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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Criticism of psychiatry</div><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> is, and has historically been, viewed as controversial by those under its care, as well as sociologists and psychiatrists themselves. There are a variety of reasons cited for this controversy, including the subjectivity of diagnosis,<a href="#cite_note-frana22-1">[1]</a> the use of diagnosis and treatment for social and political control including <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">detaining citizens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">treating them without consent</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> the side effects of treatments such as <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">electroconvulsive therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> and historical procedures like the <a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">lobotomy</a><a href="#cite_note-:022-5">[5]</a>: 28  and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">psychosurgery</a><a href="#cite_note-:022-5">[5]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy" title="Insulin shock therapy">insulin shock therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and the history of racism within the profession in the United States. In addition, there are a number of groups who are either critical towards psychiatry or entirely hostile to the field. The <a href="/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical Psychiatry Network</a> is a group of psychiatrists who are critical of psychiatry. Additionally, there are self-described psychiatric survivor groups such as <a href="/wiki/MindFreedom_International" title="MindFreedom International">MindFreedom International</a> and religious groups such as <a href="/wiki/Scientology_and_psychiatry" title="Scientology and psychiatry">Scientologists</a> that are critical towards psychiatry. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges_to_conceptions_of_mental_illness">Challenges to conceptions of mental illness</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Challenges to conceptions of mental illness">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg/220px-Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg/330px-Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg/440px-Narrenturm_Vienna_June_2006_575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Narrenturm_(hospital)" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrenturm (hospital)">Narrenturm</a> — <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> for "fools' tower" — was one of the earliest buildings specifically designed as a "madhouse". It was built in 1784.</figcaption></figure> Since the 1960s there have been challenges to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>. Sociologists <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Scheff" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Scheff">Thomas Scheff</a> argued that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists,<a href="#cite_note-:122-7">[7]</a>: 102  behavioral psychologists challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unchallengable or <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">unfalsifiable</a> concepts,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> and gay rights activists criticized the APA's inclusion of homosexuality as a mental disorder in the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">DSM</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> As societal views on homosexuality have changed in recent decades, it is no longer considered a mental illness and is more widely accepted by society. As another example that challenged conceptions of mental illness, a widely publicized study by <a href="/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Professor David Rosenhan</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">the Rosenhan experiment</a>, was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medicalization">Medicalization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medicalization">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Controversies_about_psychiatry" title="Special:EditPage/Controversies about psychiatry">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2019) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/220px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/330px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/440px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1128" /></a><figcaption>Conversation between doctor and patient</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a>, a concept in <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">medical sociology</a>, is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as <a href="/wiki/Medical_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical conditions">medical conditions</a>, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">prevention</a>, or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evidence or hypotheses about conditions, by changing social attitudes or economic considerations, or by the development of new medications or treatments. For many years, several psychiatrists, such as <a href="/wiki/David_Rosenhan" title="David Rosenhan">David Rosenhan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, and critics outside the field of psychiatry, such as <a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Kirk" title="Stuart A. Kirk">Stuart A. Kirk</a>, have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality".<a href="#cite_note-Kirk_2013_p._1852-11">[11]</a> More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">APA</a> themselves (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)" title="Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist)">Robert Spitzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allen_Frances" title="Allen Frances">Allen Frances</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kirk201322-12">[12]</a>: 185  For example, in 2013, Allen Frances said that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests".<a href="#cite_note-frana22-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frances_A_111–11222-13">[13]</a> The concept of medicalization was devised by sociologists to explain how medical knowledge is applied to behaviors which are not self-evidently medical or biological.<a href="#cite_note-White2-14">[14]</a> The term medicalization entered the sociology literature in the 1970s in the works of <a href="/wiki/Irving_Zola" title="Irving Zola">Irving Zola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Conrad_(sociologist)" title="Peter Conrad (sociologist)">Peter Conrad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, among others. These sociologists viewed medicalization as a form of social control in which medical authority expanded into domains of everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 (<a href="/wiki/Hyperkinetic_disorder" title="Hyperkinetic disorder">hyperkinesis</a> was the term then used to describe what we might now call <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>), and Szasz's "<a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a>."<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz, 1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that increasingly sophisticated technology had extended the potential reach of medicalization as a form of social control, especially in terms of "psychotechnology" (Chorover, 1973). In the 1975 book Limits to medicine: Medical nemesis (1975), <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a> put forth one of the earliest uses of the term "medicalization". Illich, a philosopher, argued that the medical profession harms people through <a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">iatrogenesis</a>, a process in which illness and social problems increase due to medical intervention. Illich saw iatrogenesis occurring on three levels: the clinical, involving serious <a href="/wiki/Side_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Side effects">side effects</a> worse than the original condition; the social, whereby the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to cope with life in their society; and the structural, whereby the idea of aging and dying as medical illnesses effectively "medicalized" human life and left individuals and societies less able to deal with these natural processes. <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Navarro" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicente Navarro">Vicente Navarro</a> (1980) linked medicalization to an oppressive <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> society. They argued that medicine disguised the underlying causes of disease, such as <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> and poverty, and instead presented health as an individual issue. Others examined the power and prestige of the medical profession, including use of terminology to mystify and of professional rules to exclude or subordinate others.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Some argue that in practice the process of medicalization tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of the prevailing biomedical <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, resulting in a disregard for overarching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> A series of publications by <a href="/wiki/Mens_Sana_Monographs" title="Mens Sana Monographs">Mens Sana Monographs</a> have focused on medicine as a <a href="/wiki/Corporate" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate">corporate</a> capitalist enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_abuse">Political abuse</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Political abuse">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></div> In unstable countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Noll2-22">[22]</a>: 3  The diagnosis of mental illness allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<a href="#cite_note-Medicine_betrayed2-23">[23]</a> In addition, receiving a psychiatric diagnosis can in and of itself be regarded as oppressive.<a href="#cite_note-Malterud2-24">[24]</a>: 94  In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials.<a href="#cite_note-Medicine_betrayed2-23">[23]</a> The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts, makes indefinite incarceration possible, and discredits the individuals and their ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Veenhoven2-25">[25]</a>: 29  In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided.<a href="#cite_note-Veenhoven2-25">[25]</a>: 29  Examples of political abuse of the power, entrusted in physicians and particularly psychiatrists, are abundant in history and seen during the Nazi era and the <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Soviet</a> rule when political dissenters were labeled as "mentally ill" and subjected to inhumane "treatments."<a href="#cite_note-Shah2-26">[26]</a> In the period from the 1960s up to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Medicine_betrayed2-23">[23]</a> The practice of incarceration of political dissidents in mental hospitals in Eastern Europe and the former USSR damaged the credibility of psychiatric practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<a href="#cite_note-Declan2-27">[27]</a> Political abuse of psychiatry also takes place in the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Voren_20102-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_Russia" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia">in Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Psychiatric diagnoses such as the diagnosis of '<a href="/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" title="Sluggish schizophrenia">sluggish schizophrenia</a>' in <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">political dissidents in the USSR</a> were used for political purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Katona2-30">[30]</a>: 77  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_racism_in_psychiatry_in_the_United_States">History of racism in psychiatry in the United States</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History of racism in psychiatry in the United States">edit</a>]</div> The history of racism in psychiatry dates back to the days of slavery and segregation in the United States. Such racism in psychiatry exemplifies the concept of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>, which falsely alleges that science and other empirical evidence supports racism and proves certain racial inferiorities.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> Psychiatric diagnoses were influenced by Black people's status as free or enslaved. Enslaved people were not considered civilized enough to be diagnosed with insanity, while free Black people were over-diagnosed with insanity, having much higher diagnosis rates than white people.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> Specific diagnoses in the 19th century were crafted specifically to fit Black people – <a href="/wiki/Drapetomania" title="Drapetomania">drapetomania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysaesthesia_aethiopica" title="Dysaesthesia aethiopica">dysesthesia aethiopica</a>, disorders meant to explain why slaves ran away and why they were lazy or lacked a strong work ethic, respectively, and justify the institution of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> Prominent political figures such as <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> used this supposed evidence to argue for slavery, arguing that free Black people could not be entrusted with their lives and would ultimately develop lunacy.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> All in all, throughout the 19th century, psychiatric diagnoses and scientifically racist theories were used to medicalize Blackness and uphold systems of slavery and racism, further constraining the rights, freedom, and humanity of Black people.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_racism">Scientific racism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Scientific racism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></div> Proponents of scientific racism have historically attempted to "prove" that Black people are physiologically and cognitively inferior to white people based on faulty assumptions and prejudices. Perpetuated by the inaccurate application of biodeterminism, specialists in neuroanatomy and psychiatry compared disproportionate numbers of brains from Black and white individuals to support their racial agendas based on "science."<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compulsory_sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Compulsory sterilization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></div> The proportion of Black individuals confined in establishments for "flawed and imbecile" patients increased throughout the late 19th and early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> Psychiatry contributed towards the inaccurate and racist belief that if they were left to their respective means, they would not be able to remain in decent condition.<a href="#cite_note-:8-35">[35]</a> At the beginning of the 20th century, Black people were disproportionally sterilized in <a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">eugenics</a> programs that <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">compulsorarily sterilized</a> those classed as feebleminded or who received welfare payments.<a href="#cite_note-:9-36">[36]</a> The premise that the genes of those deemed mentally ill were undesirable was used to justify sterilization which was frequently supervised by physicians, including psychiatrists.<a href="#cite_note-:9-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hospitals">Hospitals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hospitals">edit</a>]</div> Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is another example of the history of racism within psychiatry. Many psychiatric hospitals in the 19th century either excluded or segregated Black patients or admitted Black slaves to work at the hospital in exchange for care.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> The founding fathers of psychiatry themselves supported the notion that Black people were inferior, lower class citizens that must be treated separately and differently from white patients.<a href="#cite_note-:6-31">[31]</a> With time, racial segregation within hospitals became interspersed with entirely separate hospitals for white and Black patients, each with differential treatment and quality of care. Political figures in the post-Civil War era argued that emancipation had led to a significant increase in insanity cases amongst Black individuals, and they cited the need to accommodate this increase via segregated and Black-only insane asylums.<a href="#cite_note-:7-37">[37]</a> Many hospitals, especially in the southern United States, did not admit Black patients until they were eventually mandated to do so.<a href="#cite_note-:7-37">[37]</a> The last segregated hospital opened in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-:7-37">[37]</a> Popular arguments also circulated that Black patients were more difficult to take care of in mental institutions, making psychiatric care for them more difficult and justifying the need for segregated facilities. Until the late 1960s, many hospitals remained segregated.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[38]</a> This affected the experiences of racial minorities accessing psychiatric care in mental institutions and hospitals in the United States. When Lyndon B. Johnson's administration stated that no segregated hospital would receive federal Medicare funds, hospitals began to integrate quickly in order to be able to continue to access such funding.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[38]</a> In January 1966, around two-thirds of Southern hospitals were segregated facilities and many Northern facilities remain segregated in-effect.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[38]</a> One year later, by January 1967, there were very few hospitals in the United States that remained segregated. Segregation within mental institutions and hospitals is one example of the history of racism within psychiatry.<a href="#cite_note-:4-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_profession">In the profession</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In the profession">edit</a>]</div> Black psychiatrists often experienced racism as practitioners within the field. Some of this history is detailed in <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Spurlock" title="Jeanne Spurlock">Jeanne Spurlock</a>'s book titled Black Psychiatrists and American Psychiatry, published in 1999, in which she profiles Black psychiatrists who were influential in American psychiatry and their experiences in the profession.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, Black psychiatrists expressed concerns to the APA that the needs of Black communities and Black psychiatrists were being ignored by the professional organization.<a href="#cite_note-:5-40">[40]</a> In 1969, a contingent of Black psychiatrists presented a list of 9 concerns to the APA Board of Trustees regarding experiences of structural racism in the field.<a href="#cite_note-:5-40">[40]</a> Their '9 points' represented a wide array of experiences of discrimination, both from the experiences of practitioners and patients, and on the institutional and individual level and the group demanded change from within the APA.<a href="#cite_note-:5-40">[40]</a> For example, they called for more Black leaders on APA committees as well as the desegregation of all mental health facilities, both public and private, in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-:5-40">[40]</a> As of 2020, within psychiatry, historically underrepresented groups continue to be less represented as residents, faculty, and practicing physicians in comparison to their proportion in the U.S. population.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nature_of_diagnosis">Nature of diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nature of diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arbitrariness">Arbitrariness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arbitrariness">edit</a>]</div> Psychiatry has been criticized for its <a href="/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders" title="List of mental disorders">broad range of mental diseases and disorders</a>. Which diagnoses exist and are considered valid have <a href="/wiki/History_of_mental_disorders" title="History of mental disorders">changed over time</a> depending on society's <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">norms</a>. Homosexuality was considered a mental illness but due to changing attitudes, it is no longer recognised as an illness.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Historic disorders that are no longer recognised include <a href="/wiki/Orthorexia_nervosa" title="Orthorexia nervosa">orthorexia nervosa</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], <a href="/wiki/Sexual_addiction" title="Sexual addiction">sexual addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parental_alienation_syndrome" title="Parental alienation syndrome">parental alienation syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pathological_demand_avoidance" title="Pathological demand avoidance">pathological demand avoidance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction disorder</a>. New disorders include <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_hoarding" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsive hoarding">compulsive hoarding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Binge_Eating_Disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Binge Eating Disorder">binge eating disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The act of diagnosis itself has been criticized for being arbitrary with some conditions being overdiagnosed.<a href="#cite_note-Paris202022-44">[44]</a> Individuals may be diagnosed with a mental disorder despite having been perceived as having no issues with their behavior. In Virginia, U.S., it was found up to 33% of white boys are diagnosed with ADHD leading to alarm in the medical community.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a> argued that mental health diagnoses were used as a form of labelling violations of societies norms. Bill Fullford, introduced the idea of "value-laden" mental health diagnosis with mental health lying between physical health and a moral judgment. Under this system <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">personality disorders</a> are seen as not very factual and very value-laden while delirium is quite factual and not very value-laden.<a href="#cite_note-:122-7">[7]</a>: 104  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_basis">Biological basis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biological basis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></div> In 2013, psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Allen_Frances" title="Allen Frances">Allen Frances</a> said that he believes that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests".<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frances_A_111–11222-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasral2-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyle_(psychologist)" title="Mary Boyle (psychologist)">Mary Boyle</a> argues that psychiatry is actually the study of behavior, but acts as if it is the study of the brain based on a presumed connection between patterns of behavior and the biological function of the brain. She argues that in the case of schizophrenia it is the bizarre behavior of individuals that justifies the presumption of a biological cause for this behavior rather than the existence of any evidence.<a href="#cite_note-:22-48">[48]</a>: 236  She argues that the concept of schizophrenia and its biological basis serves a social function for psychiatrists. She views the concept of schizophrenia as necessary for psychiatry to be considered as a medical field, that the claimed biological link gives psychiatrists protection from accusations of social control, and that the belief in the biological basis for schizophrenia is maintained through <a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">secondary source</a>'s misrepresentation of underlying data. She argues that schizophrenia and its biological basis also gives families, psychiatrists and society as a whole the ability to avoid blame for the damage they cause individuals and the ineffectiveness of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:22-48">[48]</a>: 238  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schizophrenia_diagnosis">Schizophrenia diagnosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Schizophrenia diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_schizophrenia" title="Diagnosis of schizophrenia">Diagnosis of schizophrenia</a></div> Underlying issues associated with schizophrenia would be better addressed as a spectrum of conditions<a href="#cite_note-Tsuang002-49">[49]</a> or as individual dimensions along which everyone varies rather than by a diagnostic category based on an arbitrary cut-off between normal and ill.<a href="#cite_note-pmid182358662-50">[50]</a> This approach appears consistent with research on <a href="/wiki/Schizotypy" title="Schizotypy">schizotypy</a>, and with a relatively high prevalence of psychotic experiences, mostly non-distressing delusional beliefs, among the general public.<a href="#cite_note-fn_52-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-fn_652-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-fn_672-53">[53]</a> In concordance with this observation, psychologist Edgar Jones, and psychiatrists <a href="/wiki/Anthony_David_(neuropsychiatrist)" title="Anthony David (neuropsychiatrist)">Tony David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nassir_Ghaemi" title="Nassir Ghaemi">Nassir Ghaemi</a>, surveying the existing literature on delusions, pointed out that the consistency and completeness of the definition of delusion have been found wanting by many; delusions are neither necessarily fixed nor false, and need not involve the presence of incontrovertible evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Jones19992-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-David19992-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ghaemi19992-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy Andreasen">Nancy Andreasen</a> has criticized the current DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria for sacrificing diagnostic <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">validity</a> for the sake of artificially improving <a href="/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)" title="Reliability (statistics)">reliability</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. She argues that overemphasis on psychosis in the diagnostic criteria, while improving diagnostic reliability, ignores more fundamental cognitive impairments that are harder to assess due to large variations in presentation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid107191382-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid128848832-58">[58]</a> This view is supported by other psychiatrists.<a href="#cite_note-competing072-59">[59]</a> In the same vein, <a href="/wiki/Ming_Tsuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Tsuang">Ming Tsuang</a> and colleagues argue that psychotic symptoms may be a common end-state in a variety of disorders, including schizophrenia, rather than a reflection of the specific etiology of schizophrenia, and warn that there is little basis for regarding DSM's operational definition as the "true" construct of schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-Tsuang002-49">[49]</a> Neuropsychologist Michael Foster Green went further in suggesting the presence of specific <a href="/wiki/Neurocognitive_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocognitive deficit">neurocognitive deficits</a> may be used to construct <a href="/wiki/Phenotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenotypes">phenotypes</a> that are alternatives to those that are purely symptom-based. These deficits take the form of a reduction or impairment in basic psychological functions such as <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Executive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive function">executive function</a> and <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid104167332-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreenSchizophreniaBook2-61">[61]</a> The exclusion of affective components from the criteria for schizophrenia, despite their ubiquity in clinical settings, has also caused contention. This exclusion in the DSM has resulted in a "rather convoluted" separate disorder—<a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">schizoaffective disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-competing072-59">[59]</a> Citing poor <a href="/wiki/Interrater_reliability" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrater reliability">interrater reliability</a>, some psychiatrists have totally contested the concept of schizoaffective disorder as a separate entity.<a href="#cite_note-pmid175513522-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid181992382-63">[63]</a> The categorical distinction between mood disorders and schizophrenia, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kraepelinian_dichotomy" title="Kraepelinian dichotomy">Kraepelinian dichotomy</a>, has also been challenged by data from genetic epidemiology.<a href="#cite_note-pmid158637382-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Metzl" title="Jonathan Metzl">Jonathan Metzl</a>, in his book <a href="/wiki/The_Protest_Psychosis" title="The Protest Psychosis">The Protest Psychosis</a>, argues that the <a href="/wiki/Ionia_State_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionia State Hospital">Ionia State Hospital</a> in Ionia, Michigan disproportionately diagnosed African Americans with schizophrenia because of their civil rights activism.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ADHD">ADHD</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: ADHD">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_controversies" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies</a></div> ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-Parrillo_2008_632-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sim2-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior<a href="#cite_note-NICE_20092-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Faraone_20052-70">[70]</a> to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children,<a href="#cite_note-Sim2-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cormier20082-72">[72]</a> the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Cormier20082-72">[72]</a> In 2012, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a>, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_20092-69">[69]</a> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Conners" title="Keith Conners">Keith Conners</a>, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in an article in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults.<a href="#cite_note-underdiagnosed2-74">[74]</a> With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Elder-20102-75">[75]</a> Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the <a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">medicalization</a> of deviant behavior, that is, the turning of the previously non-medical issue of school performance into a medical one.<a href="#cite_note-Parrillo_2008_632-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erk20092-76">[76]</a> Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Erk20092-76">[76]</a> Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less severe symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Erk20092-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Online2-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schonwald2-78">[78]</a> As of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit">[update]</a>, 8% of all United States <a href="/wiki/Major_League_Baseball" title="Major League Baseball">Major League Baseball</a> players had been diagnosed with ADHD, making the disorder common among this population. The increase coincided with the League's 2006 ban on <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulants</a>, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Psychosurgery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_psychosurgery" title="History of psychosurgery">History of psychosurgery</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a> is brain surgery with the aim of changing an individual's behavior or psychological function. Historically, this was achieved through ablative psychosurgery that removed or deliberately damaged (lesioning) a section of the brain, but more recently <a href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">deep brain stimulation</a> is used to remotely stimulate sections of the brain. One such practice was the <a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">lobotomy</a>, that was used between the 1930s and 1950s,<a href="#cite_note-:022-5">[5]</a>: 20  for which one its creators, <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a>, received a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The lobotomy fell out of favor in by 1960s and 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Other forms of ablative psychosurgery were in use in the UK in the late 1970s to treat psychotic and mood disorders.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_cingulotomy" title="Bilateral cingulotomy">Bilateral cingulotomy</a> was used to treat substance abuse disorder in Russia until 2002. <a href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">Deep brain stimulation</a> is used in China to treat substance abuse disorders.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In the US, the lobotomy, while initially received with positivity in the late 1930s, came to be seen more negative in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The New York Times discussed the personality changes of lobotomy in 1947, and in the same year the <a href="/wiki/Science_Digest" title="Science Digest">Science Digest</a> reported on papers questioning the effects of lobotomy on personality and intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The lobotomy was prominently depicted a means to control nonconformity in the 1962 book <a href="/wiki/One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo%27s_Nest_(novel)" title="One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-85">[85]</a>: 70  Psychosurgery was criticized in the US in the late 1960s and 1970s by psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a>. He identified all psychosurgery with the lobotomy as a rhetorical device to criticize the practice of psychosurgery more broadly.<a href="#cite_note-:32-85">[85]</a>: 116  He stated that "psychosurgery is a crime against humanity, a crime that cannot be condoned on medical, ethical, or legal grounds". Psycho-surgeons <a href="/wiki/William_Beecher_Scoville" title="William Beecher Scoville">William Beecher Scoville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petter_Lindstr%C3%B6m" title="Petter Lindström">Petter Lindström</a> said that Breggin's critique was emotional and not based on facts.<a href="#cite_note-:32-85">[85]</a>: 121  Psychosurgery was investigated by the US Senate in the 1973 by the Health Subcommittee of the Senate's Committee on Labor and Public Welfare chaired by Senator Edward Kennedy due to growing concern about the ethical boundaries of science and medicine. At this committee Breggin argued that newer forms of psychosurgery were the same as the lobotomy since it had the same effects "emotional blunting, passivity, reduced capacity to learn" and said that psycho-surgeons "represent the greatest future threat that we are going to face for our traditional American values", arguing that if the US became a totalitarian regime lobotomy and psychosurgery would be the equivalent of the secret police. The subcommittee published a report in 1977 suggesting that data should be carefully collected about psychosurgery and that it should not be performed upon children or prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-:32-85">[85]</a>: 123  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electroconvulsive_therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electroconvulsive therapy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a> is a therapy method which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still used today.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Electroconvulsive therapy was one treatment that the anti-psychiatry movement wanted to be eliminated from psychiatric practice.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter2822-88">[88]</a> Their arguments were that ECT damages the brain,<a href="#cite_note-Shorter2822-88">[88]</a> and was used as punishment or as a threat to keep the patients "in line".<a href="#cite_note-Shorter2822-88">[88]</a> Since then, ECT has improved considerably,<a href="#cite_note-APP_textbook2-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> and is now performed under general anesthesia in a medically supervised environment.<a href="#cite_note-Fink2-91">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a> recommends ECT for the short-term treatment of severe, treatment-resistant depression, and advises against its use in schizophrenia.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> According to the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments, ECT is more efficacious for the treatment of depression than antidepressants, with a response rate of 90% in first line treatment and 50-60% in treatment-resistant patients.<a href="#cite_note-neurostimulation12-94">[94]</a> The most common side effects of ECT include headache, muscle soreness, confusion, and temporary loss of recent memory.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fink2-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Patients may also experience permanent amnesia.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marketing_of_antipsychotic_drugs">Marketing of antipsychotic drugs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Marketing of antipsychotic drugs">edit</a>]</div> Psychiatry has greatly benefitted by advances in pharmacotherapy.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a>: 110–112 <a href="#cite_note-Irish2-98">[98]</a> However, the close relationship between those prescribing psychiatric medication and pharmaceutical companies, and the risk of a conflict of interest,<a href="#cite_note-Irish2-98">[98]</a> is also a source of concern. This relationship is often described as being part of the <a href="/wiki/Medical%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Medical–industrial complex">medical-industrial complex</a>. This marketing by the pharmaceutical industry has an influence on practicing psychiatrists, which affects prescription.<a href="#cite_note-Irish2-98">[98]</a> Child psychiatry is one of the areas in which prescription of psychotropic medication has grown massively. In the past, prescription of these medications for children was rare, but nowadays child psychiatrists prescribe <a href="/wiki/Psychotropic_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotropic drugs">psychotropic substances</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ritalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritalin">Ritalin</a>, on a regular basis to children.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a>: 110–112  Joanna Moncrieff has argued that antipsychotic drug treatment is often undertaken as a means of control rather than to treat specific symptoms experienced by the patient.<a href="#cite_note-guard_12-99">[99]</a> Moncreiff has further argued, in the controversial and non-<a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer reviewed</a> journal <a href="/wiki/Medical_Hypotheses" title="Medical Hypotheses">Medical Hypotheses</a>, that the evidence for antipsychotics from discontinuation-relapse studies may be flawed, because they do not take into account that antipsychotics may sensitize the brain and provoke psychosis if discontinued, which may then be wrongly interpreted as a relapse of the original condition.<a href="#cite_note-Moncrieff-20062-100">[100]</a> Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel pressure from care home staff.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company <a href="/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson" title="Johnson & Johnson">Johnson & Johnson</a> for allegedly paying <a href="/wiki/Kickback_(bribery)" title="Kickback (bribery)">kickbacks</a> to <a href="/wiki/Omnicare" title="Omnicare">Omnicare</a> to promote its antipsychotic <a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">risperidone</a> (Risperdal) in nursing homes.<a href="#cite_note-Hilzenrath2-104">[104]</a> There has also been controversy about the role of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceutical</a> companies in <a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations.<a href="#cite_note-bied20102-105">[105]</a> One case involved <a href="/wiki/Eli_Lilly_and_Company" title="Eli Lilly and Company">Eli Lilly and Company</a>'s antipsychotic <a href="/wiki/Zyprexa" class="mw-redirect" title="Zyprexa">Zyprexa</a>, and the other involved <a href="/wiki/Bextra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bextra">Bextra</a>. In the Bextra case, the government also charged <a href="/wiki/Pfizer" title="Pfizer">Pfizer</a> with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, <a href="/wiki/Geodon" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodon">Geodon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bied20102-105">[105]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Astrazeneca" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrazeneca">Astrazeneca</a> faces numerous personal-injury lawsuits from former users of <a href="/wiki/Seroquel" class="mw-redirect" title="Seroquel">Seroquel</a> (quetiapine), amidst federal investigations of its marketing practices.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $5.5 billion and $5.4 billion respectively.<a href="#cite_note-healthcarefinancenews.com2-107">[107]</a> Harvard medical professor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Biederman" title="Joseph Biederman">Joseph Biederman</a> conducted research on bipolar disorder in children that led to an increase in such diagnoses. A 2008 Senate investigation found that Biederman also received $1.6 million in speaking and consulting fees between 2000 and 2007— some of them undisclosed to Harvard— from companies including the makers of antipsychotic drugs prescribed for children with bipolar disorder. <a href="/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson" title="Johnson & Johnson">Johnson & Johnson</a> gave more than $700,000 to a research center that was headed by Biederman from 2002 to 2005, where research was conducted, in part, on <a href="/wiki/Risperdal" class="mw-redirect" title="Risperdal">Risperdal</a>, the company's antipsychotic drug. Biederman has responded saying that the money did not influence him and that he did not promote a specific diagnosis or treatment.<a href="#cite_note-bied20102-105">[105]</a> In 2004, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> research participant <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dan_Markingson" title="Death of Dan Markingson">Dan Markingson committed suicide</a> while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics: <a href="/wiki/Quetiapine" title="Quetiapine">Seroquel (quetiapine)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olanzapine" title="Olanzapine">Zyprexa (olanzapine)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">Risperdal (risperidone)</a>. Writing on the circumstances surrounding Markingson's death in the study, which was designed and funded by Seroquel manufacturer <a href="/wiki/AstraZeneca" title="AstraZeneca">AstraZeneca</a>, University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics <a href="/wiki/Carl_Elliott_(philosopher)" title="Carl Elliott (philosopher)">Carl Elliott</a> noted that Markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Further investigation revealed financial ties to AstraZeneca by Markingson's psychiatrist, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, oversights and biases in AstraZeneca's trial design, and the inadequacy of university <a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional Review Board (IRB)</a> protections for research subjects.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> A 2005 FDA investigation cleared the university. Nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. <a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a> resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university Board of Regents urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Pharmaceutical companies have also been accused of attempting to set the mental health agenda through activities such as funding <a href="/wiki/Consumer_advocacy_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer advocacy groups">consumer advocacy groups</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid152789772-111">[111]</a> In an effort to reduce the potential for hidden conflicts of interest between researchers and pharmaceutical companies, the US Government issued a mandate in 2012 requiring that drug manufacturers receiving funds under the Medicare and Medicaid programs collect data, and make public, all gifts to doctors and hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-Kirk201322-12">[12]</a>: 317  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experimentation_on_prisoners" title="Experimentation on prisoners">Experimentation on prisoners</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Anti-psychiatry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></div> The term <a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">anti-psychiatry</a> was coined by psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a> in 1967 and is understood in current psychiatry to mean opposition to psychiatry's perceived role aspects of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a> The anti-psychiatry message is that psychiatric treatments are "ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients". Psychiatry is seen to involve an "unequal power relationship between doctor and patient", and advocates of anti-psychiatry claim a subjective diagnostic process, leaving much room for opinions and interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasral-112">[112]</a> Every society, including liberal Western society, permits <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory treatment">compulsory treatment</a> of mental patients.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a> The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes that "poor quality services and human rights violations in mental health and social care facilities are still an everyday occurrence in many places", but has recently taken steps to improve the situation globally.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy" title="Electroconvulsive therapy">Electroconvulsive therapy</a> is a therapy method, which was used widely between the 1930s and 1960s and is, in a modified form, still in use today. <a href="/wiki/Valium" class="mw-redirect" title="Valium">Valium</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sedatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedatives">sedatives</a> have arguably been over-prescribed, leading to a claimed epidemic of dependence. These are a few of the arguments that the anti-psychiatry movement use to highlight the harms of psychiatric practice. Multiple authors are well known for the movement against psychiatry, including those who have been practicing psychiatrists. The most influential was <a href="/wiki/R.D._Laing" class="mw-redirect" title="R.D. Laing">R.D. Laing</a>, who wrote a series of books, including; <a href="/wiki/The_Divided_Self" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divided Self">The Divided Self</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a> rose to fame with the book <a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foucault" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Foucault">Michael Foucault</a> challenged the very basis of psychiatric practice and cast it as repressive and controlling. The term "anti-psychiatry" itself was coined by <a href="/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a> in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasral-112">[112]</a> The founder of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-psychiatric_approaches_to_psychological_suffering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Non-psychiatric approaches to psychological suffering (page does not exist)">non-psychiatric approach</a> to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_suffering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychological suffering (page does not exist)">psychological suffering</a> is <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a>. Divergence within psychiatry generated the anti-psychiatry movement in the 1960s and 1970s, and is still present. Issues remaining relevant in contemporary psychiatry are questions of; freedom versus coercion, mind versus brain, nature versus nurture, and the right to be different.<a href="#cite_note-tburns22-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychiatric_survivors_movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Psychiatric survivors movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">psychiatric survivors movement</a><a href="#cite_note-challenge-114">[114]</a> arose out of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> ferment of the late 1960s and early 1970s and the personal histories of psychiatric abuse experienced by some ex-patients rather than the intradisciplinary discourse of antipsychiatry.<a href="#cite_note-Oaks_letter-115">[115]</a> The key text in the intellectual development of the survivor movement, at least in the US, was <a href="/wiki/Judi_Chamberlin" title="Judi Chamberlin">Judi Chamberlin</a>'s 1978 text, On Our Own: Patient Controlled Alternatives to the Mental Health System.<a href="#cite_note-challenge-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Chamberlin was an ex-patient and co-founder of the Mental Patients' Liberation Front.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Coalescing around the ex-patient newsletter Dendron,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> in late 1988 leaders from several of the main national and grassroots psychiatric survivor groups felt that an independent, human rights coalition focused on problems in the mental health system was needed. That year the Support Coalition International (SCI) was formed. SCI's first public action was to stage a counter-conference and <a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">protest</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, in May, 1990, at the same time as (and directly outside of) the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a>'s annual meeting.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> In 2005 the SCI changed its name to <a href="/wiki/Mind_Freedom_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind Freedom International">Mind Freedom International</a> with <a href="/wiki/David_W._Oaks" class="mw-redirect" title="David W. Oaks">David W. Oaks</a> as its director.<a href="#cite_note-Oaks_letter-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Controversies_about_psychiatry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frana22-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frana22_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frana22_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrances_A2013" class="citation journal cs1">Frances A (6 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655">"The new crisis of confidence in psychiatric diagnosis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Internal_Medicine" title="Annals of Internal Medicine">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>. 159 (2): 221–222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655">10.7326/0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23685989">23685989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+new+crisis+of+confidence+in+psychiatric+diagnosis&rft.volume=159&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=221-222&rft.date=2013-08-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23685989&rft.au=Frances+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7326%252F0003-4819-159-3-201308060-00655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoncrieff2010" class="citation journal cs1">Moncrieff, Joanna (2010-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fsth.2009.11">"Psychiatric diagnosis as a political device"</a>. 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Steve (11 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5P_pBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA404">Recollections of Trauma: Scientific Evidence and Clinical Practice</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-2672-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-2672-5"><bdi>978-1-4757-2672-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recollections+of+Trauma%3A+Scientific+Evidence+and+Clinical+Practice&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013-11-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4757-2672-5&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=J.+Don&rft.au=Lindsay%2C+D.+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5P_pBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> "...one finds two non-intersecting conceptual universes: that of psychiatry and traumatology-unrealistic, un-challengable and essentially unfalsifiable..." </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> "Cured". <a href="/wiki/Independent_Lens" title="Independent Lens">Independent Lens</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. 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Mens Sana Monographs. 3 (2): 19–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0973-1229.27881">10.4103/0973-1229.27881</a> (inactive 2024-11-02). <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3369169">3369169</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22679354">22679354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mens+Sana+Monographs&rft.atitle=Medicine+as+a+corporate+enterprise%2C+patient+welfare+centered+profession%2C+or+patient+welfare+centered+professional+enterprise%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=19-55&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3369169%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22679354&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0973-1229.27881&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Singh%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3369169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Ajai R Singh, Shakuntala A Singh, 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-1229;year=2005;volume=3;issue=1;spage=5;epage=35;aulast=Singh">"The connection between academia and industry"</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍], Mens Sana Monographs, 3(1), p5-35 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Ajai R Singh, Shakuntala A Singh, 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-1229;year=2005;volume=3;issue=1;spage=41;epage=80;aulast=Singh">"Public welfare agenda or corporate research agenda?"</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍], Mens Sana Monographs, 3(1), p41-80. </li> <li id="cite_note-Noll2-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Noll2_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll,_Richard2007" class="citation book cs1">Noll, Richard (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzoJxps189IC&pg=PA3">The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders</a>. 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Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-1780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-1780-4"><bdi>978-90-247-1780-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Case+studies+on+human+rights+and+fundamental+freedoms%3A+a+world+survey&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-90-247-1780-4&rft.au=Veenhoven%2C+Willem&rft.au=Ewing%2C+Winifred&rft.au=Samenlevingen%2C+Stichting&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRdazE7TGYjgC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shah2-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Shah2_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahBasu2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shah R, Basu D (July–September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818">"Coercion in psychiatric care: Global and Indian perspective"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indian_Journal_of_Psychiatry" title="Indian Journal of Psychiatry">Indian Journal of Psychiatry</a>. 52 (3): 203–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5545.70971">10.4103/0019-5545.70971</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2990818">2990818</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21180403">21180403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Coercion+in+psychiatric+care%3A+Global+and+Indian+perspective&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-206&rft.date=2010-07%2F2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2990818%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21180403&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0019-5545.70971&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Basu%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2990818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Declan2-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Declan2_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeclan,_LyonsArt,_O'Malley2002" class="citation journal cs1">Declan, Lyons; Art, O'Malley (1 December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fpb.26.12.443">"The labelling of dissent — politics and psychiatry behind the Great Wall"</a>. 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Wiley-Blackwell. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2404-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2404-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-2404-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychiatry+at+a+glance&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2404-1&rft.aulast=Katona&rft.aufirst=Cornelius&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOSJRHpAtqPUC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_31-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeller2020" class="citation journal cs1">Geller, Jeffrey (2020-06-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.pn.2020.7a18">"Structural Racism in American Psychiatry and APA: Part 1"</a>. 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Psychiatric News. 55 (15). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8a16">10.1176/appi.pn.2020.8a16</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243650598">243650598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+News&rft.atitle=Structural+Racism+in+American+Psychiatry+and+APA%3A+Part+3&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=15&rft.date=2020-07-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8a16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243650598%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Geller&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychnews.psychiatryonline.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8a16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusert2017" class="citation book cs1">Rusert, Britt (2017). 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Psychiatric News. 55 (16). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8b13">10.1176/appi.pn.2020.8b13</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225206945">225206945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatric+News&rft.atitle=Structural+Racism+in+American+Psychiatry+and+APA%3A+Part+4&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=16&rft.date=2020-08-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8b13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225206945%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Geller&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychnews.psychiatryonline.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1176%2Fappi.pn.2020.8b13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeller2020" class="citation journal cs1">Geller, Jeffrey (2020-08-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.pn.2020.9a20">"Structural Racism in American Psychiatry and APA: Part 5"</a>. 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Davis Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8036-0280-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8036-0280-9"><bdi>978-0-8036-0280-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychiatric+Pearls&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=F.A.+Davis+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8036-0280-9&rft.aulast=Lyness&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShorter1997" class="citation cs2">Shorter, E (1997), A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24531-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24531-5"><bdi>978-0-471-24531-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Psychiatry%3A+From+the+Era+of+the+Asylum+to+the+Age+of+Prozac&rft.place=New+York%3A+John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-471-24531-5&rft.aulast=Shorter&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AControversies+about+psychiatry" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-psychiatry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-psychiatry" title="Template:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-psychiatry" title="Template talk:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-psychiatry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-psychiatry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Controversies about psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_Voices_Movement" title="Hearing Voices Movement">Hearing Voices Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mental_disorders" title="History of mental disorders">History of mental disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">Involuntary commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Mitchell_effect" title="Martha Mitchell effect">Martha Mitchell effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">of sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model" title="Medical model">medical model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouthetic_counseling" title="Nouthetic counseling">Nouthetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_disintegration" title="Positive disintegration">Positive disintegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovery_model" title="Recovery model">Recovery model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Rhetoric of therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Rosenhan experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-help_groups_for_mental_health" title="Self-help groups for mental health">Self-help groups for mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_community" title="Therapeutic community">Therapeutic community</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Abolition_of_Involuntary_Mental_Hospitalization" title="American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization">American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspies_For_Freedom" title="Aspies For Freedom">Aspies For Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Network_International" title="Autism Network International">Autism Network International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazelon_Center_for_Mental_Health_Law" title="Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law">Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Citizens Commission on Human Rights">Citizens Commission on Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical Psychiatry Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_Rights_International" title="Disability Rights International">Disability Rights International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_Voices_Network" title="Hearing Voices Network">Hearing Voices Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarus_Project" title="Icarus Project">Icarus Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Disability_Alliance" title="International Disability Alliance">International Disability Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_Disability_Coalition" title="Learning Disability Coalition">Learning Disability Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_Pride" class="mw-redirect" title="Mad Pride">Mad Pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MindFreedom_International" title="MindFreedom International">MindFreedom International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Empowerment_Center" title="National Empowerment Center">National Empowerment Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network" title="Radical Psychology Network">Radical Psychology Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_International" title="Rehabilitation International">Rehabilitation International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_Rights_UK" title="Disability Rights UK">Royal Association for Disability Rights</a></li> <li>Paranoia Network</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteria_(psychiatric_treatment)" title="Soteria (psychiatric treatment)">Soteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Patients%27_Collective" title="Socialist Patients' Collective">Socialist Patients' Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Users_and_Survivors_of_Psychiatry" title="World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry">World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Andre" title="Linda Andre">Linda Andre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Basaglia" title="Franco Basaglia">Franco Basaglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Ernest Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauretta_Bender" title="Lauretta Bender">Lauretta Bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentall" title="Richard Bentall">Richard Bentall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Chabasinski" title="Ted Chabasinski">Ted Chabasinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judi_Chamberlin" title="Judi Chamberlin">Judi Chamberlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyn_Duff" title="Lyn Duff">Lyn Duff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Roy_Frank" title="Leonard Roy Frank">Leonard Roy Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gottstein" title="James Gottstein">James Gottstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._G%C3%B8tzsche" title="Peter C. Gøtzsche">Peter C. Gøtzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">R. D. Laing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lehmann_(author)" title="Peter Lehmann (author)">Peter Lehmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Millett" title="Kate Millett">Kate Millett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loren_Mosher" title="Loren Mosher">Loren Mosher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Moncrieff" title="Joanna Moncrieff">Joanna Moncrieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Oaks" title="David Oaks">David Oaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Packard" title="Elizabeth Packard">Elizabeth Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sascha_Altman_DuBrul" title="Sascha Altman DuBrul">Sascha Scatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Smail_(psychologist)" title="David Smail (psychologist)">David Smail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Ticktin" title="Stephen Ticktin">Stephen Ticktin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whitaker_(author)" title="Robert Whitaker (author)">Robert Whitaker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Against_Therapy" title="Against Therapy">Against Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_an_Epidemic" title="Anatomy of an Epidemic">Anatomy of an Epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Oedipus" title="Anti-Oedipus">Anti-Oedipus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asylums_(book)" title="Asylums (book)">Asylums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Therapies" title="Crazy Therapies">Crazy Therapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctoring_the_Mind" title="Doctoring the Mind">Doctoring the Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia" title="Interpretation of Schizophrenia">Interpretation of Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_by_Oppression" title="Liberation by Oppression">Liberation by Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_in_America" title="Mad in America">Mad in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madness_and_Civilization" title="Madness and Civilization">Madness and Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network" title="Radical Psychology Network">Radical Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gene_Illusion" title="The Gene Illusion">The Gene Illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Politics_of_Experience_and_The_Bird_of_Paradise" title="The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise">The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protest_Psychosis" title="The Protest Psychosis">The Protest Psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist" title="The Radical Therapist">The Radical Therapist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We%27ve_Had_a_Hundred_Years_of_Psychotherapy_%E2%80%93_and_the_World%27s_Getting_Worse" title="We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse">We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Psychiatry portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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