <p>If <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark> have value for the services they provide, how do we <mark class="term" data-term="quantify" data-term-def="To express something in terms of a number value, measurement, or amount." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/quantify/8237">quantify</mark> it, and should we all be paying for those services?</p> <p><mark id="ngss-459" class="ngss">In 1997, American <mark class="term" data-term="system" data-term-def="A group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent components that form a complex whole. The size of the system is defined for&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/system/3904">systems</mark> ecologist Robert Costanza and colleagues published one of the first estimates of the monetary value of ecosystem services across the globe. They combed the published <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> literature for estimates of the monetary value of particular services and then <mark class="term" data-term="extrapolate" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/extrapolate" data-term-def="[<strong>mathematics</strong>] Using trends or patterns identified within a data set to estimate the value of variables outside the range of the&hellip;">extrapolated</mark> to a global <mark class="term" data-term="scale" data-term-def="An instrument for measuring heat energy or weight in which units are marked at intervals; a system for quantifying heat energy&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scale/8536">scale</mark>. Their research estimated (roughly!) the <mark class="term" data-term="average" data-term-def="In statistics, average commonly refers to the arithmetic mean, also called simply "mean," which is one measure of the mid-point of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/average/8542">average</mark> yearly value of ecosystem services globally as $33 trillion USD. While they, admittedly, include caveats regarding the <mark class="term" data-term="accuracy" data-term-def="In science, the term accuracy describes how well a measurement approximates the theoretically correct value of that measurement, for example, how&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/accuracy/4222">accuracy</mark> of the estimate, Costanza’s <mark class="term" data-term="work" data-term-def="A process that occurs when a force acts over a distance, as when an object is moved. Work equals the multiple&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/work/1502">work</mark> was significant in recognizing that ecosystems provide tremendous economic value that should be taken into account in decision-making processes, helping launch a new field of study called “environmental economics.” (Costanza et al. 1997).</mark></p> <p>Thinking back to which services you personally use, do you think that we pay, as a society, for all the benefits provided to us by ecosystems?</p></section> <section id="toc2_5"><h3>Environmental Economics</h3><p>Prior, the services provided by <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark> had not been considered in financial markets and were thus mostly overlooked in decision-making. The field of environmental economics called out the relevance of ecosystems to the costs and benefits of human activities that alter <mark class="term" data-term="landscape" data-term-def="The natural scenery of a region; a collection of landforms in an area." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/landscape/8559">landscapes</mark>. By grappling with how to put a price on these natural assets (also called <em>natural capital</em>), people were acknowledging their worth.</p> <p>The <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark> of natural assets includes direct, indirect, nonuse values, and option values:</p> <ul class="bulleted"> <li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Direct</span>: When we accrue value from using something directly, such as gathering honey from forest beehives.</li> <li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Indirect</span>: When we accrue value from using something indirectly, such as our crops getting pollinated by wild bee <mark class="term" data-term="population" data-term-def="In biology, the population is all individuals of a certain kind of plant or animal that live in a particular habitat.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/population/8283">populations</mark>.</li> <li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Nonuse</span>: When we accrue value from less tangible aspects of ecosystems, such as joy we feel knowing that giant squids exist.</li> <li><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Option</span>: When we don’t accrue value in the present but are willing to pay for future value, such as the option of hiking on a national forest trail.</li> </ul> <p>In Figure 3, <mark id="ngss-460" class="ngss">what ecosystem services do you see in action? Categorize the value they provide as direct, indirect, nonuse, or option.</mark></p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid279/Image/VLObject-12487-22071410072043.png" alt="Figure 3: Schematic of human interactions with a watershed. " /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 3:</strong> Schematic of human interactions with a watershed. </p> <span class="credit">image ©Visionlearning</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Estimating the <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark> of <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystem</mark> services in relation to the cost of maintaining them provides information needed to manage ecosystems.</p> <p><mark id="ngss-461" class="ngss">For example, Spanish environmental economist Paola Ovando Pol and colleagues developed a comprehensive financial accounting <mark class="term" data-term="system" data-term-def="A group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent components that form a complex whole. The size of the system is defined for&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/system/3904">system</mark> for ecosystem services. In looking at the value of things like mushrooms, water, and livestock, they included economic <mark class="term" data-term="principle" data-term-def="In the sciences, a principle is a fundamental, primary, or general law or truth. For instance, one of the most basic&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/principle/5289">principles</mark> like private amenity and capital gain. Applying the system to 39 agroforestry farms in Andalusia, Spain, the researchers identified a difference between how forest types accrue value. Coniferous forests generate US$160/hectare from timber and other <mark class="term" data-term="product" data-term-def="The material that is formed as a result of a chemical reaction. Written on the right side of a chemical equation.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/product/1569">products</mark>, while hardwood forests generate US$400/hectare from natural growth of cork and other amenities (Ovando et al. 2016).</mark></p> <p><mark id="ngss-470" class="ngss">Based on their financial accounting system, if you had to choose between losing an acre of conifer forest or losing an acre of hardwood forest to <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark>, which would it be?</mark></p> <p>Assigning value to different aspects of ecosystem services illuminates tradeoffs between maintaining one service versus another. For example, ecosystems services scientist Josh Goldstein and colleagues quantified values to help Kamehameha Schools, the largest private land-holding organization in Hawaii, plan its land use. <mark id="ngss-462" class="ngss">The goal was to balance competing values, including food cropping, feedstocks for biofuel, and forestry. The study modeled the impacts of seven alternate land-use scenarios on carbon storage, water quality, and financial return. The results revealed tradeoffs; for example, a scenario with more biofuel production improved water quality but reduced carbon storage (Goldstein et al. 2012).</mark></p></section> <section id="toc2_6"><h3>Paying for <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">Ecosystem</mark> Services</h3><p>"It of course goes without saying that economic feasibility limits the tether of what can or cannot be done for land. It always has and it always will."</p> <p style="text-align: right;">-Conservationist Aldo Leopold, <em>A Sand County Almanac </em>(1970)</p><p>So, if <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystem</mark> services have financial <mark class="term" data-term="value" data-term-def="A number that is assigned based on measurement or a calculation. In mathematics, an unknown value that is commonly represented by&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/value/8254">value</mark> to humans, who pays for them?</p> <p><mark id="ngss-463" class="ngss">One way that ecosystem services get accounted for in today’s emerging ecosystem <mark class="term" data-term="conservation" data-term-def="Careful use of natural resources to minimize waste or damage to the natural world and to maintain natural resources for long-term&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/conservation/5592">conservation</mark> plans is through “payment for ecosystem services” (PES) approaches. The idea is that landowners are compensated financially for the services their lands provide. The compensation is an incentive for keeping ecosystems intact and services therefore working. </mark></p> <p><mark id="ngss-464" class="ngss">For example, a Pay-for-Environmental-Services program in Florida financially compensates ranchers for managing their lands in a way that ensures ecosystem services. Intensive ranching may cause <mark class="term" data-term="nutrient" data-term-def="A chemical substance (e.g., minerals, vitamins, proteins) that is needed by an organism to survive and grow. See also: macronutrient and micronutrient." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/nutrient/7058">nutrient</mark> runoff into streams as well as reduce the water storage capacity of <mark class="term" data-term="soil" data-term-def="The loose top layer of Earth’s surface where plants grow, made up of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic material." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/soil/8563">soils</mark>. In an outcome-based arrangement, cattle ranchers in the Everglades Region are paid by state agencies to reduce the amount of phosphorus running off their lands. Up-front funding to farmers pays for the conversion to new water management practices (Bohlen et al. 2009).</mark></p> <p>Payment-for-services approaches have been implemented for not only watershed protection, but also other services like <mark class="term" data-term="biodiversity" data-term-def="The variety and abundance of life and its ecological context, including the different kinds of organisms, the numbers of species, the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/biodiversity/875">biodiversity</mark> conservation. But, the challenge of payment-for-services approaches is that they require sustained financial and social capital. </p> <p>Another approach to economically accounting for environmental services is market trading. <mark id="ngss-465" class="ngss">Cap-and-trade has emerged as a global strategy to reduce the carbon emissions that are contributing to global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change. Allowable greenhouse emissions are capped at a certain amount, but companies can buy and sell emissions allowances, which creates a supply and demand marketplace.</mark> (See our <a href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Factors-that-Control-Earths-Temperature/234">Factors that <mark class="term" data-term="control" data-term-def="In science, a control is a system for which the expected change or outcome is well known and is measured or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/control/3801">Control</mark> Earth's Temperature</a> module) </p> <p>For example, <mark id="ngss-466" class="ngss">Mexico, a high emitter of CO<sub>2</sub>, was one of the early adopters of a cap-and-trade approach. Mexico implemented a carbon tax in 2013 that placed a value on carbon storage rather than release. In 2019, Mexico launched a pilot emissions trading scheme, in which carbon emitters must stay under the cap or purchase emissions permits from others. While emissions trading strategies are still evolving, <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> points to their effectiveness in reducing carbon emissions. Setting a price on carbon incentivizes companies to <mark class="term" data-term="emit" data-term-def="To give off or send forth, as in light, particles, or radiation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/emit/8260">emit</mark> less and drives innovation for lower-carbon technologies.</mark></p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc12492"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Ecosystem services are free to produce and therefore should be free to their consumers.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12492-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-12492" type="radio" value="True" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> True </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12492-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-12492-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-12492" type="radio" value="False" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> False </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12492-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc2_7"><h3>Nature-Based Solutions</h3><p><mark id="ngss-467" class="ngss">Who are the beneficiaries of this payment for <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystem</mark> services scheme in Figure 4?</mark></p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid279/Image/VLObject-12495-22071410073552.png" alt="Figure 4: Graphic showing how ecosystem services are ensured by an upstream community that manages a watershed to a downstream urban community that pays for the services." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 4:</strong> Graphic showing how ecosystem services are ensured by an upstream community that manages a watershed to a downstream urban community that pays for the services.</p> <span class="credit">image ©<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Payments_for_Ecosystem_Services_(PES).png"> CC BY-SA 4.0 Bosco Lliso</a> </span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>The beneficiaries include the downstream users, who get a supply of water as well as other watershed services; the upstream community who takes care of the watershed and also reap services; and the other <mark class="term" data-term="species" data-term-def="1. In biological classifications, it is the lowest and most basic unit of the Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy (although it is also&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/species/893">species</mark> who benefit from a healthy watershed.</p> <p>With the recognition that <mark class="term" data-term="ecosystem" data-term-def="The complex of a community of organisms and its environment, functioning as a unit." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ecosystem/2174">ecosystems</mark> supply services that are valuable if not essential to humans, attention and funding are turning to “nature-based” <mark class="term" data-term="solution" data-term-def="A mixture of more than one substance with properties that do not vary within the sample. Commonly used to describe a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/solution/1571">solutions</mark>, an approach to harness natural processes to solve human problems. It recognizes both the capacity of nature to supply services and the capacity of human technology to sustain and harness them. The goal is to find solutions that are a win-win for ecosystem <mark class="term" data-term="conservation" data-term-def="Careful use of natural resources to minimize waste or damage to the natural world and to maintain natural resources for long-term&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/conservation/5592">conservation</mark> and <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark>.</p> <p>For example, <mark id="ngss-468" class="ngss">centuries of overgrazing have led to degraded <mark class="term" data-term="soil" data-term-def="The loose top layer of Earth’s surface where plants grow, made up of particles of rocks, minerals, and organic material." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/soil/8563">soils</mark> in Iceland. For the past century, the Soil Conservation Service of Iceland has been restoring ecosystems. Icelandic environmental scientist David F. Finger led <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> on the Rangárvellir area in southern Iceland to see whether restoration efforts have made a difference in ecosystem services. Comparing across areas (still degraded, partly restored, and fully restored), he looked at how natural water-related services were functioning. Finger’s <mark class="term" data-term="group" data-term-def="A column of elements in the periodic table." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/group/8566">group</mark> found that restoration of ecosystems made for more <mark class="term" data-term="groundwater" data-term-def="Water that fills pore space in rocks and sediments and forms a subsurface aquifer. Groundwater is distinct from soil moisture, which&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/groundwater/2119">groundwater</mark> storage, reduced bank <mark class="term" data-term="erosion" data-term-def="The action or process of eroding: wearing away by the action of water, wind, glacial ice, etc." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/erosion/2193">erosion</mark> along rivers, and more stable flow patterns (Finger et al. 2016).</mark></p> <p><mark id="ngss-469" class="ngss">As more nature-based solutions at broader <mark class="term" data-term="scale" data-term-def="An instrument for measuring heat energy or weight in which units are marked at intervals; a system for quantifying heat energy&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/scale/8536">scales</mark> are tested and proved successful, we may improve in our societal ability to meet human demands while sustaining ecosystem services for ourselves and other species. The services that ecosystems supply are difficult to <mark class="term" data-term="quantify" data-term-def="To express something in terms of a number value, measurement, or amount." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/quantify/8237">quantify</mark> and equally difficult to replace, especially on a global scale.</mark></p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc12497"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Ecosystems can either serve human values or conservation values, but not both.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-12497-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-12497" type="radio" value="True" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> True </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12497-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-12497-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-12497" type="radio" value="False" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> False </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-12497-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </div> </section> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <footer class="module__footer"> <p class="citation"> <em> Devin Reese, PhD. “Ecosystem Services” Visionlearning Vol. BIO-5 (7), 2022. </em> </p>  <div class="title-list" id="refs" name="refs"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> References </p> <ul class="title-list__list"> <li><p></li> <li>Bohlen, Patrick J., Sarah Lynch, Leonard Shabman, Mark Clark, Sanjay Shukla, and Hilary Swain. "Paying for environmental services from agricultural lands: an example from the northern Everglades." <em>Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</em> 7, no. 1 (2009): 46-55</li> <li>Costanza, Robert, Ralph d'Arge, Rudolf De Groot, Stephen Farber, Monica Grasso, Bruce Hannon, Karin Limburg et al. "The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital." <em>Nature</em> 387, no. 6630 (1997): 253-260.</li> <li>De Lacy, Peter, and Charlie Shackleton. "Aesthetic and spiritual ecosystem services provided by urban sacred sites." <em>Sustainability</em> 9, no. 9 (2017): 1628.</li> <li>Finger, David C., Þórunn Pétursdóttir, and Guðmundur Halldórsson. "Hydro-meteorological risk reduction through land restoration in Rangárvellir, Iceland-an overview of the HydroResilience project." In <em>EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts</em>, p. 4889. 2017</li> <li>Goldstein, Joshua H., Giorgio Caldarone, Thomas Kaeo Duarte, Driss Ennaanay, Neil Hannahs, Guillermo Mendoza, Stephen Polasky, Stacie Wolny, and Gretchen C. Daily. "Integrating ecosystem-service tradeoffs into land-use decisions." <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em> 109, no. 19 (2012): 7565-7570.</li> <li>Mandishona, Emmah, and Jasper Knight. "Feedbacks and Trade-Offs in the Use of Wetland Ecosystem Services by Local Communities in Rural Zimbabwe." <em>Sustainability</em> 14, no. 3 (2022): 1789.</li> <li>Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, (2005). https://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.html</li> <li>Ovando, Paola, Pablo Campos, José L. Oviedo, and Alejandro Caparrós. "Ecosystem accounting for measuring total income in private and public agroforestry farms." <em>Forest Policy and Economics</em> 71 (2016): 43-51.</li> <li>Vieira, Joana, Paula Matos, Teresa Mexia, Patrícia Silva, Nuno Lopes, Catarina Freitas, Otília Correia, Margarida Santos-Reis, Cristina Branquinho, and Pedro Pinho. "Green spaces are not all the same for the provision of air purification and climate regulation services: The case of urban parks." <em>Environmental Research</em> 160 (2018): 306-313.</li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div>   </div>  <div class="order-1 order-2--lg module__tools"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto position-sticky-top font-size-md"> <div class="padding-2 border-radius box-shadow-1--lg"> <div class="tabs" role="tablist"> <nav> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-in-this-module" aria-label="Table of Contents" aria-controls="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-selected="true" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-list" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="button__text">Contents</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-terms" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-glossary-highlight"></span> <span class="button__text">Glossary Terms</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-ngss" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-ngss" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-ngss"></span> <span class="button__text">NGSS</span> </button> </nav> <hr class="divider" /> <div class="tabs__panel shown" id="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-labelledby="tab-button-module__tools" role="tabpanel"> <p class="font-weight-bold margin-bottom-1"> Table of Contents </p> <div class="table-of-contents" id="module-toc"> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc_1">Ecosystem Services</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc_2">Categories of Ecosystem Service</a> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_1">Provisions and Supplies</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_2">Regulation and Maintenance</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_3">Support</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_4">Cultural and Spiritual Connections</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc_3">Ecosystem Valuation</a> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_5">Environmental Economics</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_6">Paying for Ecosystem Services</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279#toc2_7">Nature-Based Solutions</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div>   <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-terms" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="termsToggleSwitch" id="terms-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Highlight Glossary Terms </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate glossary term highlighting to easily identify key terms within the module. Once highlighted, you can click on these terms to view their definitions. </em> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-ngss" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-ngss" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="ngssToggleSwitch" id="ngss-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Show NGSS Annotations </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate NGSS annotations to easily identify NGSS standards within the module. Once highlighted, you can click on them to view these standards. </em> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="reading-annotation-container"></div>  </div> </div> <div class="margin-3"> <script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-9561344156007092" crossorigin="anonymous"></script>  <ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:block" data-ad-client="ca-pub-9561344156007092" data-ad-slot="7634263342" data-ad-format="auto" data-full-width-responsive="true"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div>   </article> </div> </main> <script id="ngssCommentdata" type="application/json"> [{"ngss_tag_id":null,"type":"dci","tag":"","name":null,"description":null,"comment":"Humans depend on the living world for the resources and other benefits provided by biodiversity. 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