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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Black politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Other minorities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African-American_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African-American_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>African-American identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African-American_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ghana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jamaica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamaica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Jamaica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamaica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trinidad_&_Tobago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trinidad_&_Tobago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Trinidad & Tobago</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trinidad_&_Tobago-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beauty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beauty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Beauty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beauty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Arts and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_Arts_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Arts_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9.1</span> <span>Black Arts Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Arts_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cited sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="قوة سوداء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوة سوداء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%94%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Μαύρη Δύναμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαύρη Δύναμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poder_negro" title="Poder negro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Poder negro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87" title="قدرت سیاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قدرت سیاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%94%EB%9E%99_%ED%8C%8C%EC%9B%8C" title="블랙 파워 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="블랙 파워" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekuatan_Kulit_Hitam" title="Kekuatan Kulit Hitam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekuatan Kulit Hitam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potere_nero" title="Potere nero – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Potere nero" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A7_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A8" title="בלאק פאוור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בלאק פאוור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%91%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC" title="ブラック・パワー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブラック・パワー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Power" title="Black Power – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Black Power" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83%E5%8A%9B" title="黑人权力 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑人权力" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q880483#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> 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title="Black Power">Black Power</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political and social movement, slogan, and ideology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the slogan black power. For the movement, see <a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Black Power (disambiguation)">Black Power (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Black_Power" title="Category:Black Power">a series</a> about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:149%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black power</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fist.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Fist.svg/101px-Fist.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Fist.svg/152px-Fist.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Fist.svg/202px-Fist.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="1596" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_Revolution" title="Black Power Revolution">Black Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a> events of <a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968</a> and <a href="/wiki/1972_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1972 Olympics Black Power salute">1972</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana womanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism_among_African-Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Americanism among African-Americans">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Black anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Black leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">Black separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_People%27s_Socialist_Party" title="African People's Socialist Party">African People's Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata%27s_Daughters" title="Assata's Daughters">Assata's Daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Guerrilla_Family" title="Black Guerrilla Family">Black Guerrilla Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberators" title="Black Liberators">Black Liberators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberation_Army" title="Black Liberation Army">Black Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Militia" title="Black Panther Militia">Black Panther Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Radical_Congress" title="Black Radical Congress">Black Radical Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Revolutionary_Assault_Team" title="Black Revolutionary Assault Team">Black Revolutionary Assault Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Defense_League" title="Black Women's Defense League">Black Women's Defense League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Black_Panthers" title="British Black Panthers">British Black Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_Community" title="Conscious Community">Conscious Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Percent_Nation" title="Five-Percent Nation">Five-Percent Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_Brigade" title="George Jackson Brigade">George Jackson Brigade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton_Gun_Club" title="Huey P. Newton Gun Club">Huey P. Newton Gun Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Revolutionary_Black_Workers" title="League of Revolutionary Black Workers">League of Revolutionary Black Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_19th_Communist_Organization" title="May 19th Communist Organization">May 19th Communist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOVE_(Philadelphia_organization)" title="MOVE (Philadelphia organization)">MOVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Joint_Action_Committee" title="National Joint Action Committee">National Joint Action Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Black Panther Party">New Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_New_Afrika" title="Republic of New Afrika">Republic of New Afrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Action_Movement" title="Revolutionary Action Movement">Revolutionary Action Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Black_Panther_Party" title="Revolutionary Black Panther Party">Revolutionary Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">SNCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbionese_Liberation_Army" title="Symbionese Liberation Army">Symbionese Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Organization" title="US Organization">US Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_Underground" title="Weather Underground">Weather Underground</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Assata Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_DeFreeze" title="Donald DeFreeze">Donald DeFreeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Brown" title="Elaine Brown">Elaine Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">George Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim_Jamal" title="Hakim Jamal">Hakim Jamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Africa" title="John Africa">John Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King, Jr.">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_Zulu_Shabazz" title="Malik Zulu Shabazz">Malik Zulu Shabazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_X" title="Michael X">Michael X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stanford" title="Max Stanford">Max Stanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obi_Egbuna" title="Obi Egbuna">Obi Egbuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadsworth_Jarrell" title="Wadsworth Jarrell">Wadsworth Jarrell</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Taste_of_Power" title="A Taste of Power">A Taste of Power</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_and_the_American_Myth" title="Black Power and the American Myth">Black Power and the American Myth</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten-Point_Program_(Black_Panther_Party)" title="Ten-Point Program (Black Panther Party)">Ten-Point Program</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Diary_of_Malcolm_X" title="The Diary of Malcolm X">The Diary of Malcolm X</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Suicide" title="Revolutionary Suicide">Revolutionary Suicide</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_(New_Zealand_gang)" title="Black Power (New Zealand gang)">Black Power gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_in_the_Caribbean" title="Black Power in the Caribbean">Black Power in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_movement_in_Montreal" title="Black Power movement in Montreal">Black Power in Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_hip_hop" title="Political hip hop">Political hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">United States civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_rights" title="Youth rights">Youth rights</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;padding-top:1em;font-size:11px;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Black_Power" title="Category:Black Power">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Black power</b> is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_slogans" title="List of political slogans">political slogan</a> and a name which is given to various associated ideologies which aim to achieve <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> for <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">black people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is primarily, but not exclusively, used by black activists and other proponents of what the slogan entails in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The black power movement was prominent in the late 1960s and early 1970s, emphasizing racial pride and the creation of black political and cultural institutions to nurture, promote and advance what was seen by proponents of the movement as being the collective interests and values of <a href="/wiki/Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Americans">black Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basis of black power is various ideologies that aim at achieving <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> for black people in the U.S., dictating that black Americans create their own identities despite being subjected to pre-existing societal factors.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Black power" in its original political sense expresses a range of political goals, from militant self-defense against racial oppression to the establishment of social institutions and a self-sufficient economy, including <a href="/wiki/African-American_bookstores" title="African-American bookstores">black-owned bookstores</a>, cooperatives, farms, and media.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the movement has been criticized for alienating itself from the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>, and its support of <a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">black separatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest known usage of the term "black power" is found in <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a>'s 1954 book <i>Black Power</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yale_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 1, 1965, a few months after the February 21 assassination of <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grace_Lee_Boggs" title="Grace Lee Boggs">Grace Lee Boggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Boggs_(activist)" title="James Boggs (activist)">James Boggs</a> created "in our basement"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the national Organization for Black Power, along "with former and then current members of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Action_Movement_(RAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM)">Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM)</a> and <a href="/wiki/SNCC" class="mw-redirect" title="SNCC">SNCC</a> among its members,"<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including "representatives from Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, and New York,"<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as "a coordinating group of grassroots activists that looked to establish a concrete program for black self-determination centered in the cities."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already, "in the spring of 1964, together with <a href="/wiki/Max_Stanford" title="Max Stanford">Max Stanford</a> of Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM); <i>Baltimore Afro-American</i> reporter <a href="/wiki/William_Worthy" title="William Worthy">William Worthy</a>, and Patricia Robinson of Third World Press," the Boggses had "met with Malcolm in a Harlem luncheonette to discuss our proposal that he come to Detroit to help build the Organization for Black Power," but "Malcolm’s response was that we should go ahead while he served the movement as an 'evangelist.'"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New York politician <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a> used the term on May 29, 1966, during an address at <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>: "To demand these God-given rights is to seek black power."<sup id="cite_ref-Yale_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first popular use of the term "black power" as a political and racial slogan was by <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Stokely Carmichael</a> (later known as <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Kwame Ture</a>) and Willie Ricks (later known as Mukasa Dada), both organizers and spokespersons for the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC). On June 16, 1966, in a speech in <a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_Mississippi" title="Greenwood, Mississippi">Greenwood, Mississippi</a>, after the shooting of <a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a> during the <a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a>, Stokely Carmichael said:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>This is the twenty-seventh time I have been arrested and I ain't going to jail no more! The only way we gonna stop them white men from whuppin' us is to take over. What we gonna start sayin' now is Black Power!</p></blockquote> <p>Stokely Carmichael saw the concept of "black power" as a means of solidarity between individuals within the movement. It was a replacement of the "Freedom Now!" slogan of Carmichael's contemporary, the non-violence leader <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> With his use of the term, Carmichael felt this movement was not just a movement for racial desegregation, but rather a movement to help end how American <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> had weakened black people. He said, <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Black Power' means black people coming together to form a political force and either electing representatives or forcing their representatives to speak their needs."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton explain the term "black power" in their 1967 book <i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i>: "It is a call for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community. It is a call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variants">Variants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black power adherents believed in black autonomy, with a variety of tendencies such as <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a>, black self-determination, and <a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">black separatism</a>. Such positions caused friction with leaders of the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, and thus the two movements have sometimes been viewed as inherently antagonistic. Civil Rights leaders often proposed passive, non-violent tactics while the black power movement felt that, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a>, "a 'non-violent' approach to civil rights is an approach black people cannot afford and a luxury white people do not deserve."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many groups and individuals—including <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a>—participated in both civil rights and black power activism. A growing number of scholars conceive of the civil rights and black power movements as one interconnected Black Freedom Movement.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous black power advocates were in favor of black self-determination due to the belief that black people must lead and run their own organizations. <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> is such an advocate and states that, "only black people can convey the revolutionary idea—and it is a revolutionary idea—that black people are able to do things themselves."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is not to say that black power advocates promoted <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a> write that "there is a definite, much-needed role that whites can play."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They felt that whites could serve the movement by educating other white people. </p><p>Not all black power advocates were in favor of <a href="/wiki/Black_separatism" title="Black separatism">black separatism</a>. While <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> and SNCC were in favor of separatism for a time in the late 1960s, organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a> were not. Though the Panthers considered themselves to be at war with the prevailing <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacy in the United States">white supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Power structure">power structure</a>, they were not at war with all whites, but rather with those (mostly white) individuals empowered by the injustices of the <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">structure</a> and responsible for its <a href="/wiki/Reproduction_(economics)" title="Reproduction (economics)">reproduction</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a>, chairman and co-founder of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was outspoken about this issue. His stance was that the oppression of black people was a result of <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">economic exploitation</a>. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Seize_the_Time_(book)" title="Seize the Time (book)">Seize the Time</a></i>, he states that "In our view it is a <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class struggle</a> between the massive proletarian <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> and the small, minority <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling class</a>. Working-class people of all colors must unite against the exploitative, oppressive ruling class. So let me emphasize again—we believe our fight is a class struggle and not a race struggle." For Seale, the African-American struggle was not solely a struggle for <a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">black supremacy</a>. In 1970, this contention fulfilled aims similar to those of the languishing <a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a>'s Resurrection City and his later <a href="/wiki/Rainbow/PUSH" title="Rainbow/PUSH">Rainbow/PUSH</a>, the latter a counter to <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Coalition_(Fred_Hampton)" title="Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)">Hamptonian iterations of Rainbow Coalitions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Offshoots of black power include African <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">black supremacy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a></div> <p>The term "black power" was used in a different sense in the 1850s by black leader <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> as an alternative name for the <i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></i>—that is the disproportionate political power at the national level held by slave owners in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-vanHorne_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanHorne-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Douglass predicted: "The days of Black Power are numbered. Its course, indeed is onward. But with the swiftness of an arrow, it rushes to the tomb. While crushing its millions, it is also crushing itself. The sword of Retribution, suspended by a single hair, hangs over it. That sword must fall. Liberty must triumph."<sup id="cite_ref-vanHorne_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanHorne-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> Era <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>'s <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> used the call-and-response chant "<a href="/wiki/Amandla_(power)" title="Amandla (power)">Amandla</a>! (Power!)", "Ngawethu! (The power is ours!)" from the late 1950s onward.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern American concept emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> in the early 1960s. Beginning in 1959, <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Willams</a>, president of the Monroe, North Carolina chapter of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, openly questioned the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a> and its domination of the movement's strategy. Williams was supported by prominent leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a>, and opposed by others, such as <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> (the national NAACP chairman) and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leroi_Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="Leroi Jones">Leroi Jones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a> led a riotous (and widely covered) demonstration at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in order to protest against the <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, national representative of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>, also launched an extended critique of nonviolence and integrationism at this time. After seeing the increasing militancy of blacks in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a>, and wearying of <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a>'s domination of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>, Malcolm left that organization and engaged with the mainstream of the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm was now open to voluntary <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">racial integration</a> as a long-term goal, but he still supported armed self-defense, self-reliance, and <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a>; he became a simultaneous spokesman for the militant wing of the Civil Rights Movement and the non-separatist wing of the black power movement. </p><p>An early manifestation of black power in popular culture was the performances given by <a href="/wiki/Nina_Simone" title="Nina Simone">Nina Simone</a> at Carnegie Hall in March 1964, and the album <a href="/wiki/Nina_Simone_in_Concert" title="Nina Simone in Concert"><i>In Concert</i></a> which resulted from them. Nina Simone mocked liberal nonviolence ("Go Limp"), and took a vengeful position toward white racists ("<a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Goddamn" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippi Goddamn">Mississippi Goddamn</a>" and her adaptation of "<a href="/wiki/Pirate_Jenny" title="Pirate Jenny">Pirate Jenny</a>"). Historian <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Feldstein" title="Ruth Feldstein">Ruth Feldstein</a> writes that, "Contrary to the neat historical trajectories which suggest that black power came late in the decade and only after the 'successes' of earlier efforts, Simone's album makes clear that black power perspectives were already taking shape and circulating widely...in the early 1960s." <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1966, most of SNCC's field staff, among them Stokely Carmichael (later Kwame Ture), were becoming critical of the nonviolent approach to confronting racism and inequality—articulated and promoted by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a>, and other moderates—and they rejected <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a> as a primary objective. King was critical of the black power movement, stating in an August 1967 speech to the SCLC: "Let us be dissatisfied until that day when nobody will shout '<a href="/wiki/White_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="White Power">White Power</a>!' — when nobody will shout 'Black Power!' — but everybody will talk about God's power and human power."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1967 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Where_Do_We_Go_from_Here:_Chaos_or_Community%3F" title="Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?">Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?</a></i>, King stated: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the final analysis the weakness of Black Power is its failure to see that the black man needs the white man and the white man needs the black man. However much we may try to romanticize the slogan, there is no separate black path to power and fulfillment that does not intersect white paths, and there is no separate white path to power and fulfillment, short of social disaster, that does not share that power with black aspirations for freedom and human dignity. We are bound together in a single garment of destiny. The language, the cultural patterns, the music, the material prosperity, and even the food of America are an amalgam of black and white.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>SNCC's base of support was generally younger and more working-class than that of the other "Big Five"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> civil rights organizations and became increasingly more militant and outspoken over time. As a result, as the Civil Rights Movement progressed, increasingly radical, more militant voices came to the fore to aggressively challenge white hegemony. Increasing numbers of black youth, particularly, rejected their elders' moderate path of cooperation, <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">racial integration</a> and assimilation. They rejected the notion of appealing to the public's conscience and religious creeds and took the tack articulated by another black activist more than a century before, <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, who wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>Those who profess to favor freedom, and yet depreciate agitation, are men who want crops without plowing up the ground. They want rain without thunder and lightning. They want the ocean without the awful roar of its many waters. ... Power concedes nothing without demand. It never did and it never will.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Most early 1960s civil rights leaders did not believe in physically violent retaliation. However, much of the African-American rank-and-file, especially those leaders with strong working-class ties, tended to complement nonviolent action with armed self-defense. For instance, prominent nonviolent activist <a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (and a leader of the 1963 Birmingham campaign), had worked closely with an armed defense group that was led by <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Stone_Johnson" title="Colonel Stone Johnson">Colonel Stone Johnson</a>. As Alabama historian Frye Gaillard writes, </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>...these were the kind of men Fred Shuttlesworth admired, a mirror of the toughness he aspired to himself…They went armed [during the Freedom Rides], for it was one of the realities of the civil rights movement that however nonviolent it may have been at its heart, there was always a current of 'any means necessary,' as the black power advocates would say later on.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>During the March Against Fear, there was a division between those aligned with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> and those aligned with Carmichael, marked by their respective slogans, "Freedom Now" and "Black Power".<sup id="cite_ref-saul_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saul-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While King never endorsed the slogan, and in fact opposed the black power movement, his rhetoric sometimes came close to it. In his 1967 book <i>Where Do We Go From Here?</i>, King wrote that "power is not the white man's birthright; it will not be legislated for us and delivered in neat government packages."<sup id="cite_ref-saul_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saul-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Crisis_and_Commitment_Statement""><span id=".22Crisis_and_Commitment_Statement.22"></span>"Crisis and Commitment Statement"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: "Crisis and Commitment Statement""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "Crisis and Commitment Statement" was a full-page ad taken out in the New York Times on October 14, 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ad was written and signed onto by Civil Rights leaders, condemning the "extreme" measures used by groups such as the black power movement, while reaffirming the basic tenets of the Civil Rights Movement.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statement was signed by <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a>, <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a>, Amos T. Hall, and <a href="/wiki/Hobson_R._Reynolds" title="Hobson R. Reynolds">Hobson R. Reynolds</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the concept remained imprecise and contested and the people who used the slogan ranged from business people who used it to push <a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">black capitalism</a> to revolutionaries who sought an end to capitalism, the idea of black power exerted a significant influence. It helped organize scores of community self-help groups and institutions that did not depend on white people, encouraged colleges and universities to start <a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">black studies</a> programs, mobilized black voters, and improved racial pride and self-esteem.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most well-known and unexpected demonstrations for black power occurred at the <a href="/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics" title="1968 Summer Olympics">1968 Summer Olympics</a> in Mexico City. At the conclusion of the 200m race, at the medal ceremony, United States gold medalist <a href="/wiki/Tommie_Smith" title="Tommie Smith">Tommie Smith</a> and bronze medalist <a href="/wiki/John_Carlos" title="John Carlos">John Carlos</a> wore <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Project_for_Human_Rights" title="Olympic Project for Human Rights">Olympic Project for Human Rights</a> badges and showed the <a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">raised fist</a> (see <a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a>) as the anthem played. Accompanying them was silver medalist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Norman" title="Peter Norman">Peter Norman</a>, a white Australian sprinter, who also wore an OPHR badge to show his support for the two African Americans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_politics">Black politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Black politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Carlos,_Tommie_Smith,_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/200px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/300px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg/400px-John_Carlos%2C_Tommie_Smith%2C_Peter_Norman_1968cr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tommie_Smith" title="Tommie Smith">Tommie Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Carlos" title="John Carlos">John Carlos</a> showing the <a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">raised fist on the podium</a> after the 200 m race at the <a href="/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics" title="1968 Summer Olympics">1968 Summer Olympics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Though the black power movement did not remedy the political problems faced by African Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, the movement did contribute to the development of black politics both directly and indirectly. As a contemporary of and successor to the Civil Rights Movement, the black power movement created, what sociologist Herbert H. Haines refers to as a "positive <a href="/wiki/Radical_flank_effect" title="Radical flank effect">radical flank effect</a>" on political affairs of the 1960s. Though the nature of the relationship between the Civil Rights Movement and the black power movement is contested, Haines' study of the relationship between black radicals and the mainstream civil rights movement indicates that black power generated a "crisis in American institutions which made the legislative agenda of 'polite, realistic, and businesslike' mainstream organizations" more appealing to politicians. In this way, it can be argued that the more strident and oppositional messages of the black power movement indirectly enhanced the bargaining position of more moderate activists.<sup id="cite_ref-d306_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d306-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black power activists approached politics with vitality, variety, wit, and creativity that shaped the way future generations approached dealing with America's societal problems (McCartney 188). These activists capitalized on the nation's recent awareness of the political nature of oppression, a primary focus of the Civil Rights Movement, developing numerous political action <a href="/wiki/Caucuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucuses">caucuses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grass_roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass roots">grass roots</a> community associations to remedy the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-d306_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d306-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The National Black Political Convention, held March 10–12, 1972, was a significant milestone in black politics of the black power era. Held in <a href="/wiki/Gary,_Indiana" title="Gary, Indiana">Gary, Indiana</a>, a city with a significant black population, the convention included a diverse group of black activists, although it completely excluded whites. The convention was criticized for its racial exclusivity by Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, a group that supported integration. The delegates created a National Black Political Agenda with stated goals including the election of a proportionate number of black representatives to Congress, community control of schools, national health insurance, etc. Though the convention did not result in any direct policy, the convention advanced goals of the black power movement and left participants buoyed by a spirit of possibility and themes of unity and self-determination. A concluding note to the convention, addressing its supposed idealism, read: "At every critical moment of our struggle in America we have had to press relentlessly against the limits of the 'realistic' to create new realities for the life of our people. This is our challenge at Gary and beyond, for a new Black politics demands new vision, new hope and new definitions of the possible. Our time has come. These things are necessary. All things are possible."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though such political activism may not have resulted in direct policy, they provided political models for later movements, advanced a pro-black political agenda, and brought sensitive issues to the forefront of American politics. In its confrontational and often oppositional nature, the black power movement started a debate within the black community and America as a nation over issues of racial progress, citizenship, and democracy, namely "the nature of American society and the place of the African American in it."<sup id="cite_ref-McCartney_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCartney-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continued intensity of debate over these same social and political issues is a tribute to the impact of the black power movement in arousing the political awareness and passions of citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-McCartney_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCartney-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some have compared the modern movement <a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a> to the black power movement, noting its similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Black_Lives" title="Movement for Black Lives">Movement for Black Lives</a> openly promotes black power.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_minorities">Other minorities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other minorities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though the aims of the black power movement were racially specific, much of the movement's impact has been its influence on the development and strategies of later political and social movements. By igniting and sustaining debate on the nature of American society, the black power movement created what other multiracial and minority groups interpreted to be a viable template for the overall restructuring of society.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By opening up discussion on issues of democracy and equality, the black power movement paved the way for a diverse plurality of social justice movements, including <a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">black feminism</a>, environmental movements, <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>, and gay and lesbian rights. Central to these movements were the issues of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">structural inequality</a>, features emerging from the black power movement.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the black power movement emphasized and explored a black identity, movement activists were forced to confront issues of gender and class as well. Many activists in the black power movement became active in related movements. This is seen in the case of the "second wave" of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> activism, a movement supported and orchestrated to a certain degree by women working from within the coalition ranks of the black power movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams92_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams92-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The boundaries between social movements became increasingly unclear at the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s; where the black power movement ends and where these other social movements begin is often unclear. "It is pertinent to note that as the movement expanded the variables of gender, class, and only compounded issues of strategy and methodology in black protest thought."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African-American_identity">African-American identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: African-American identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferguson,_Day_4,_Photo_21.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png/200px-Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png/300px-Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png/400px-Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_Photo_21.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1393" /></a><figcaption>Protester <a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">raises his fist</a> in black power salute, <a href="/wiki/Ferguson,_Missouri" title="Ferguson, Missouri">Ferguson, Missouri</a>, 15 August 2014</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to the negative and militant reputation of such auxiliaries as that of the Black Panther Party, many people felt that this movement of "insurrection" would soon serve to cause discord and disharmony through the entire U.S. Even Stokely Carmichael stated, "When you talk of Black Power, you talk of building a movement that will smash everything <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> has created."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though black power at the most basic level refers to a political movement, the psychological and cultural messages of the black power movement, though less tangible, have had perhaps a longer-lasting impact on American society than concrete political changes. Indeed, "fixation on the 'political' hinders appreciation of the movement's cultural manifestations and unnecessarily obscures black culture's role in promoting the psychological well being of the Afro-American people,"<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states <a href="/wiki/William_L._Van_Deburg" title="William L. Van Deburg">William L. Van Deburg</a>, author of A New Day in Babylon, "movement leaders never were as successful in winning power for the people as they were in convincing people that they had sufficient power within themselves to escape 'the prison of self-deprecation'".<sup id="cite_ref-d306_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d306-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primarily, the liberation and empowerment experienced by African Americans occurred in the psychological realm. The movement uplifted the black community as a whole by cultivating feelings of racial solidarity and positive self-identity, often in opposition to the world of white Americans, a world that had physically and psychologically oppressed black people for generations. Stokely Carmichael stated that "the goal of black self-determination and black self-identity—Black Power—is recognition of the virtues in themselves as black people."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the movement, blacks came to understand themselves and their culture by exploring and debating the question, "who are we?" in order to establish a unified and viable identity.<sup id="cite_ref-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And "if black people are to know themselves as a vibrant, valiant people, they must know their roots."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Lives_Matter_protest_(first_debate_2016).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg/200px-Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg/300px-Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg/400px-Black_Lives_Matter_protest_%28first_debate_2016%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5097" data-file-height="3398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a> protest in September 2016</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the Civil Rights Movement and black history, there has been tension between those wishing to minimize and maximize racial difference. <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">W.E.B. Du Bois</a> and Martin Luther King Jr. often attempted to deemphasize race in their quest for equality, while those advocating for separatism and colonization emphasized an extreme and irreconcilable difference between races. McCormack argues that the black power movement largely achieved an equilibrium of "balanced and humane ethnocentrism."<sup id="cite_ref-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of the black power movement in generating discussion about ethnic identity and black consciousness supported the appearance and expansion of academic fields of <a href="/wiki/American_studies" title="American studies">American studies</a>, black studies, and African studies,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams92_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams92-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the founding of several <a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">museums devoted to African-American history and culture</a> in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these ways the black power movement led to greater respect for and attention accorded to African Americans' history and culture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghana">Ghana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ghana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the first sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence, <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">President Nkrumah</a> opened Ghana up to African Americans seeking freedom, stating that "the independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked with the total liberation of the whole of Africa".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black power was directly influenced by two key factors: the independence of Ghana and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> ideology. As a result of the Cold War, black radicals and activists were unable to freely propose ideas due to government censorship. Consequently, Ghana became the example for black freedom and liberation movements due to the Cold War ideology and politics proving in the long term to be a factor for the demise of black power.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Ghana's independence, black power reached the international stage, with visits from notable African American activists, such as <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For many expatriates, 'home' became Ghana due to the freedom of thought, speech, and economy which could not be had in America amidst the ongoing Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ghana as a place itself inspired black power due to its position as a non-aligned nation during the Cold War. Ghana thus represented a place for black freedom with no constraints by anti-communist, nor communist propaganda. The connection between black power in America and Africa is further shown by the expatriates in Ghana criticising the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Administration">Kennedy administration</a> and paralleling the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ghana became aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a>, centrally focusing on the black nationalism and the anti-war movement. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julian_Mayfield" title="Julian Mayfield">Julian Mayfield</a>, who became a prominent member in Ghana as well as influencing African American civil rights, stated that the nonviolent, passive-resistive strategies failed the needs of the lower class blacks. He believed that "the only way to win a revolution is to be revolutionary".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> America nevertheless managed to keep much of Africa under the western sphere of influence, especially after communism began to enter African countries, with Ghana being one. Black power in Africa soon lost its way though, with the coup and overthrow of Nkrumah and the death of black power advocates, such as Malcolm X.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, for a short time, Ghana became a place of freedom and <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a>, with many African Americans migrating to Ghana during the Cold War to escape the constraints placed on them in American society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black power got a foothold in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> when Carmichael came to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in July 1967 to attend the <a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Liberation_Congress" title="Dialectics of Liberation Congress">Dialectics of Liberation Congress</a>. As well as his address at the Congress, he also made a speech at <a href="/wiki/Speakers%27_Corner" title="Speakers' Corner">Speakers' Corner</a>. At that time, there was no black power organization in Britain, although there was <a href="/wiki/Michael_X" title="Michael X">Michael X</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Racial_Adjustment_Action_Society" title="Racial Adjustment Action Society">Racial Adjustment Action Society</a> (RAAS).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this was more influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>'s visit to Britain in 1964. Malcolm X also adopted <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> at this stage, whereas black power was not organized around any religious institution. </p><p>The <i>Black Power Manifesto</i> was launched on 10 November 1967, published by the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Coloured_People%27s_Association" title="Universal Coloured People's Association">Universal Coloured People's Association</a>. <a href="/wiki/Obi_Egbuna" title="Obi Egbuna">Obi Egbuna</a>, the spokesperson for the group, claimed they had recruited 778 members in London during the previous seven weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968 Egbuna published <i>Black Power or Death</i>. He was also active with <a href="/wiki/CLR_James" class="mw-redirect" title="CLR James">CLR James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Hernton" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin Hernton">Calvin Hernton</a> and others in the <a href="/wiki/Antiuniversity_of_London" title="Antiuniversity of London">Antiuniversity of London</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> set up following the Dialectics of Liberation Congress. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Black_British" class="mw-redirect" title="Black British">Black people in Britain</a> who identified themselves as the <a href="/wiki/British_Black_Panther_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="British Black Panther Movement">British Black Power Movement</a> (BBPM) formed in the 1960s. They worked with the U.S. Black Panther Party in 1967–68, and 1968–72.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The On March 2, 1970, roughly one hundred people protested outside the U.S. embassy in Grosvenor Square, London, in support of the U.S. Black Panther founder Bobby Seale, who was on trial for murder in New Haven, Connecticut.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They chanted "Free Bobby!" and carried posters proclaiming "Free, Free bobby Seale" and "You can kill a revolutionary but not a revolution."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London police arrested sixteen of the protestors that day, three women and thirteen men with threatening and assaulting police officers, distributing a flier entitled "the Definition of Black Power", intending to incite a breach of the peace, and willful damage to a police raincoat. The raincoat charge was dropped by the judge, but the judge found five of the accused guilty of the remaining charges.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jamaica">Jamaica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Jamaica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A black power movement arose in Jamaica in the late 1960s. Though Jamaica had gained independence from the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in 1962, and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Shearer" title="Hugh Shearer">Hugh Shearer</a> was black, many cabinet ministers (such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Seaga" title="Edward Seaga">Edward Seaga</a>) and business elites were white. Large segments of the black majority population were unemployed or did not earn a living wage. The <a href="/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party" title="Jamaica Labour Party">Jamaica Labour Party</a> government of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Shearer" title="Hugh Shearer">Hugh Shearer</a> banned black power literature such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Malcolm_X" title="The Autobiography of Malcolm X">The Autobiography of Malcolm X</a></i> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a> and Trinidad-born <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Kwame Ture</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Guyanese academic <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> was appointed as a lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies" title="University of the West Indies">University of the West Indies</a> in January 1968, and became one of the main exponents of black power in Jamaica. When the Shearer government banned Rodney from re-entering the country, the <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Riots">Rodney Riots</a> broke out. As a result of the Rodney affair, radical groups and publications such as <i><a href="/wiki/Abeng_(newspaper)" title="Abeng (newspaper)">Abeng</a></i> began to emerge, and the opposition <a href="/wiki/People%27s_National_Party" title="People's National Party">People's National Party</a> gained support. In the <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_general_election,_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamaican general election, 1972">1972 election</a>, the Jamaica Labour Party was defeated by the People's National Party, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Manley" title="Michael Manley">Michael Manley</a>, who had expressed support for black power, became prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trinidad_&_Tobago"><span id="Trinidad_.26_Tobago"></span>Trinidad & Tobago</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Trinidad & Tobago"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1970 <a href="/wiki/Black_Power_Revolution" title="Black Power Revolution">Black Power Revolution</a> in Trinidad & Tobago was born out of a black power movement that gained strength between 1968 and 1970. The <a href="/wiki/National_Joint_Action_Committee" title="National Joint Action Committee">National Joint Action Committee</a> (NJAC) was formed out of the Guild of Undergraduates at the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustine,_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Saint Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago">St. Augustine</a> campus of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies" title="University of the West Indies">University of the West Indies</a> (UWI), and under its leader Geddes Granger (later <a href="/wiki/Makandal_Daaga" title="Makandal Daaga">Makandal Daaga</a>), along with Khafra Khambon, they challenged <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Minister">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Eric_Williams" title="Eric Williams">Eric Williams</a> and his government. Simultaneously, there was growing unrest among trade unionists, led by George Weekes of the <a href="/wiki/Oilfields_Workers%27_Trade_Union" title="Oilfields Workers' Trade Union">Oilfields Workers' Trade Union</a>, Clive Nunez of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transport_and_Industrial_Workers_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transport and Industrial Workers Union (page does not exist)">Transport and Industrial Workers Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Basdeo_Panday" title="Basdeo Panday">Basdeo Panday</a>. </p><p>In February 1970, a <a href="/wiki/Carnival" title="Carnival">Carnival</a> band, Pinetoppers, presented "The Truth about Africa", with portrayals of <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Kwame Ture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tubal_Uriah_Butler" title="Tubal Uriah Butler">Tubal Uriah Butler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several marches and protests followed, including a demonstration on 26 February which started outside of the Canadian High Commission and the Royal Bank of Canada to protest the arrest of Caribbean students for an anti-racism sit-in at Sir George Williams University in Montreal.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Prime Minister tried to appease protesters by introducing a five percent levy to fund unemployment relief, and established the first locally owned commercial bank, but this had little impact. </p><p>After several weeks of increasingly heated demonstrations, which included disaffected citizens of all ethnicities,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basil Davis, a protester, was killed by the police on 6 April. He was later recognised as the first martyr of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His funeral on 9 April saw some 100,000 people join a march from Port of Spain to the San Juan cemetery.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 April <a href="/wiki/A._N._R._Robinson" title="A. N. R. Robinson">A. N. R. Robinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of Parliament">Member of Parliament</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a> East, resigned. On 18 April, sugar workers went on strike, with rumblings of a general strike to follow. In response, on 21 April, Prime Minister Williams declared a State of Emergency, arresting 15 black power leaders. Some members of the Defence Force, led by <a href="/wiki/Raffique_Shah" title="Raffique Shah">Raffique Shah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rex_Lassalle" title="Rex Lassalle">Rex Lassalle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutinied</a>, taking hostages at the army barracks in Teteron; the mutiny was ultimately quelled on 25 April. It is often described as an attempted military coup. </p><p>Williams, who was accused of upholding colonial and capitalist power structures, endeavoured to win over members of the black power movement by trying to align himself and his party with their aims. In a Cabinet re-shuffle, he removed three ministers (two of them white) and three senators. However, he also introduced the <i>Public Order Act</i>, which reduced civil liberties in a bid to restrict protest marches. After public opposition, led by Robinson and his newly formed Action Committee of Democratic Citizens, the bill was withdrawn. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beauty">Beauty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Beauty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></div> <p>The cultivation of pride in the African-American race was often summarized in the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">black is beautiful</a>." The phrase is rooted in its historical context, yet the relationship to it has changed in contemporary times. A respondent in <a href="/wiki/Bob_Blauner" title="Bob Blauner">Bob Blauner</a>'s "Longitudinal Oral History of U.S. Race Relations" in 1986 stated: "I don't think it's 'Black is beautiful' anymore. It's 'I am beautiful and I'm black.' It's not the symbolic thing, the <a href="/wiki/Afro" title="Afro">afro</a>, power sign<span class="nowrap"> </span>... That phase is over and it succeeded. My children feel better about themselves and they know that they're black."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outward manifestations of an appreciation and celebration of blackness abound: black dolls, natural hair, black Santas, models and celebrities that were once rare and symbolic have become commonplace. </p><p>The "black is beautiful" cultural movement aimed to dispel the notion that black people's natural features such as skin color, facial features and hair are inherently ugly.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Sweat_Rock" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sweat Rock">John Sweat Rock</a> was the first to coin the phrase "Black is Beautiful", in the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> era. The movement asked that men and women stop <a href="/wiki/Hair_straightening" title="Hair straightening">straightening their hair</a> and attempting to <a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening" title="Skin whitening">lighten or bleach their skin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevailing idea in <a href="/wiki/American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="American culture">American culture</a> was that black features were less attractive or desirable than white features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_culture">Arts and culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Arts and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The black power movement produced artistic and cultural products that both embodied and generated pride in "blackness" and further defined an African-American identity that remains contemporary. Black power is often seen as a cultural revolution as much as a political revolution, with the goal of celebrating and emphasizing the distinctive group culture of African Americans to an American society that had previously been dominated by white artistic and cultural expressions. Black power utilized all available forms of folk, literary, and dramatic expression based in a common ancestral past to promote a message of self-actualization and cultural self-definition.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emphasis on a distinctive black culture during the black power movement publicized and legitimized a culture gap between black and white people that had previously been ignored and denigrated. More generally, in recognizing the legitimacy of another culture and challenging the idea of white cultural superiority, the black power movement paved the way for the celebration of multiculturalism in America today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The cultural concept of "soul" was fundamental to the image of African-American culture embodied by the black power movement. Soul, a type of "in-group cultural cachet," was closely tied to black America's need for individual and group self-identification.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A central expression of the "soulfulness" of the black power generation was a cultivation of aloofness and detachment, the creation of an "aura or emotional invulnerability," a persona that challenged their position of relative powerlessness in greater society. The nonverbal expressions of this attitude, including everything from posture to handshakes, were developed as a counterpoint to the rigid, "up-tight" mannerisms of white people. Though the iconic symbol of black power, the arms raised with biceps flexed and clenched fists, is temporally specific, variants of the multitude of handshakes, or "giving and getting skin," in the 1960s and 1970s as a mark of communal solidarity continue to exist as a part of black culture.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jazz had played a crucial artistic role to the black power movement throughout the 20th century. Throughout the century jazz had undergone a series of changes in terms of the composition and structure as experimentalists attempted to break away from the status quo. From swing to bebop, hard bop, free/avant-garde, Afrofuturist, and fusion jazz, African-American artists continued to evolve the genre to adapt to the social trends of their time. One of the core reasons behind jazz experimentation was the integration of the music in to the white-controlled mainstream, subjecting the music to marketization for the purpose of entertainment.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kwami Coleman explains this played an integral role in the production of avant-garde jazz in the 1960s as a response to the use of bebop as cultural propaganda during Cold War and its growing reputation as "white music." The structure of avant-garde jazz allowed the musicians to have more creative liberty in their pieces because of the emphasis on improvisation that had contradicted the notions of Euro-American music. This generation, which was grounded within the conditions of the Civil Rights Movement, utilized an Afrological and Afro-Modernist sound to reconnect to African heritage in a move away from American Romanticism.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avant-garde jazz was also developed from the desire of African Americans to develop their own cultural attitudes and structures of power outside of the status-quo; this desire for autonomy is translated into the music and the music is used to express their resistance against the white supremacist system.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clothing style also became an expression of black power in the 1960s and 1970s. Though many of the popular trends of the movement remained confined to the decade, the movement redefined standards of beauty that were historically influenced by white people and instead celebrated a natural "blackness." As <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a> said in 1966, "We have to stop being ashamed of being black. A broad nose, thick lip and <a href="/wiki/Nappy_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Nappy hair">nappy hair</a> is us and we are going to call that beautiful whether they like it or not."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Natural" hair styles, such as the Afro, became a socially acceptable tribute to group unity and a highly visible celebration of black heritage. Though the same social messages may no longer consciously influence individual hair or clothing styles in today's society, the black power movement was influential in diversifying standards of beauty and aesthetic choices. The black power movement raised the idea of a black aesthetic that revealed the worth and beauty of all black people.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In developing a powerful identity from the most elemental aspects of African-American folk life, the black power movement generated attention to the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">soul food</a>," a fresh, authentic, and natural style of cooking that originated in Africa. The flavor and solid nourishment of the food was credited with sustaining African Americans through centuries of oppression in America and became an important aid in nurturing contemporary racial pride.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black power advocates used the concept of "soul food" to further distinguish between white and black culture; though the basic elements of soul food were not specific to African-American food, Blacks believed in the distinctive quality, if not superiority, of foods prepared by Blacks. No longer racially specific, traditional "soul foods" such as <a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">yams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collard_greens" class="mw-redirect" title="Collard greens">collard greens</a>, and deep-fried chicken continue to hold a place in contemporary culinary life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Black_Arts_Movement">Black Arts Movement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Black Arts Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></div> <p>The Black Arts Movement or BAM, founded in Harlem by writer and activist <a href="/wiki/Amiri_Baraka" title="Amiri Baraka">Amiri Baraka</a> (born Everett LeRoy Jones), can be seen as the artistic branch of the black power movement.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This movement inspired black people to establish ownership of publishing houses, magazines, journals and art institutions. Other well-known writers who were involved with this movement included <a href="/wiki/Nikki_Giovanni" title="Nikki Giovanni">Nikki Giovanni</a>; Don L. Lee, later known as <a href="/wiki/Haki_Madhubuti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haki Madhubuti">Haki Madhubuti</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sanchez" title="Sonia Sanchez">Sonia Sanchez</a>; <a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dudley_Randall" title="Dudley Randall">Dudley Randall</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Plumpp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterling Plumpp">Sterling Plumpp</a>; <a href="/wiki/Larry_Neal" title="Larry Neal">Larry Neal</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ted_Joans" title="Ted Joans">Ted Joans</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ahmos_Zu-Bolton" title="Ahmos Zu-Bolton">Ahmos Zu-Bolton</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Etheridge_Knight" title="Etheridge Knight">Etheridge Knight</a>. Several black-owned publishing houses and publications sprang from the BAM, including Madhubuti's <a href="/wiki/Third_World_Press" title="Third World Press">Third World Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadside_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadside Press">Broadside Press</a>, Zu-Bolton's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energy_Black_South_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Energy Black South Press (page does not exist)">Energy Black South Press</a>, and the periodicals <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Callaloo_(magazine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Callaloo (magazine) (page does not exist)">Callaloo</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yardbird_Reader&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yardbird Reader (page does not exist)">Yardbird Reader</a></i>. Although not strictly involved with the Movement, other notable African-American writers such as novelists <a href="/wiki/Ishmael_Reed" title="Ishmael Reed">Ishmael Reed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a> and poet <a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Brooks" title="Gwendolyn Brooks">Gwendolyn Brooks</a> can be considered to share some of its artistic and thematic concerns. </p><p>BAM sought "to link, in a highly conscious manner, art and politics in order to assist in the liberation of black people", and produced an increase in the quantity and visibility of African-American artistic production.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though many elements of the Black Arts movement are separate from the black power movement, many goals, themes, and activists overlapped. Literature, drama, and music of black people "served as an oppositional and defensive mechanism through which creative artists could confirm their identity while articulating their own unique impressions of social reality."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to acting as highly visible and unifying representations of "blackness," the artistic products of the black power movement also utilized themes of black empowerment and liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, black recording artists not only transmitted messages of racial unity through their music, they also became significant role models for a younger generation of African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Updated protest songs not only bemoaned oppression and societal wrongs, but utilized adversity as a reference point and tool to lead others to activism. Some black power-era artists conducted brief mini-courses in the techniques of empowerment. In the tradition of cultural nationalists, these artists taught that in order to alter social conditions, black people first had to change the way they viewed themselves; they had to break free of white norms and strive to be more natural, a common theme of African-American art and music.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Musicians such as <a href="/wiki/The_Temptations" title="The Temptations">the Temptations</a> sang lyrics such as "I have one single desire, just like you / So move over, son, 'cause I'm comin' through" in their song "Message From a Black Man," they expressed the revolutionary sentiments of the black power movement.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ishmael Reed, who is considered neither a movement apologist nor advocate, said: "I wasn't invited to participate because I was considered an integrationist" but he went on to explain the positive aspects of the Black Arts Movement and the black power movement: </p> <blockquote><p>I think what Black Arts did was inspire a whole lot of Black people to write. Moreover, there would be no multiculturalism movement without Black Arts. Latinos, Asian Americans, and others all say they began writing as a result of the example of the 1960s. Blacks gave the example that you don't have to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilate</a>. You could do your own thing, get into your own background, your own history, your own tradition and your own culture. I think the challenge is for cultural sovereignty and Black Arts struck a blow for that.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>By breaking into a field typically reserved for white Americans, artists of the black power era expanded opportunities for current African Americans. "Today's writers and performers," writes William L. Van Deburg, "recognize that they owe a great deal to black power's explosion of cultural orthodoxy."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>BAM could be easily described through the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians, or AACM, a collective of Black musicians and composers that was founded in the South Side of Chicago. Their goal was the nurturing, performing, and recording of Black jazz. At the time of the AACM's founding jazz was facing a massive crisis; clubs were rapidly being closed, gig opportunities sharply decreased, and jazz experimentalists did not connect with large audiences due to their unconventional style. The AACM created a power structure for African-American musicians, especially women who typically faced large amounts of discrimination in the industry, that allowed for the fostering of a healthy jazz community outside of the predatory record companies.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a>, an elder statesman of the Civil Rights Movement, was a harsh critic of black power in its earliest days. Writing in 1966, shortly after the March Against Fear, Rustin said that black power "not only lacks any real value for the civil rights movement, but ... its propagation is positively harmful. It diverts the movement from a meaningful debate over strategy and tactics, it isolates the Negro community, and it encourages the growth of anti-Negro forces." He particularly criticized the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE) and SNCC for their turn toward black power, arguing that these two organizations once "awakened the country, but now they emerge isolated and demoralized, shouting a slogan that may afford a momentary satisfaction but that is calculated to destroy them and their movement."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The black power slogan was also criticized by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, who stated that the black power movement "connotates <a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">black supremacy</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">anti-white</a> feeling that does not or should not prevail."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">NAACP</a> also disapproved of black power. Roy Wilkins, then the NAACP's executive director, stated that black power was "a reverse Hitler, a reverse Ku Klux Klan...the father of hate and mother of violence."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The black power slogan was also met with opposition from the leadership of SCLC and the <a href="/wiki/Urban_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban League">Urban League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Politicians in high office also spoke out against black power: in 1966, President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> criticized extremists on both sides of the racial divide, stating "we're not interested in black power and we are not interested in white power, but we are interested in American democratic power, with a small 'd<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At an NAACP rally the next day, Vice President <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> argued "Racism is racism and we must reject calls for racism whether they come from a throat that is white or one that is black."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses">Responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Ture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwame Ture">Kwame Ture</a>, formerly known as Stokely Carmichael, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Hamilton" title="Charles V. Hamilton">Charles V. Hamilton</a>, both activists with the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> and authors of the book, <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Power:_The_Politics_of_Liberation" title="Black Power: The Politics of Liberation">Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</a></i> highlight that some observers and critics of the black power movement conflated "black power" with "black supremacy". They countered that black power advocates were not proposing a mirror-image of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> and domination, instead they were working towards "an effective share in the total power of society".<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_independence_movements" title="African independence movements">African independence movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_(New_Zealand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power (New Zealand)">Black Power (New Zealand)</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> gang</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_New_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of New Africa">Republic of New Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_separatism" class="mw-redirect" title="White separatism">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Power_in_the_Caribbean" title="Black Power in the Caribbean">Black Power in the Caribbean</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStanford_University2017" class="citation web cs1">Stanford University (26 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/black-power">"The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute"</a>. <i>Kinginstitute</i>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kinginstitute&rft.atitle=The+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Jr.+Research+and+Education+Institute&rft.date=2017-04-26&rft.au=Stanford+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkinginstitute.stanford.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fblack-power&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott, James. Wilson. (1976). <i>The Black Revolts: Racial Stratification in the U.S.A.: The Politics of Estate, Caste, and Class in the American Society</i>. Cambridge, Mass: Schenkman Pub.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ogbar, J. O. G. (2005). <i>Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity. Reconfiguring American Political History</i>. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Appiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Appiah">Appiah, Anthony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Henry Louis Gates Jr.</a> (1999). <i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i>. New York: Basic Civitas Books, p. 262. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195170559" title="Special:BookSources/9780195170559">9780195170559</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crmvet.org/docs/blackpwr.htm">"Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement – The Basis of Black Power"</a>. <i>www.crmvet.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.crmvet.org&rft.atitle=Veterans+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+%E2%80%93+The+Basis+of+Black+Power&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Fdocs%2Fblackpwr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2017" class="citation web cs1">Davis, Joshua Clark (28 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaihs.org/black-owned-bookstores-anchors-of-the-black-power-movement/">"Black-Owned Bookstores: Anchors of the Black Power Movement – AAIHS"</a>. <i>www.aaihs.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aaihs.org&rft.atitle=Black-Owned+Bookstores%3A+Anchors+of+the+Black+Power+Movement+%E2%80%93+AAIHS&rft.date=2017-01-28&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Joshua+Clark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaihs.org%2Fblack-owned-bookstores-anchors-of-the-black-power-movement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonadu2009" class="citation book cs1">Konadu, Kwasi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lbvOF1BUT2oC&q=the+east+cooperative+view+from+the+east+kununuana&pg=PA78"><i>A View from the East: Black Cultural Nationalism and Education in New York City</i></a>. Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5101-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5101-7"><bdi>978-0-8156-5101-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+View+from+the+East%3A+Black+Cultural+Nationalism+and+Education+in+New+York+City&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-5101-7&rft.aulast=Konadu&rft.aufirst=Kwasi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlbvOF1BUT2oC%26q%3Dthe%2Beast%2Bcooperative%2Bview%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Beast%2Bkununuana%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlehr1988" class="citation book cs1">Klehr, Harvey (1988-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8YSmiFins9sC&q=republik+of+new+afrika+farm&pg=PA117"><i>Far Left of Center: The American Radical Left Today</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2343-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2343-2"><bdi>978-1-4128-2343-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Far+Left+of+Center%3A+The+American+Radical+Left+Today&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2343-2&rft.aulast=Klehr&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8YSmiFins9sC%26q%3Drepublik%2Bof%2Bnew%2Bafrika%2Bfarm%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/black-power-tv">"Black Power TV | Duke University Press"</a>. <i>www.dukeupress.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dukeupress.edu&rft.atitle=Black+Power+TV+%7C+Duke+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dukeupress.edu%2Fblack-power-tv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgbar2005" class="citation book cs1">Ogbar, Jeffrey O.G. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerradica0000ogba"><i>Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity</i></a></span>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerradica0000ogba/page/64">64</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Power%3A+Radical+Politics+and+African+American+Identity&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Ogbar&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+O.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerradica0000ogba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Simon (2020). "The NAACP, Black Power, and the African American Freedom Struggle, 1966–1969". <i>The Historian</i>. <b>69</b> (1): 49–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2007.00174.x">10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00174.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143800915">143800915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=The+NAACP%2C+Black+Power%2C+and+the+African+American+Freedom+Struggle%2C+1966%E2%80%931969&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-82&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2007.00174.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143800915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yale-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yale_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yale_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> Yale Book of Quotations</i> (2006), <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, edited by Fred R. Shapiro.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoggs1998" class="citation book cs1">Boggs, Grace Lee (1998). <i>Living for Change: An Autobiography</i>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-2954-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-2954-4"><bdi>0-8166-2954-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+for+Change%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8166-2954-4&rft.aulast=Boggs&rft.aufirst=Grace+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Historical Background," Black Power Conference, June 8, 2016 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://cooperationjackson.org/black-power-conference/2016/6/8/historical-background">https://cooperationjackson.org/black-power-conference/2016/6/8/historical-background</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boggs, <i>Living for Change</i>, ibid.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick King, "Introduction to Boggs" <i>e-flux Journal</i>, 79 (February 2017): <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.e-flux.com/journal/79/94671/introduction-to-boggs/">https://www.e-flux.com/journal/79/94671/introduction-to-boggs/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grace Lee Boggs, Introduction to <i>Revolution and Evolution in the Twentieth Century</i>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://intercommunalworkshop.org/grace-lee-boggs-introduction-revolution-evolution/">http://intercommunalworkshop.org/grace-lee-boggs-introduction-revolution-evolution/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffries,_Hasan2010" class="citation book cs1">Jeffries, Hasan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XFWVLK4_PCoC&pg=PA187"><i>Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama's Black Belt</i></a>. NYU Press. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814743065" title="Special:BookSources/9780814743065"><bdi>9780814743065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloody+Lowndes%3A+Civil+Rights+and+Black+Power+in+Alabama%27s+Black+Belt&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780814743065&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Hasan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXFWVLK4_PCoC%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Matthew Duncan': Black Power salute by John Dominis-1968." <i>The Chateau Theme</i>, 7 November 2013. Web. 7 November 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Stokely Carmichael", <i>King Encyclopedia</i>, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University. Accessed 20 November 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201208023352/https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/stokely-carmichael">"Stokely Carmichael"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_(American_TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (American TV network)">History.com</a>. December 18, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/stokely-carmichael">the original</a> on December 8, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stokely+Carmichael&rft.pub=History.com&rft.date=2009-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fblack-history%2Fstokely-carmichael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTureHamilton1967" class="citation book cs1">Ture, Kwame; Hamilton, Charles (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/53"><i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i></a>. Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0679743138" title="Special:BookSources/0679743138"><bdi>0679743138</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Power%3A+The+Politics+of+Liberation&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0679743138&rft.aulast=Ture&rft.aufirst=Kwame&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerpoliti00carm_0%2Fpage%2F53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theoharis, Jeanne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/5/2/2/1/9/p522193_index.html?phpsessid=52461e5fbc3ff8d78be0c47d44ef4d26">"'I Don't Believe in Gradualism': Rosa Parks and the Black Power Movement in Detroit"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141211203242/http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/5/2/2/1/9/p522193_index.html?phpsessid=52461e5fbc3ff8d78be0c47d44ef4d26">Archived</a> 2014-12-11 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 96th Annual Convention of the Association for the Study of African-American Life and History.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carson, Clayborne (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/~ccarson/articles/southern_culture.htm">"Black Freedom Movement".</a> In <i>Encyclopedia of Southern Culture,</i> Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris (eds.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807818232" title="Special:BookSources/0807818232">0807818232</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Premilla_Nadasen" title="Premilla Nadasen">Premilla Nadasen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://investigatinghistory.ashp.cuny.edu/m11.html">"The Black Freedom Movement"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141204181239/http://investigatinghistory.ashp.cuny.edu/m11.html">Archived</a> December 4, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, City University of New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ransby, Barbara (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5959231/Ella_Baker_and_the_Black_Freedom_Movement_Barbara_Ransby"><i>Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTure1967" class="citation book cs1">Ture, Kwame (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/46"><i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i></a>. New York: Vintage Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/46">46</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-74313-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-74313-8"><bdi>0-679-74313-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Power%3A+The+Politics+of+Liberation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-679-74313-8&rft.aulast=Ture&rft.aufirst=Kwame&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerpoliti00carm_0%2Fpage%2F46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwameHamilton1967" class="citation book cs1">Kwame, Ture; Hamilton, Charles (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/81"><i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i></a>. New York: Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/81">81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-74313-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-74313-8"><bdi>0-679-74313-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Power%3A+The+Politics+of+Liberation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-679-74313-8&rft.aulast=Kwame&rft.aufirst=Ture&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerpoliti00carm_0%2Fpage%2F81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seale, Bobby (1996). <i><a href="/wiki/Seize_the_Time_(book)" title="Seize the Time (book)">Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton</a></i>. New York: Black Classic Press. p. 72. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/093312130X" title="Special:BookSources/093312130X">093312130X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vanHorne-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vanHorne_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vanHorne_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Horne2007" class="citation journal cs1">Van Horne, Winston A. (2007). "The Concept of Black Power: Its Continued Relevance". <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>37</b> (3): 365–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021934706290079">10.1177/0021934706290079</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40034781">40034781</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220392929">220392929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Black+Power%3A+Its+Continued+Relevance&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=365-389&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220392929%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40034781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0021934706290079&rft.aulast=Van+Horne&rft.aufirst=Winston+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mandela, Nelson (1994) <i><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Long Walk to Freedom">Long Walk to Freedom</a></i>. Little, Brown, and Co. p. 318. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-87496-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-87496-5">0-316-87496-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyson1998" class="citation journal cs1">Tyson, Timothy B. (1998). "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle". <i>The Journal of American History</i>. <b>85</b> (2): 540–570. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2567750">10.2307/2567750</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567750">2567750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Robert+F.+Williams%2C+%27Black+Power%2C%27+and+the+Roots+of+the+African+American+Freedom+Struggle&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=540-570&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2567750&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2567750%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Timothy+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph, Peniel ed. (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rEG42f9T77IC&pg=PA55"><i>Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 55–61. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136773402" title="Special:BookSources/9781136773402">9781136773402</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Baldwin, "A Negro Assays the Negro Mood" <i>The New York Times Magazine</i>, March 12, 1961</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruth Feldstein, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hnn.us/article/154884">"Nina Simone: The Antidote to the 'We Shall Overcome' Myth of the Civil Rights Movement"</a>, History News Network (George Mason University).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1967" class="citation book cs1">King, Martin Luther (August 16, 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150311114437/http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/documentsentry/where_do_we_go_from_here_delivered_at_the_11th_annual_sclc_convention"><i>Address to the Southern Christian Leadership Conference</i></a>. Stanford. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/documentsentry/where_do_we_go_from_here_delivered_at_the_11th_annual_sclc_convention/">the original</a> on March 11, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Address+to+the+Southern+Christian+Leadership+Conference&rft.pub=Stanford&rft.date=1967-08-16&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Martin+Luther&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmlk-kpp01.stanford.edu%2Findex.php%2Fencyclopedia%2Fdocumentsentry%2Fwhere_do_we_go_from_here_delivered_at_the_11th_annual_sclc_convention%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1967" class="citation book cs1">King, Martin Luther (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wheredowegofromh00king_0"><i>Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?</i></a></span>. Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807005712" title="Special:BookSources/9780807005712"><bdi>9780807005712</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Do+We+Go+from+Here%3A+Chaos+or+Community%3F&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780807005712&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Martin+Luther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwheredowegofromh00king_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In addition to SNCC, the other "Big Five" organizations of the civil rights movement were the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Urban_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban League">Urban League</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a>, and the Congress on Racial Equality.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglass, Frederick (1991). "Letter to an abolitionist associate (1857)". In <i>Organizing for Social Change: A Mandate For Activity In The 1990s</i>. Bobo, K.; Randall, J.; and Max, S. (eds). Cabin John, Maryland: Seven Locks Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0932020933" title="Special:BookSources/0932020933">0932020933</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frye Gaillard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cradleoffreedoma0000gail"><i>Cradle of Freedom: Alabama and the Movement That Changed America</i></a> (University of Alabama Press, 2004), pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-saul-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-saul_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-saul_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaul,_Scott2006" class="citation magazine cs1">Saul, Scott (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harpers.org/archive/2006/12/on-the-lower-frequencies/">"On the Lower Frequencies: Rethinking the Black Power Movement"</a>. <i>Harper's</i>. pp. 94–95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s&rft.atitle=On+the+Lower+Frequencies%3A+Rethinking+the+Black+Power+Movement&rft.pages=94-95&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Saul%2C+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharpers.org%2Farchive%2F2006%2F12%2Fon-the-lower-frequencies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Advertisement by Civil Rights Leaders". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. October 14, 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Advertisement+by+Civil+Rights+Leaders&rft.date=1966-10-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph,_Peniel_E." class="citation book cs1">Joseph, Peniel E. <i>The Black Power Movement Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-95492-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-95492-8"><bdi>978-0-203-95492-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/962028552">962028552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Power+Movement+Rethinking+the+Civil+Rights-Black+Power+Era&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F962028552&rft.isbn=978-0-203-95492-8&rft.au=Joseph%2C+Peniel+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-d306-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-d306_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-d306_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-d306_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/milestones/m13_nbpc.html">"American Experience | Eyes on the Prize | Milestones"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170109033615/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/milestones/m13_nbpc.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> PBS, 5 April 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCartney-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCartney_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCartney_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCartney, John T. (1992) <i>Black Power Ideologies: An Essay in African-American Political Thought</i>, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wearemany.org/v/from-black-power-to-black-lives-matter">"From Black Power to Black Lives Matter"</a>. <i>Wearemany.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wearemany.org&rft.atitle=From+Black+Power+to+Black+Lives+Matter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwearemany.org%2Fv%2Ffrom-black-power-to-black-lives-matter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m4bl.org/black-power-rising/">Black Power Rising</a>. Movement for Black Lives.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#joseph">Joseph</a>, p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#joseph">Joseph</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams92-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams92_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams92_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Hettie V. <i>We Shall Overcome to We Shall Overrun: The Collapse of the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Revolt (1962–1968)</i>. Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 2009, p. 92. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761843531" title="Special:BookSources/0761843531">0761843531</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#joseph">Joseph</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Stephen, Curtis (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/magazine/1P3-1158934801/life-of-a-party">"Life of A Party"</a>. <i>Crisis</i>. <b>113</b> (5): 30–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crisis&rft.atitle=Life+of+A+Party&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=30-37&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Stephen&rft.aufirst=Curtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fmagazine%2F1P3-1158934801%2Flife-of-a-party&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCormack,_Donald_J._1970._p.394_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McCormack, Donald J. <i>Black Power: Political Ideology?</i> Diss. University of New York at Albany, 1970. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1984, p. 394.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burns, Andrea Alison. (2008). <i>"Show me my Soul.": the evolution of the Black museum movement in postwar America</i>. 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2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aaihs.org/70-remembering-a-revolution-in-trinidad-and-tobago/">'70: Remembering a Revolution</a> AAIHS, 30 September 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trinidadexpress.com/opinion/editorials/black-power-50-years-later/article_057b2ac8-5834-11ea-9847-2706ad837078.html">Black Power 50 years later</a> Trinidad Express, 12 March 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wired868.com/2016/04/08/remembering-basil-davis-the-1970-black-power-movements-first-martyr/">Remembering 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id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walkerart.org/collections/publications/jazz/http:://walkerart.org/collections/publications/jazz/creative-black-music-introduction">"Beyond the Chord, the Club, and the Critics"</a>. <i>walkerart.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=walkerart.org&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Chord%2C+the+Club%2C+and+the+Critics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwalkerart.org%2Fcollections%2Fpublications%2Fjazz%2Fhttp%3A%3A%2F%2Fwalkerart.org%2Fcollections%2Fpublications%2Fjazz%2Fcreative-black-music-introduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520938434-007">"5. "We Called Ourselves Modern": Race Music and the Politics and Practice of Afro-Modernism at Midcentury"</a>, <i>Race Music</i>, University of California Press, pp. 96–130, 2019-12-31, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520938434-007">10.1525/9780520938434-007</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520938434" title="Special:BookSources/9780520938434"><bdi>9780520938434</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241276154">241276154</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-08</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Race+Music&rft.atitle=5.+%22We+Called+Ourselves+Modern%22%3A+Race+Music+and+the+Politics+and+Practice+of+Afro-Modernism+at+Midcentury&rft.pages=96-130&rft.date=2019-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A241276154%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2F9780520938434-007&rft.isbn=9780520938434&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1525%2F9780520938434-007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umich.edu/~eng499/orgs/barts.html">The Black Arts Repertory Theatre/School</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991112143706/http://www.umich.edu/~eng499/orgs/barts.html">Archived</a> November 12, 1999, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#joseph">Joseph</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salaam, Kalamu ya. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aalbc.com/authors/blackartsmovement.htm">Black Arts Movement</a>. aalbc.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#deburg">Van DeBurg</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2008" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, George E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226477039.001.0001"><i>A Power Stronger Than Itself</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226477039.001.0001">10.7208/chicago/9780226477039.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47696-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47696-4"><bdi>978-0-226-47696-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Power+Stronger+Than+Itself&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226477039.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-226-47696-4&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=George+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226477039.001.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRustin1965" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Rustin, Bayard</a> (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2002/brotheroutsider/power.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Black Power" and Coalition Politics"</a>. <i>Commentary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commentary&rft.atitle=%22Black+Power%22+and+Coalition+Politics&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Rustin&rft.aufirst=Bayard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fpov%2Fpov2002%2Fbrotheroutsider%2Fpower.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Baptists to Shun Dr. King Rally". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. July 7, 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Baptists+to+Shun+Dr.+King+Rally&rft.date=1966-07-07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1966/07/06/archives/president-points-to-racial-actions-emphasizes-administration-moves.html">"President Points to Racial Actions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. July 6, 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=President+Points+to+Racial+Actions&rft.date=1966-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1966%2F07%2F06%2Farchives%2Fpresident-points-to-racial-actions-emphasizes-administration-moves.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1966/07/07/archives/excerpts-from-the-talk-by-humphrey.html">"Excerpts from the Talk by Humphrey"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. July 7, 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Excerpts+from+the+Talk+by+Humphrey&rft.date=1966-07-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1966%2F07%2F07%2Farchives%2Fexcerpts-from-the-talk-by-humphrey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTureHamilton1967" class="citation book cs1">Ture, Kwame; Hamilton, Charles V. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/47"><i>Black Power: The Politics of Liberation</i></a>. New York: Vintage. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackpowerpoliti00carm_0/page/47">47</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-74313-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-74313-2"><bdi>978-0-679-74313-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Power%3A+The+Politics+of+Liberation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-679-74313-2&rft.aulast=Ture&rft.aufirst=Kwame&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Charles+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackpowerpoliti00carm_0%2Fpage%2F47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="joseph" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, Peniel E. (2006). <i>Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America</i>. Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805083354" title="Special:BookSources/9780805083354"><bdi>9780805083354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waiting+%27Til+the+Midnight+Hour%3A+A+Narrative+History+of+Black+Power+in+America&rft.pub=Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780805083354&rft.au=Joseph%2C+Peniel+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="deburg" class="citation book cs1">Van DeBurg, William L. (1992). <i>New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975</i>. The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226847152" title="Special:BookSources/0226847152"><bdi>0226847152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Day+in+Babylon%3A+The+Black+Power+Movement+and+American+Culture%2C+1965%E2%80%931975&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0226847152&rft.au=Van+DeBurg%2C+William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+power" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brown, Scot, <i>Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism</i>, New York: New York University Press, 2003.</li> <li>Bush, Rod. <i>We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century</i> (1999)</li> <li>Cone, James. <i>Black theology and black power</i> (Orbis Books, 2018).</li> <li>Frazier, Nishani. <i>Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism</i>. (Arkansas University Press, 2017). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1682260186" title="Special:BookSources/1682260186">1682260186</a>.</li> <li>Goldstein, Brian D., "'The Search for New Forms': Black Power and the Making of the Postmodern City," <i>Journal of American History</i>, (2016) 102#2, pp. 375–399.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Joseph, Peniel E.</a>, ed. <i>Neighborhood rebels: Black power at the local level</i> (Springer, 2010).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Joseph, Peniel E.</a> <i>Dark Days, Bright Nights: From Black Power to Barack Obama</i> (Basic, 2010).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Joseph, Peniel E.</a> "The black power movement, democracy, and America in the king years." <i>American Historical Review</i> 114.4 (2009): 1001–1016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.114.4.1001">https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr.114.4.1001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Joseph, Peniel E.</a> <i>Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Waiting-Til-Midnight-Hour-Narrative/dp/0805083359/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G. <i>Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity</i>. (2nd ed. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lb-EDwAAQBAJ">online</a></li> <li>Williams, Hettie V. <i>We Shall Overcome to We Shall Overrun: The Collapse of the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Revolt (1962–1968)</i> (University Press of America, 2009), ISBN 0761843531</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peniel_E._Joseph" title="Peniel E. Joseph">Joseph, Peniel E.</a> "The black power movement: A state of the field." <i>Journal of American History</i> 96.3 (2009): 751–776. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cooperative-individualism.org/joseph-peniel_the-black-power-movement-2009-dec.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Joseph, Peniel E. "Rethinking the black power era." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 75.3 (2009): 707-716. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27779034">online</a></li> <li>Joseph, Peniel E. "Historians and the Black Power movement." <i>OAH Magazine of History</i> 22.3 (2008): 8–15.</li> <li>Joseph, Peniel E., ed. <i>The black power movement: Rethinking the civil rights-black power era.</i> (Taylor & Francis, 2006).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Carmichael, Stokely/ Hamilton, Charles V., and Ture, Kwame: <i>Black Power. The Politics of Liberation in America</i>. New York: Vintage Books, 1967.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_power&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Black_power" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Black power">Black power</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snccdigital.org/resources/themes/black-power/">SNCC Digital Gateway: Black Power</a>, Digital documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harambeecity.lib.miamioh.edu/">Harambee City</a>: Archival site incorporating documents, maps, audio/visual materials related to CORE's work in black power and black economic development</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penielejoseph.com">Website of Dr. Peniel E. Joseph</a>, Professor of African-American Studies, Scholar of African American history and frequent commentator on civil rights, race and democracy issues</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100419065102/http://stokely-carmichael.com/">Stokely-Carmichael.com</a>—Focus on Carmichael's life and rhetoric</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newBlack">Panther Party.com/ The official website of the New Black Panther Party</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2016">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061008142331/http://www.iww.org/culture/biography/HubertHarrison1.shtml">Hubert Harrison</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110228100851/http://www.iww.org/culture/biography/BenFletcher1.shtml">Ben Fletcher</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harlemcore.com">A History of Harlem CORE</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracynow.org/2011/1/24/the_black_power_mixtape_danny_glover"><i>The Black Power Mixtape</i></a> – New Documentary Featuring <a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a>, & <a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a>—video report by <i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Now!" title="Democracy Now!">Democracy Now!</a></i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_Panther_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#000000; color:white; −"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_Panther_Party" title="Template:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_Panther_Party" title="Template talk:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_Panther_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black Panther Party"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_Panther_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Black Panther Party</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Brown" title="Elaine Brown">Elaine Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Cox" title="Donald L. Cox">Donald Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilliard" title="David Hilliard">David Hilliard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Black_Panther_Party" title="List of members of the Black Panther Party"><span style="background-color: #000000; color:white;">Members</span></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">West Coast based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JoNina_Abron-Ervin" title="JoNina Abron-Ervin">JoNina Abron-Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Aoki" title="Richard Aoki">Richard Aoki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barron" title="Charles Barron">Charles Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lee_Brent" title="William Lee Brent">William Lee Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Bullins" title="Ed Bullins">Ed Bullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunchy_Carter" title="Bunchy Carter">Bunchy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Comfort" title="Mark Comfort">Mark Comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Dixon" title="Aaron Dixon">Aaron Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emory_Douglas" title="Emory Douglas">Emory Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Kwaku_Duren" title="B. Kwaku Duren">B. Kwaku Duren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Easley-Cox" title="Barbara Easley-Cox">Barbara Easley-Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Ford_(activist)" title="Kent Ford (activist)">Kent Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggie_Forte" title="Reggie Forte">Reggie Forte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Hewitt" title="Raymond Hewitt">Raymond "Masai" Hewitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Howard" title="Elbert Howard">Elbert "Big Man" Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Huggins" title="John Huggins">John Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ericka_Huggins" title="Ericka Huggins">Ericka Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Hutton" title="Bobby Hutton">Bobby Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">George Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Tarika_Lewis" title="Joan Tarika Lewis">Joan Tarika Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalil_Muntaqim" title="Jalil Muntaqim">Jalil Muntaqim (Anthony Bottom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Parker" title="Pat Parker">Pat Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geronimo_Pratt" title="Geronimo Pratt">Geronimo Pratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Robert Trivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Zinzun" title="Michael Zinzun">Michael Zinzun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">East Coast based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mumia_Abu-Jamal" title="Mumia Abu-Jamal">Mumia Abu-Jamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundiata_Acoli" title="Sundiata Acoli">Sundiata Acoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Ashanti Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwasi_Balagoon" title="Kuwasi Balagoon">Kuwasi Balagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhoruba_bin_Wahad" title="Dhoruba bin Wahad">Dhoruba bin Wahad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veronza_Bowers_Jr." title="Veronza Bowers Jr.">Veronza Bowers Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safiya_Bukhari" title="Safiya Bukhari">Safiya Bukhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Coates_(publisher)" title="Paul Coates (publisher)">W. Paul Coates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_%22Eddie%22_Conway" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall "Eddie" Conway">Marshall "Eddie" Conway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Joseph" title="Jamal Joseph">Jamal Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaka_Khan" title="Chaka Khan">Chaka Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Kimbro" title="Warren Kimbro">Warren Kimbro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_McLucas" title="Lonnie McLucas">Lonnie McLucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Oliver-Velez" title="Denise Oliver-Velez">Denise Oliver-Velez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Pinkney" title="Larry Pinkney">Larry Pinkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Rackley" title="Alex Rackley">Alex Rackley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Rodgers" title="Nile Rodgers">Nile Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Sams_Jr." title="George W. Sams Jr.">George W. Sams Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afeni_Shakur" title="Afeni Shakur">Afeni Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Assata Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Maroon_Shoatz" title="Russell Maroon Shoatz">Russell Maroon Shoatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tabor_(activist)" title="Michael Tabor (activist)">Michael "Cetewayo" Tabor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashir_Hameed" title="Bashir Hameed">James Dixon York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Southern based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Essex" title="Mark Essex">Mark Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hillary_King" title="Robert Hillary King">Robert Hillary King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_O%27Neal" title="Pete O'Neal">Pete O'Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_Rahim" title="Malik Rahim">Malik Rahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola_Three" title="Angola Three">Herman Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola_Three" title="Angola Three">Albert Woodfox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Chicago based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Clark_(activist)" title="Mark Clark (activist)">Mark Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O%27Neal_(informant)" title="William O'Neal (informant)">William O'Neal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Rush" title="Bobby Rush">Bobby Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Stamps" title="Marion Stamps">Marion Stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akua_Njeri" title="Akua Njeri">Akua Njeri (Deborah Johnson)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connie_Matthews" title="Connie Matthews">Connie Matthews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Harry Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Programs and projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten-Point_Program_(Black_Panther_Party)" title="Ten-Point Program (Black Panther Party)">Ten-Point Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Breakfast_for_Children" title="Free Breakfast for Children">Free Breakfast for Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Panther_(newspaper)" title="The Black Panther (newspaper)"><i>The Black Panther</i> (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Coalition_(Fred_Hampton)" title="Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)">Rainbow Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Front_Against_Fascism" title="United Front Against Fascism">United Front Against Fascism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Inspired groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Guerrilla_Family" title="Black Guerrilla Family">Black Guerrilla Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberation_Army" title="Black Liberation Army">Black Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Liberators" title="Black Liberators">Black Liberators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panthers_(Israel)" title="Black Panthers (Israel)">Black Panthers (Israel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Black_Panthers" title="British Black Panthers">British Black Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Panthers" title="Dalit Panthers">Dalit Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_Brigade" title="George Jackson Brigade">George Jackson Brigade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_Panthers" title="Gray Panthers">Gray Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Wor_Kuen" title="I Wor Kuen">I Wor Kuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81_Tamatoa" title="Ngā Tamatoa">Ngā Tamatoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_Panthers" title="Polynesian Panthers">Polynesian Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guard_Party" title="Red Guard Party">Red Guard Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pink_Panthers" title="The Pink Panthers">The Pink Panthers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viduthalai_Chiruthaigal_Katchi" title="Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi">Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Panther_Party" title="White Panther Party">White Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Lords" title="Young Lords">Young Lords</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #000000; color:white;width:1%">Subsequent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assata%27s_Daughters" title="Assata's Daughters">Assata's Daughters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Militia" title="Black Panther Militia">Black Panther Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Defense_League" title="Black Women's Defense League">Black Women's Defense League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton_Gun_Club" title="Huey P. Newton Gun Club">Huey P. Newton Gun Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Afrikan_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Afrikan Black Panther Party">New Afrikan Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Black Panther Party">New Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Panther_Vanguard_Movement" title="New Panther Vanguard Movement">New Panther Vanguard Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Black_Panther_Party" title="Revolutionary Black Panther Party">Revolutionary Black Panther Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Films and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Black Power, We're Goin' Survive America</i> (1968)</li> <li><i>Black Panthers: A Report</i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Panthers_(film)" title="Black Panthers (film)">Black Panthers</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i>Mayday</i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Interview with Bobby Seale</i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver,_Black_Panther" title="Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther">Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Finally Got the News</i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Murder_of_Fred_Hampton" title="The Murder of Fred Hampton">The Murder of Fred Hampton</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i>Teach Our Children</i> (1973)</li> <li><i>In the Event Anyone Disappears</i> (1974)</li> <li><i>Charles Garry: Streetfighter in the Courtroom</i> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panther_(film)" title="Panther (film)"><i>Panther</i></a> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_Power_to_the_People" title="All Power to the People">All Power to the People</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i>Public Enemy</i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Huey_P._Newton_Story" title="A Huey P. Newton Story">A Huey P. Newton Story</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Night_Catches_Us" title="Night Catches Us">Night Catches Us</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Panthers:_Vanguard_of_the_Revolution" title="The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution">The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judas_and_the_Black_Messiah" title="Judas and the Black Messiah">Judas and the Black Messiah</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Cigar" title="The Big Cigar">The Big Cigar</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Soul_on_Ice_(book)" title="Soul on Ice (book)">Soul on Ice</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seize_the_Time_(book)" title="Seize the Time (book)">Seize the Time</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blood_in_My_Eye_(book)" title="Blood in My Eye (book)"> Blood in My Eye</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Suicide" title="Revolutionary Suicide">Revolutionary Suicide</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Taste_of_Power" title="A Taste of Power">A Taste of Power</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Against_Empire" title="Black Against Empire">Black Against Empire</a></i> (2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#000000; color:white; −;width:1%;background:#000000; color:white;">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Betty_Van_Patter" title="Murder of Betty Van Patter">Murder of Betty Van Patter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Black_Panther_trials" title="New Haven Black Panther trials">New Haven Black Panther trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panther_21" title="Panther 21">Panther 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice%E2%80%93Poindexter_case" title="Rice–Poindexter case">Rice–Poindexter case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Templeton_(artist)" title="Robert Templeton (artist)">Robert Templeton</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Sweetback%27s_Baadasssss_Song" title="Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song">Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song</a></i> (1971)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Panther_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Panther Power">Panther Power</a>" (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_People%27s_Constitutional_Convention" title="Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention">Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#000000; 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