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tomography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computed_axial_tomography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_resonance_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_resonance_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Magnetic resonance imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_resonance_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positron_emission_tomography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positron_emission_tomography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Positron emission tomography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positron_emission_tomography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Single-photon emission computed tomography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cranial_ultrasound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cranial_ultrasound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Cranial ultrasound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cranial_ultrasound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Functional magnetic resonance imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffuse_optical_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffuse_optical_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Diffuse optical imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffuse_optical_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Event-related_optical_signal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Event-related_optical_signal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Event-related optical signal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Event-related_optical_signal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetoencephalography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetoencephalography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Magnetoencephalography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetoencephalography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_ultrasound_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_ultrasound_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Functional ultrasound imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_ultrasound_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_optically-pumped_magnetometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_optically-pumped_magnetometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Quantum optically-pumped magnetometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_optically-pumped_magnetometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_and_concerns_of_neuroimaging_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_and_concerns_of_neuroimaging_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Advantages and concerns of neuroimaging techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Advantages_and_concerns_of_neuroimaging_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Advantages and concerns of neuroimaging techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_concerns_of_neuroimaging_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Functional_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_(fMRI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_(fMRI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_(fMRI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computed_Tomography_(CT)_scan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computed_Tomography_(CT)_scan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Computed Tomography (CT) scan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computed_Tomography_(CT)_scan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positron_Emission_Tomography_(PET)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positron_Emission_Tomography_(PET)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Positron Emission Tomography (PET)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positron_Emission_Tomography_(PET)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetoencephalography_(MEG)_and_Electroencephalography_(EEG)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetoencephalography_(MEG)_and_Electroencephalography_(EEG)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetoencephalography_(MEG)_and_Electroencephalography_(EEG)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimatge" title="Neuroimatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neuroimatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurozobrazov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Neurozobrazování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neurozobrazování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuroimaging" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimagen" title="Neuroimagen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neuroimagen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="تصویربرداری عصبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تصویربرداری عصبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagerie_c%C3%A9r%C3%A9brale" title="Imagerie cérébrale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Imagerie cérébrale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EC%98%81%EC%83%81" title="신경영상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경영상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heilask%C3%B6nnun" title="Heilaskönnun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heilaskönnun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neuroimaging" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97%D7%99" title="דימות מוחי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דימות מוחי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agyi_k%C3%A9palkot%C3%A1s" title="Agyi képalkotás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Agyi képalkotás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroobrazowanie" title="Neuroobrazowanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neuroobrazowanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimagiologia" title="Neuroimagiologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neuroimagiologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нейровизуализация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейровизуализация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimazheria" title="Neuroimazheria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Neuroimazheria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimid%C5%BEing" title="Neuroimidžing – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Neuroimidžing" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroradiologi" title="Neuroradiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Neuroradiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97" title="การสร้างภาพประสาท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสร้างภาพประสาท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6rog%C3%B6r%C3%BCnt%C3%BCleme" title="Nörogörüntüleme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nörogörüntüleme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нейровізуалізація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нейровізуалізація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E9%80%A0%E5%BD%B1" title="神經造影 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="神經造影" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E6%88%90%E5%83%8F" title="神经成像 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神经成像" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Set of techniques to measure and visualize aspects of the nervous system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about imaging. For imagery and creating maps, see <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping" title="Outline of brain mapping">Outline of brain mapping</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical diagnostic method </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Neuroimaging</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_(ANIMATED).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif" decoding="async" width="256" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Para-sagittal MRI of the head in a patient with benign familial <a href="/wiki/Macrocephaly" title="Macrocephaly">macrocephaly</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">Indirectly (directly) image structure, function/pharmacology of the nervous system</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Neuroimaging</b> is the use of quantitative (computational) techniques to study the <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">structure</a> and function of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>, developed as an objective way of scientifically studying the healthy human brain in a non-invasive manner. Increasingly it is also being used for quantitative research studies of brain disease and psychiatric illness. Neuroimaging is highly multidisciplinary involving neuroscience, computer science, psychology and statistics, and is not a medical specialty. Neuroimaging is sometimes confused with neuroradiology. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a> is a medical specialty that uses non-statistical brain imaging in a clinical setting, practiced by radiologists who are medical practitioners. Neuroradiology primarily focuses on recognizing brain lesions, such as vascular diseases, strokes, tumors, and inflammatory diseases. In contrast to neuroimaging, neuroradiology is qualitative (based on subjective impressions and extensive clinical training) but sometimes uses basic quantitative methods. Functional brain imaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (<a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a>), are common in neuroimaging but rarely used in neuroradiology. Neuroimaging falls into two broad categories: </p> <ul><li>Structural imaging, which is used to quantify brain structure using e.g., <a href="/wiki/Voxel-based_morphometry" title="Voxel-based morphometry">voxel-based morphometry</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_neuroimaging" title="Functional neuroimaging">Functional imaging</a>, which is used to study brain function, often using fMRI and other techniques such as PET and MEG (see below).</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroimaging" title="History of neuroimaging">History of neuroimaging</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:User-FastFission-brain.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/User-FastFission-brain.gif" decoding="async" width="213" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="213" data-file-height="231" /></a><figcaption>Structural magnetic resonance imaging (structural MRI) of a head, from top to base of the skull</figcaption></figure> <p>The first chapter of the history of neuroimaging traces back to the Italian neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Mosso" title="Angelo Mosso">Angelo Mosso</a> who invented the 'human circulation balance', which could non-invasively measure the redistribution of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> during emotional and intellectual activity.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1918, the American neurosurgeon <a href="/wiki/Walter_Dandy" title="Walter Dandy">Walter Dandy</a> introduced the technique of ventriculography. <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> images of the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricular system</a> within the brain were obtained by injection of filtered air directly into one or both lateral ventricles of the brain. Dandy also observed that air introduced into the subarachnoid space via lumbar spinal puncture could enter the cerebral ventricles and also demonstrate the cerebrospinal fluid compartments around the base of the brain and over its surface. This technique was called <a href="/wiki/Pneumoencephalography" title="Pneumoencephalography">pneumoencephalography</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1927, <a href="/wiki/Egas_Moniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Egas Moniz">Egas Moniz</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_angiography" title="Cerebral angiography">cerebral angiography</a>, whereby both normal and abnormal blood vessels in and around the brain could be visualized with great precision. </p><p>In the early 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan McLeod Cormack</a> and <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Newbold_Hounsfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield">Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Computerized_axial_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computerized axial tomography">computerized axial tomography</a> (CAT or CT scanning), and ever more detailed anatomic images of the brain became available for diagnostic and research purposes. Cormack and Hounsfield won the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> for their work. Soon after the introduction of CAT in the early 1980s, the development of <a href="/wiki/Radioligand" title="Radioligand">radioligands</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">single-photon emission computed tomography</a> (SPECT) and <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET) of the brain. </p><p>More or less concurrently, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI or MR scanning) was developed by researchers including <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a>, who were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> in 2003. In the early 1980s MRI was introduced clinically, and during the 1980s a veritable explosion of technical refinements and diagnostic MR applications took place. Scientists soon learned that the large blood flow changes measured by PET could also be imaged by the correct type of MRI. <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) was born, and since the 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate the brain mapping field due to its low invasiveness, lack of radiation exposure, and relatively wide availability. </p><p>In the early 2000s, the field of neuroimaging reached the stage where limited practical applications of functional brain imaging have become feasible. The main application area is crude forms of <a href="/wiki/Direct_mind-computer_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct mind-computer interface">brain–computer interface</a>. </p><p>The world record for the spatial resolution of a whole-brain MRI image was a 100-micrometer volume (image) achieved in 2019. The sample acquisition took about 100 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spatial world record of a whole human brain of any method was an X-ray tomography scan performing at the ESRF (European synchrotron radiation facility), which had a resolution of about 25 microns and requiring about 22 hours. This scan was part of the human organ atlas which has X-ray tomography scans of other organs in the human body with the same resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A crucial idea for magnetic resonance imaging is that the net magnetization vector can be moved by exposing the spin system to energy of a frequency equal to the energy difference between the spin states (e.g., by a radio frequency pulse). If enough energy is delivered to the system, it is possible to make the net magnetization vector orthogonal to that of the external magnetic field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indications">Indications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Indications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neuroradiology often follows a <a href="/wiki/Neurological_examination" title="Neurological examination">neurological examination</a> in which a physician has found cause to more deeply investigate a patient who has or may have a <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorder</a>. </p><p>Common clinical indications for neuroimaging include head trauma, stroke like symptoms e.g.: sudden weakness/numbness in one half of body, difficulty talking or walking; seizures, sudden onset severe headache, sudden change in level of consciousness for unclear reasons. </p><p>Another indication for neuroradiology is CT-, MRI- and PET-<a href="/wiki/Image_guided_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Image guided surgery">guided</a> <a href="/wiki/Stereotactic_surgery" title="Stereotactic surgery">stereotactic surgery</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">radiosurgery</a> for treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the more common neurological problems which a person may experience is simple <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">syncope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ACPfive_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACPfive-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cases of simple <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(medicine)" title="Syncope (medicine)">syncope</a> in which the patient's history does not suggest other neurological symptoms, the diagnosis includes a <a href="/wiki/Neurological_examination" title="Neurological examination">neurological examination</a> but routine neurological imaging is not indicated because the likelihood of finding a cause in the central nervous system is extremely low and the patient is unlikely to benefit from the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-ACPfive_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACPfive-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neuroradiology is not indicated for patients with stable headaches which are diagnosed as migraine.<sup id="cite_ref-AHSfive_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHSfive-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies indicate that presence of migraine does not increase a patient's risk for intracranial disease.<sup id="cite_ref-AHSfive_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHSfive-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A diagnosis of migraine which notes the absence of other problems, such as <a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">papilledema</a>, would not indicate a need for radiological investigations.<sup id="cite_ref-AHSfive_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHSfive-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the course of conducting a careful diagnosis, the physician should consider whether the headache has a cause other than the migraine and might require radiological investigations.<sup id="cite_ref-AHSfive_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHSfive-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brain-imaging_techniques">Brain-imaging techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Brain-imaging techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computed_axial_tomography">Computed axial tomography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Computed axial tomography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/CT_head" class="mw-redirect" title="CT head">CT head</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">Computed tomography</a> (CT) or <i>Computed Axial Tomography</i> (CAT) scanning uses a series of <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">x-rays</a> of the head taken from many different directions. Typically used for quickly viewing <a href="/wiki/Acquired_brain_injury" title="Acquired brain injury">brain injuries</a>, CT scanning uses a computer program that performs a numerical integral calculation (the inverse <a href="/wiki/Radon_transform" title="Radon transform">Radon transform</a>) on the measured x-ray series to estimate how much of an x-ray beam is absorbed in a small volume of the brain. Typically the information is presented as cross-sections of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_resonance_imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Magnetic resonance imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging_of_the_brain" title="Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain">Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sagittal_brain_MRI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Sagittal_brain_MRI.jpg/220px-Sagittal_brain_MRI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Sagittal_brain_MRI.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption>Sagittal MRI slice at the midline</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without the use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers. </p><p>The record for the highest spatial resolution of a whole intact brain (postmortem) is 100 microns, from Massachusetts General Hospital. The data was published in <i>Scientific Data</i> on 30 October 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positron_emission_tomography">Positron emission tomography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Positron emission tomography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron emission tomography</a> (PET) and <a href="/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography" title="Brain positron emission tomography">brain positron emission tomography</a>, measure emissions from radioactively labeled metabolically active chemicals that have been injected into the bloodstream. The emission data are computer-processed to produce 2- or 3-dimensional images of the distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson_1999_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson_1999-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 57">: 57 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> emitting <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> used are produced by a <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>, and chemicals are labeled with these radioactive atoms. The labeled compound, called a <i>radiotracer</i>, is injected into the bloodstream and eventually makes its way to the brain. Sensors in the PET scanner detect the radioactivity as the compound accumulates in various regions of the brain. A computer uses the data gathered by the sensors to create multicolored 2- or 3-dimensional images that show where the compound acts in the brain. Especially useful are a wide array of <a href="/wiki/Ligands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligands">ligands</a> used to map different aspects of neurotransmitter activity, with by far the most commonly used PET tracer being a labeled form of glucose (see <a href="/wiki/Fludeoxyglucose_(18F)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fludeoxyglucose (18F)">Fludeoxyglucose (18F)</a> (FDG)). </p><p>The greatest benefit of PET scanning is that different compounds can show blood flow and oxygen and <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> in the tissues of the working brain. These measurements reflect the amount of brain activity in the various regions of the brain and allow to learn more about how the brain works. PET scans were superior to all other metabolic imaging methods in terms of resolution and speed of completion (as little as 30 seconds) when they first became available. The improved resolution permitted better study to be made as to the area of the brain activated by a particular task. The biggest drawback of PET scanning is that because the radioactivity decays rapidly, it is limited to monitoring short tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilsson_1999_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilsson_1999-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup> Before fMRI technology came online, PET scanning was the preferred method of functional (as opposed to structural) brain imaging, and it continues to make large contributions to <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. </p><p>PET scanning is also used for diagnosis of brain disease, most notably brain tumors, epilepsy, and neuron-damaging diseases which cause dementia (such as Alzheimer's disease) all cause great changes in brain metabolism, which in turn causes easily detectable changes in PET scans. PET is probably most useful in early cases of certain dementias (with classic examples being <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's disease</a>) where the early damage is too diffuse and makes too little difference in brain volume and gross structure to change CT and standard MRI images enough to be able to reliably differentiate it from the "normal" range of cortical atrophy which occurs with aging (in many but not all) persons, and which does <i>not</i> cause clinical dementia. </p><p>FDG-PET scanning is also often used in assessment of patients with epilepsy who continue to have seizures despite adequate medical treatment. In focal epilepsy, where seizures begin in a small part of the brain before spreading elsewhere, it is one of the many modalities used to identify the region of brain responsible for seizure onset. Typically, the area of brain where seizures begin is dysfunctional even when patient is not having a seizure and uptakes less glucose, hence less FDG compared to healthy brain regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This information can help plan for epilepsy surgery as a treatment for drug resistant epilepsy. </p><p>Other radiotracers have also been used to identify areas of seizure onset though they are not available commercially for clinical use. These include <sup>11</sup>C-flumazenil, 1<sup>1</sup>C-alpha-methyl-L-tryptophan, <sup>11</sup>C-methionine, <sup>11</sup>C-cerfentanil.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography">Single-photon emission computed tomography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Single-photon emission computed tomography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission computed tomography</a> (SPECT) is similar to PET and uses <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a>-emitting <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Gamma_camera" title="Gamma camera">gamma camera</a> to record data that a computer uses to construct two- or three-dimensional images of active brain regions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SPECT relies on an injection of radioactive tracer, or "SPECT agent," which is rapidly taken up by the brain but does not redistribute. Uptake of SPECT agent is nearly 100% complete within 30 to 60 seconds, reflecting <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_blood_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral blood flow">cerebral blood flow</a> (CBF) at the time of injection. These properties of SPECT make it particularly well-suited for epilepsy imaging, which is usually made difficult by problems with patient movement and variable seizure types. SPECT provides a "snapshot" of cerebral blood flow since scans can be acquired after seizure termination (so long as the radioactive tracer was injected at the time of the seizure). A significant limitation of SPECT is its poor resolution (about 1 cm) compared to that of MRI. Today, SPECT machines with Dual Detector Heads are commonly used, although Triple Detector Head machines are available in the marketplace. <a href="/wiki/Tomographic_reconstruction" title="Tomographic reconstruction">Tomographic reconstruction</a>, (mainly used for functional "snapshots" of the brain) requires multiple projections from Detector Heads which rotate around the human skull, so some researchers have developed 6 and 11 Detector Head SPECT machines to cut imaging time and give higher resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like PET, SPECT also can be used to differentiate different kinds of disease processes which produce dementia, and it is increasingly used for this purpose. SPECT scan using Isoflupane labeled with I-123 (also called DaT scan) is useful in differentiating Parkinson's disease from other causes of tremor.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>SPECT scan is also used in evaluation of drug resistant epilepsy. This uses Tc<sup>99</sup> labeled hexamethyl-propylene amine oxime (Tc<sup>99</sup>HMPAO) or ethyl cysteinate dimer ( Tc<sup>99</sup> ECD) as the tracers. The radiotracer is injected into the patient's vein as soon as the start of a seizure is detected and scanning is done within few hours after the seizure is over. This technique is called ictal SPECT and relies on the increased CBF in areas of seizure onset during the seizure. Interictal SPECT is a scan done using the same tracers but during a time when the patient is not having a seizure. In between seizures, a reduction in CBF is seen in areas of seizure onset and is not as pronounced as the blood flow increase during the seizure.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cranial_ultrasound">Cranial ultrasound</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cranial ultrasound"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cranial_ultrasound" title="Cranial ultrasound">Cranial ultrasound</a> is usually only used in babies, whose open <a href="/wiki/Fontanelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Fontanelles">fontanelles</a> provide acoustic windows allowing ultrasound imaging of the brain. Advantages include the absence of <a href="/wiki/Ionising_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionising radiation">ionising radiation</a> and the possibility of bedside scanning, but the lack of soft-tissue detail means <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> is preferred for some conditions. </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Functional magnetic resonance imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:FMRIscan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d1/FMRIscan.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Axial MRI slice at the level of the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>, showing fMRI <a href="/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level_dependent" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood-oxygen-level dependent">BOLD</a> signal changes overlaid in red (increase) and blue (decrease) tones</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) and <a href="/wiki/Arterial_spin_labelling" title="Arterial spin labelling">arterial spin labeling</a> (ASL) relies on the paramagnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> to see images of changing blood flow in the brain associated with neural activity. This allows images to be generated that reflect which brain structures are activated (and how) during the performance of different tasks or at resting state. According to the oxygenation hypothesis, changes in oxygen usage in regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive or behavioral activity can be associated with the regional neurons as being directly related to the cognitive or behavioral tasks being attended. </p><p>Most fMRI scanners allow subjects to be presented with different visual images, sounds and touch stimuli, and to make different actions such as pressing a button or moving a joystick. Consequently, fMRI can be used to reveal brain structures and processes associated with perception, thought and action. The resolution of fMRI is about 2-3 millimeters at present, limited by the spatial spread of the hemodynamic response to neural activity. It has largely superseded PET for the study of brain activation patterns. PET, however, retains the significant advantage of being able to identify specific brain <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_transporter" title="Monoamine transporter">transporters</a>) associated with particular <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitters">neurotransmitters</a> through its ability to image radiolabeled receptor "ligands" (receptor ligands are any chemicals that stick to receptors). There is also significant concern regarding the validity of some of the statistics used in fMRI analyses; hence, the validity of conclusions drawn from many fMRI studies.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With between 72% and 90% accuracy where chance would achieve 0.8%,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fMRI techniques can decide which of a set of known images the subject is viewing.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent studies on machine learning in psychiatry have used fMRI to build machine learning models that can discriminate between individuals with or without suicidal behaviour. Imaging studies in conjunction with machine learning algorithms may help identify new markers in neuroimaging that could allow stratification based on patients' suicide risk and help develop the best therapies and treatments for individual patients.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffuse_optical_imaging">Diffuse optical imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diffuse optical imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diffuse_optical_imaging" title="Diffuse optical imaging">Diffuse optical imaging</a> (DOI) or diffuse optical tomography (DOT) is a <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> modality which uses near <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> light to generate images of the body. The technique measures the <a href="/wiki/Optical_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical absorption">optical absorption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Haemoglobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemoglobin">haemoglobin</a>, and relies on the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption spectrum">absorption spectrum</a> of haemoglobin varying with its oxygenation status. High-density diffuse optical tomography (HD-DOT) has been compared directly to fMRI using response to visual stimulation in subjects studied with both techniques, with reassuringly similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22330315_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22330315-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HD-DOT has also been compared to fMRI in terms of language tasks and resting state functional connectivity.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Event-related_optical_signal">Event-related optical signal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Event-related optical signal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Event-related_optical_signal" title="Event-related optical signal">Event-related optical signal</a> (EROS) is a brain-scanning technique which uses infrared light through optical fibers to measure changes in optical properties of active areas of the cerebral cortex. Whereas techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_optical_imaging" title="Diffuse optical imaging">diffuse optical imaging</a> (DOT) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measure optical absorption of haemoglobin, and thus are based on blood flow, EROS takes advantage of the scattering properties of the neurons themselves and thus provides a much more direct measure of cellular activity. EROS can pinpoint activity in the brain within millimeters (spatially) and within milliseconds (temporally). Its biggest downside is the inability to detect activity more than a few centimeters deep. EROS is a new, relatively inexpensive technique that is non-invasive to the test subject. It was developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where it is now used in the Cognitive Neuroimaging Laboratory of Dr. Gabriele Gratton and Dr. Monica Fabiani. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Magnetoencephalography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</a> (MEG) is an imaging technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain via extremely sensitive devices such as <a href="/wiki/SQUID" title="SQUID">superconducting quantum interference devices</a> (SQUIDs) or <a href="/wiki/SERF" title="SERF">spin exchange relaxation-free</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (SERF) magnetometers. MEG offers a very direct measurement of neural electrical activity (compared to fMRI for example) with very high temporal resolution but relatively low spatial resolution. The advantage of measuring the magnetic fields produced by neural activity is that they are likely to be less distorted by surrounding tissue (particularly the skull and scalp) compared to the electric fields measured by <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG). Specifically, it can be shown that magnetic fields produced by electrical activity are not affected by the surrounding head tissue, when the head is modeled as a set of concentric spherical shells, each being an isotropic homogeneous conductor. Real heads are non-spherical and have largely anisotropic conductivities (particularly white matter and skull). While skull anisotropy has a negligible effect on MEG (unlike EEG), white matter anisotropy strongly affects MEG measurements for radial and deep sources.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16364662_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16364662-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note, however, that the skull was assumed to be uniformly anisotropic in this study, which is not true for a real head: the absolute and relative thicknesses of <a href="/wiki/Diplo%C3%AB" title="Diploë">diploë</a> and tables layers vary among and within the skull bones. This makes it likely that MEG is also affected by the skull anisotropy,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17059601_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17059601-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although probably not to the same degree as EEG. </p><p>There are many uses for MEG, including assisting surgeons in localizing a pathology, assisting researchers in determining the function of various parts of the brain, neurofeedback, and others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_ultrasound_imaging">Functional ultrasound imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Functional ultrasound imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Functional_ultrasound_imaging" title="Functional ultrasound imaging">Functional ultrasound imaging</a> (fUS) is a medical ultrasound imaging technique of detecting or measuring changes in neural activities or metabolism, for example, the loci of brain activity, typically through measuring blood flow or hemodynamic changes. Functional ultrasound relies on Ultrasensitive Doppler and ultrafast ultrasound imaging which allows high sensitivity blood flow imaging. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_optically-pumped_magnetometer">Quantum optically-pumped magnetometer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Quantum optically-pumped magnetometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">Magnetometer</a></div> <p>In June 2021, researchers reported the development of the first modular quantum brain scanner which uses magnetic imaging and could become a novel whole-brain scanning approach.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_concerns_of_neuroimaging_techniques">Advantages and concerns of neuroimaging techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Advantages and concerns of neuroimaging techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_(fMRI)"><span id="Functional_Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging_.28fMRI.29"></span>Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> fMRI is commonly classified as a minimally-to-moderate risk due to its non-invasiveness compared to other imaging methods. fMRI uses blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD)-contrast in order to produce its form of imaging. BOLD-contrast is a naturally occurring process in the body so fMRI is often preferred over imaging methods that require radioactive markers to produce similar imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A concern in the use of fMRI is its use in individuals with medical implants or devices and metallic items in the body. The magnetic resonance (MR) emitted from the equipment can cause failure of medical devices and attract metallic objects in the body if not properly screened for. Currently, the FDA classifies medical implants and devices into three categories, depending on MR-compatibility: MR-safe (safe in all MR environments), MR-unsafe (unsafe in any MR environment), and MR-conditional (MR-compatible in certain environments, requiring further information).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerycaption">FDA MR safety labels for implants and devices</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MR_safe_sign.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="MR Safe[35]"><img alt="MR Safe[35]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_safe_sign.svg/180px-MR_safe_sign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_safe_sign.svg/270px-MR_safe_sign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_safe_sign.svg/360px-MR_safe_sign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">MR Safe<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MR_conditional_sign.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="MR Conditional"><img alt="MR Conditional" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_conditional_sign.svg/180px-MR_conditional_sign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_conditional_sign.svg/270px-MR_conditional_sign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MR_conditional_sign.svg/360px-MR_conditional_sign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">MR Conditional</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MR_unsafe_sign.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="MR Unsafe"><img alt="MR Unsafe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MR_unsafe_sign.svg/180px-MR_unsafe_sign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MR_unsafe_sign.svg/270px-MR_unsafe_sign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MR_unsafe_sign.svg/360px-MR_unsafe_sign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">MR Unsafe</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computed_Tomography_(CT)_scan"><span id="Computed_Tomography_.28CT.29_scan"></span>Computed Tomography (CT) scan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Computed Tomography (CT) scan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The CT scan was introduced in the 1970s and quickly became one of the most widely used methods of imaging. A CT scan can be performed in under a second and produce rapid results for clinicians, with its ease of use leading to an increase in CT scans performed in the United States from 3 million in 1980 to 62 million in 2007. Clinicians oftentimes take multiple scans, with 30% of individuals undergoing at least 3 scans in one study of CT scan usage.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CT scans can expose patients to levels of radiation 100-500 times higher than traditional x-rays, with higher radiation doses producing better resolution imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While easy to use, increases in CT scan use, especially in asymptomatic patients, is a topic of concern since patients are exposed to significantly high levels of radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positron_Emission_Tomography_(PET)"><span id="Positron_Emission_Tomography_.28PET.29"></span>Positron Emission Tomography (PET)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Positron Emission Tomography (PET)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In PET scans, imaging does not rely on intrinsic biological processes, but relies on a foreign substance injected into the bloodstream traveling to the brain. Patients are injected with radioisotopes that are metabolized in the brain and emit positrons to produce a visualization of brain activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of radiation a patient is exposed to in a PET scan is relatively small, comparable to the amount of environmental radiation an individual is exposed to across a year. PET radioisotopes have limited exposure time in the body as they commonly have very short half-lives (~2 hours) and decay rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, fMRI is a preferred method of imaging brain activity compared to PET, since it does not involve radiation, has a higher temporal resolution than PET, and is more readily available in most medical settings.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetoencephalography_(MEG)_and_Electroencephalography_(EEG)"><span id="Magnetoencephalography_.28MEG.29_and_Electroencephalography_.28EEG.29"></span>Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The high temporal resolution of MEG and EEG allow these methods to measure brain activity down to the millisecond. Both MEG and EEG do not require exposure of the patient to radiation to function. EEG electrodes detect electrical signals produced by neurons to measure brain activity and MEG uses oscillations in the magnetic field produced by these electrical currents to measure activity. A barrier in the widespread usage of MEG is due to pricing, as MEG systems can cost millions of dollars. EEG is a much more widely used method to achieve such temporal resolution as EEG systems cost much less than MEG systems. A disadvantage of EEG and MEG is that both methods have poor spatial resolution when compared to fMRI.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a> – Set of neuroscience techniques <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping" title="Outline of brain mapping">Outline of brain mapping</a> – Overview of and topical guide to brain mapping</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectogram" title="Connectogram">Connectogram</a> – Graphical representations of connectomics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_integration_(neurobiology)" title="Functional integration (neurobiology)">Functional integration (neurobiology)</a> – Study of cooperation of brain regions to process information</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Functional near-infrared spectroscopy">Functional near-infrared spectroscopy</a> – Optical technique for monitoring brain activity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroimaging" title="History of neuroimaging">History of neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Human brain</a> – Central organ of the human nervous system <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> – Scientific field</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_human_brain" title="Outline of the human brain">Outline of the human brain</a> – Overview of and topical guide to the human brain</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroimaging_software" title="List of neuroimaging software">List of neuroimaging software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases" title="List of neuroscience databases">List of neuroscience databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> – Medical imaging technique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</a> – Mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by currents in the brain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">Medical image computing</a> – Interdisciplinary field</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a> – Technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroimaging_journals" title="Category:Neuroimaging journals">Neuroimaging journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parametric_mapping" title="Statistical parametric mapping">Statistical parametric mapping</a> – Statistical technique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">Transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> – Brain stimulation using magnetic fields</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voxel-based_morphometry" title="Voxel-based morphometry">Voxel-based morphometry</a> – Computational neuroanatomy method</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span 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reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279262/"><i>What happens during a PET scan?</i></a>. 2016-12-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+happens+during+a+PET+scan%3F&rft.date=2016-12-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK279262%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroimaging" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychiatry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Psychiatry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subspecialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_and_adolescent_psychiatry" title="Child and adolescent psychiatry">Child and adolescent psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuropsychiatry" title="Cognitive neuropsychiatry">Cognitive neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">Developmental disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_psychiatry" title="Descriptive psychiatry">Descriptive psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_psychiatry" title="Emergency psychiatry">Emergency psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychiatry" title="Forensic psychiatry">Forensic psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatric_psychiatry" title="Geriatric psychiatry">Geriatric psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immuno-psychiatry" title="Immuno-psychiatry">Immuno-psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_psychiatry" title="Liaison psychiatry">Liaison psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychiatry" title="Military psychiatry">Military psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_psychiatry" title="Nutritional psychiatry">Nutritional psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Palliative medicine">Palliative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telepsychiatry" title="Telepsychiatry">Telepsychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Psychiatry_and_Neurology" title="American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology">American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Neuropsychiatric_Association" title="American Neuropsychiatric Association">American Neuropsychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Against_Psychiatric_Abuse" title="Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse">Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Society_of_Psychiatry" title="Chinese Society of Psychiatry">Chinese Society of Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Psychiatry" title="Democratic Psychiatry">Democratic Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Psychiatric_Association" title="European Psychiatric Association">European Psychiatric Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Initiative_on_Psychiatry" title="Global Initiative on Psychiatry">Global Initiative on Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists">Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Psychiatric_Association_of_Russia" title="Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia">Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Psychiatric_Society" title="Indian Psychiatric Society">Indian Psychiatric Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health" title="National Institute of Mental Health">National Institute of Mental Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Association" title="Philadelphia Association">Philadelphia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_and_New_Zealand_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists">Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Psychiatrists" title="Royal College of Psychiatrists">Royal College of Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Society_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">Taiwanese Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Commission_to_Investigate_the_Use_of_Psychiatry_for_Political_Purposes" title="Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes">Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Psychiatric_Association" title="World Psychiatric Association">World Psychiatric Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_medicine" title="Behavioral medicine">Behavioral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_about_psychiatry" title="Controversies about psychiatry">Controversies about psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy" title="Insulin shock therapy">Insulin shock therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentylenetetrazol" title="Pentylenetetrazol">Pentylenetetrazol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Philosophy of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_epidemiology" title="Psychiatric epidemiology">Psychiatric epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_genetics" title="Psychiatric genetics">Psychiatric genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">Psychiatric hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">Psychiatrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycho-oncology" title="Psycho-oncology">Psycho-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopharmacology" title="Psychopharmacology">Psychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine" title="Psychosomatic medicine">Psychosomatic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_counseling_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of counseling topics">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neurological_conditions_and_disorders" title="List of neurological conditions and disorders">Neurological conditions and disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications" title="List of psychiatric medications">Psychiatric medications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated" title="List of psychiatric medications by condition treated">by condition treated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychiatrists" title="List of psychiatrists">Psychiatrists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychiatry" title="Outline of psychiatry">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neuroscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuroscience" title="Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuroscience" title="Template talk:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Discuss 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href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Visualization" title="Template:Visualization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Visualization" title="Template talk:Visualization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Visualization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Visualization_of_technical_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a> of technical information</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_imaging" title="Chemical imaging">Chemical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Data visualization">Data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Educational visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_visualization" title="Flow visualization">Flow visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Information visualization">Information visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">Mathematical visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_graphics" title="Molecular graphics">Molecular graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Product visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_visualization" title="Scientific visualization">Scientific visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_visualization" title="Social visualization">Social visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_visualization" title="Software visualization">Software visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume visualization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Image <br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chart" title="Chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">Diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plot_(graphics)" title="Plot (graphics)">Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic" title="Schematic">Schematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_formula" title="Skeletal formula">Skeletal formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_illustration" title="Technical illustration">Technical illustration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Ren%C3%A9_de_Fourcroy" title="Charles-René de Fourcroy">Charles-René de Fourcroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Monge" title="Gaspard Monge">Gaspard Monge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dupin" title="Charles Dupin">Charles Dupin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Michel_Guerry" title="André-Michel Guerry">André-Michel Guerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard" title="Charles Joseph Minard">Charles Joseph Minard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Luigi_Perozzo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luigi Perozzo (page does not exist)">Luigi Perozzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Venn" title="John Venn">John Venn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Byrne_(mathematician)" title="Oliver Byrne (mathematician)">Oliver Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Henry_Phineas_Riall_Sankey" title="Matthew Henry Phineas Riall Sankey">Matthew Sankey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Booth_(social_reformer)" title="Charles Booth (social reformer)">Charles Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_von_Mayr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg von Mayr (page does not exist)">Georg von Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Pohlke" title="Karl Wilhelm Pohlke">Karl Wilhelm Pohlke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Loua" title="Toussaint Loua">Toussaint Loua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Lyon Bowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_G._Funkhouser" title="Howard G. Funkhouser">Howard G. Funkhouser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Peddle" title="John B. Peddle">John B. Peddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_O._Lorenz" title="Max O. Lorenz">Max O. Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Kahn" title="Fritz Kahn">Fritz Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Beck" title="Harry Beck">Harry Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Raisz" title="Erwin Raisz">Erwin Raisz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bertin" title="Jacques Bertin">Jacques Bertin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Modley" title="Rudolf Modley">Rudolf Modley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Robinson" title="Arthur H. Robinson">Arthur H. Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Eleanor_Spear" title="Mary Eleanor Spear">Mary Eleanor Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Anderson" title="Edgar Anderson">Edgar Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Fisher" title="Howard T. Fisher">Howard T. Fisher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borden_Dent" title="Borden Dent">Borden Dent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Holmes" title="Nigel Holmes">Nigel Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Cleveland" title="William S. Cleveland">William S. Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_G._Robertson" title="George G. Robertson">George G. Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_H._McCormick" title="Bruce H. McCormick">Bruce H. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Plaisant" title="Catherine Plaisant">Catherine Plaisant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Card" title="Stuart Card">Stuart Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Hanrahan" title="Pat Hanrahan">Pat Hanrahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Friendly" title="Michael Friendly">Michael Friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Wainer" title="Howard Wainer">Howard Wainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Clifford A. Pickover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Furnas" title="George Furnas">George Furnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheelagh_Carpendale" title="Sheelagh Carpendale">Sheelagh Carpendale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jock_D._Mackinlay" title="Jock D. Mackinlay">Jock D. Mackinlay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_MacEachren" title="Alan MacEachren">Alan MacEachren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Goodsell" title="David Goodsell">David Goodsell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwan-Liu_Ma" title="Kwan-Liu Ma">Kwan-Liu Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Maltz" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Maltz">Michael Maltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland Wilkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Inselberg" title="Alfred Inselberg">Alfred Inselberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polo_Chau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polo Chau (page does not exist)">Polo Chau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Fry" title="Ben Fry">Ben Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Heer" title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey Heer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Hullman" title="Jessica Hullman">Jessica Hullman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Kindlmann" title="Gordon Kindlmann">Gordon Kindlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Koblin" title="Aaron Koblin">Aaron Koblin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Krzywinski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Krzywinski (page does not exist)">Martin Krzywinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_R._Johnson" title="Christopher R. Johnson">Christopher R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Lima" title="Manuel Lima">Manuel Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McCandless" title="David McCandless">David McCandless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Martino" title="Mauro Martino">Mauro Martino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maeda" title="John Maeda">John Maeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriah_Meyer" title="Miriah Meyer">Miriah Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ade_Olufeko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ade Olufeko">Ade Olufeko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanspeter_Pfister" title="Hanspeter Pfister">Hanspeter Pfister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans Rosling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudio_Silva_(computer_scientist)" title="Claudio Silva (computer scientist)">Claudio Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Stefaner" title="Moritz Stefaner">Moritz Stefaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernanda_Vi%C3%A9gas" title="Fernanda Viégas">Fernanda Viégas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_M._Wattenberg" title="Martin M. Wattenberg">Martin Wattenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Wong" title="Bang Wong">Bang Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">in computer science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_organizer" title="Graphic organizer">Graphic organizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging science">Imaging science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infographic" title="Infographic">Information graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading graph</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">Patent drawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_cartography" title="Volume cartography">Volume cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_art" title="Information art">Information art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_central_nervous_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Central_nervous_system_tests_and_procedures" title="Template:Central nervous system tests and procedures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Central_nervous_system_tests_and_procedures" title="Template talk:Central nervous system tests and procedures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Central_nervous_system_tests_and_procedures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Central nervous system tests and procedures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tests_and_procedures_involving_the_central_nervous_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Tests and <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">procedures</a> involving the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">Skull</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craniotomy" title="Craniotomy">Craniotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompressive_craniectomy" title="Decompressive craniectomy">Decompressive craniectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranioplasty" title="Cranioplasty">Cranioplasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">globus pallidus</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thalamotomy" title="Thalamotomy">Thalamotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamic_stimulator" title="Thalamic stimulator">Thalamic stimulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallidotomy" title="Pallidotomy">Pallidotomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">Ventricular system</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_shunt" title="Cerebral shunt">Cerebral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventriculostomy" title="Ventriculostomy">Ventriculostomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suboccipital_puncture" title="Suboccipital puncture">Suboccipital puncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure_monitoring" title="Intracranial pressure monitoring">Intracranial pressure monitoring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">Cerebrum</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">Lobotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_cingulotomy" title="Bilateral cingulotomy">Bilateral cingulotomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_subpial_transection" title="Multiple subpial transection">Multiple subpial transection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemispherectomy" title="Hemispherectomy">Hemispherectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosotomy" title="Corpus callosotomy">Corpus callosotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_temporal_lobectomy" title="Anterior temporal lobectomy">Anterior temporal lobectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary gland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypophysectomy" title="Hypophysectomy">Hypophysectomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amygdalohippocampectomy" title="Amygdalohippocampectomy">Amygdalohippocampectomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_biopsy" title="Brain biopsy">Brain biopsy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meningeal_biopsy" title="Meningeal biopsy">Meningeal biopsy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_decompression" title="Spinal decompression">Spinal decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discectomy" title="Discectomy">Discectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc_annuloplasty" title="Intervertebral disc annuloplasty">Intervertebral disc annuloplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordotomy" title="Cordotomy">Cordotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizotomy">Rhizotomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_of_the_head" title="Computed tomography of the head">Head CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_angiography" title="Cerebral angiography">Cerebral angiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumoencephalography" title="Pneumoencephalography">Pneumoencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echoencephalography" title="Echoencephalography">Echoencephalography</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transcranial_Doppler" title="Transcranial Doppler">Transcranial Doppler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging_of_the_brain" title="Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain">Brain MRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography" title="Brain positron emission tomography">Brain PET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">Magnetoencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelography" title="Myelography">Myelography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wada_test" title="Wada test">Wada test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microneurography" title="Microneurography">Microneurography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diagnostic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">Electroencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">Lumbar puncture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CSF_tap_test" title="CSF tap test">CSF tap test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysomnography" title="Polysomnography">Polysomnography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_prediction_rule" title="Clinical prediction rule">Clinical prediction rules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" title="Glasgow Coma Scale">Glasgow Coma Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%E2%80%93mental_state_examination" title="Mini–mental state examination">Mini–mental state examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health_Stroke_Scale" title="National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale">National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHADS2_score" class="mw-redirect" title="CHADS2 score">CHADS2 score</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&oldid=1240234004">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuroimaging&oldid=1240234004</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroimaging" 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