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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ensuing_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 The ensuing controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ensuing_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habermas'_attack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habermas'_attack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Habermas' attack </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habermas'_attack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_words_in_the_German_press" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_words_in_the_German_press"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 War of words in the German press </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_of_words_in_the_German_press-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Der_europäische_Bürgerkrieg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Der_europäische_Bürgerkrieg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Der europäische Bürgerkrieg </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Der_europäische_Bürgerkrieg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 International reaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conclusion_of_dispute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conclusion_of_dispute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Conclusion of dispute </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conclusion_of_dispute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Later work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ernst Nolte</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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data-title="ارنست نولته" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%83%CF%84_%CE%9D%CF%8C%CE%BB%CF%84%CE%B5" title="Ερνστ Νόλτε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ερνστ Νόλτε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%87" title="ارنست نولته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارنست نولته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%A5%B8%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8_%EB%86%80%ED%85%8C" title="에른스트 놀테 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에른스트 놀테" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="ارنست نولت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ارنست نولت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ernst Nolte" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5,_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82" title="Нольте, Эрнст – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нольте, Эрнст" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German historian (1923–2016)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Ernst Nolte</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Nolte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/36/Ernst_Nolte.jpg/220px-Ernst_Nolte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/36/Ernst_Nolte.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="346" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1923-01-11)11 January 1923 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Witten" title="Witten">Witten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">18 August 2016(2016-08-18) (aged 93) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category">German</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="University of Münster">University of Münster</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">University of Freiburg</a> (<a href="/wiki/B._A." class="mw-redirect" title="B. A.">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>) <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cologne" title="University of Cologne">University of Cologne</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Philosopher, historian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Employer(s)</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a> (1965–1973) <a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a> (since 1973, <a href="/wiki/Emeritus" title="Emeritus">Emeritus</a> since 1991)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Articulating a theory of generic fascism as “resistance to transcendence”, and for his involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a> debate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">Annedore Mortier</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Nolte" title="Georg Nolte">Georg Nolte</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hanns_Martin_Schleyer_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize">Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize</a> (1985) <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Prize" title="Konrad Adenauer Prize">Konrad Adenauer Prize</a> (2000) <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Gerhard Löwenthal">Gerhard Löwenthal</a> Honor Award (2011)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Category:Conservatism in Germany">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#154E9D; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Conservatism in Germany</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg/80px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg/120px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg/160px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_-_Reichsadler_1889.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1286" data-file-height="1600" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_conservatism_in_Germany" title="Agrarian conservatism in Germany">Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritter_School" title="Ritter School">Ritter School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_German-speaking_countries" title="Monarchism in German-speaking countries">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Rechte" title="Neue Rechte">Neue Rechte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">Völkisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalistic_conservatism" title="Paternalistic conservatism">Paternalistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Socialism_(Germany)" title="State Socialism (Germany)">State Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussianism" title="Prussianism">Prussianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_cameralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian cameralism">Cameralistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian socialism">Socialist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolution" title="Conservative Revolution">Revolutionary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolution#Young_conservatives" title="Conservative Revolution">Young</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Right-Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Historical_School" class="mw-redirect" title="German Historical School">Historical School</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Christian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_nobility" title="German nobility">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemeinschaft_and_Gesellschaft" title="Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft">Gemeinschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik">Geopolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimat" title="Heimat">Heimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Treue_fest" title="In Treue fest">In Treue fest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Germany" title="Culture of Germany">Kultur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism#Germany" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology#Germany" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy#Germany" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volk" title="Volk">Volk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geist#Volksgeist" title="Geist">Volksgeist</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">20 July plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Socialist_Laws" title="Anti-Socialist Laws">Anti-Socialist Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlsbad_Decrees" title="Carlsbad Decrees">Carlsbad Decrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erkl%C3%A4rung_2018" title="Erklärung 2018">Erklärung 2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Manifesto" title="Heidelberg Manifesto">Heidelberg Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junker_(Prussia)" title="Junker (Prussia)">The Junkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Bavaria_after_1918" title="Monarchism in Bavaria after 1918">Monarchism in Bavaria after 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oster_conspiracy" title="Oster conspiracy">Oster conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George-Kreis" title="George-Kreis">George-Kreis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_culture#Berlin's_reputation_for_decadence" title="Weimar culture">Perceived Weimar decadence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig_school_(sociology)" title="Leipzig school (sociology)">Leipzig school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wandervogel" title="Wandervogel">Wandervogel</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Bolz" title="Norbert Bolz">Norbert Bolz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerich_Coreth" title="Emerich Coreth">Emerich Coreth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henning_Eichberg" title="Henning Eichberg">Eichberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Freyer" title="Hans Freyer">Freyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_August_Graf_von_Galen" title="Clemens August Graf von Galen">von Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gogarten" title="Friedrich Gogarten">Gogarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_G%C3%B6rres" title="Joseph Görres">Görres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hielscher" title="Friedrich Hielscher">Hielscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_von_Hildebrand" title="Dietrich von Hildebrand">von Hildebrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger (Ernst)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Georg_J%C3%BCnger" title="Friedrich Georg Jünger">Jünger (Friedrich)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kantorowicz" title="Ernst Kantorowicz">Kantorowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Klages" title="Ludwig Klages">Klages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Kommerell" title="Max Kommerell">Kommerell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Koselleck" title="Reinhart Koselleck">Koselleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Lilienfeld" title="Paul von Lilienfeld">von Lilienfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_L%C3%B6with" title="Karl Löwith">Löwith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_L%C3%BCbbe" title="Hermann Lübbe">Lübbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Mann</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Moeller_van_den_Bruck" title="Arthur Moeller van den Bruck">Moeller van den Bruck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nolte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Plessner" title="Helmuth Plessner">Plessner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">von Ranke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Reck-Malleczewen" title="Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen">Reck-Malleczewen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Rehberg" title="August Wilhelm Rehberg">Rehberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ritter" title="Gerhard Ritter">Ritter (Gerhard)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Ritter" title="Joachim Ritter">Ritter (Joachim)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R%C3%BCstow" title="Alexander Rüstow">Rüstow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Salomon" title="Ernst von Salomon">von Salomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Scheler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schelsky" title="Helmut Schelsky">Schelsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Peter_Sieferle" title="Rolf Peter Sieferle">Sieferle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Spaemann" title="Robert Spaemann">Spaemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Steinbuch" title="Karl Steinbuch">Steinbuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Treitschke" title="Heinrich von Treitschke">von Treitschke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Weber" title="Alfred Weber">Weber</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addresses_to_the_German_Nation" title="Addresses to the German Nation">Addresses to the German Nation</a> (1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_National_System_of_Political_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="The National System of Political Economy">The National System</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degeneration_(Nordau)" title="Degeneration (Nordau)">Degeneration</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment_(book)" title="Ressentiment (book)">Ressentiment</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_of_a_Nonpolitical_Man" title="Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man">Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Decline_of_the_West" title="The Decline of the West">The Decline of the West</a> (1918, 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_and_Utopia" title="Ideology and Utopia">Ideology and Utopia</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_and_Technics" title="Man and Technics">Man and Technics</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_the_Political" title="The Concept of the Political">The Concept of the Political</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Marble_Cliffs" title="On the Marble Cliffs">On the Marble Cliffs</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man._His_Nature_and_Place_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Man. His Nature and Place in the World">Man</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diary_of_a_Man_in_Despair" title="Diary of a Man in Despair">Diary of a Man in Despair</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Questionnaire_(Salomon_novel)" title="The Questionnaire (Salomon novel)">The Questionnaire</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism_in_Its_Epoch" title="Fascism in Its Epoch">Fascism in Its Epoch</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envy:_A_Theory_of_Social_Behavior" title="Envy: A Theory of Social Behavior">Envy</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_und_Hypermoral" title="Moral und Hypermoral">Moral und Hypermoral</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_the_Human_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules for the Human Park">Rules for the Human Park</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_Abolishes_Itself" title="Germany Abolishes Itself">Germany Abolishes Itself</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finis_Germania" title="Finis Germania">Finis Germania</a> (2017)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Anrich" title="Ernst Anrich">Anrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefan_Aust" title="Stefan Aust">Aust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_M._Broder" title="Henryk M. Broder">Broder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Deschner" title="Günther Deschner">Deschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fasbender" title="Thomas Fasbender">Thomas Fasbender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Herman" title="Eva Herman">Herman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrud_H%C3%B6hler" title="Gertrud Höhler">Höhler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Krause_Landt" title="Andreas Krause Landt">Krause Landt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriele_Kuby" title="Gabriele Kuby">Kuby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_L%C3%B6ns" title="Hermann Löns">Hermann Löns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Gerhard Löwenthal">Löwenthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Maschke" title="Günter Maschke">Maschke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golo_Mann" title="Golo Mann">Mann (Golo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Maurer" title="Reinhart Maurer">Maurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilman_Nagel" title="Tilman Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Nebel" title="Gerhard Nebel">Nebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Noelle-Neumann" title="Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann">Noelle-Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Otte" title="Max Otte">Otte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akif_Pirin%C3%A7ci" title="Akif Pirinçci">Pirinçci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Rainer_R%C3%B6hl" title="Klaus Rainer Röhl">Röhl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Safranski" title="Rüdiger Safranski">Safranski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thilo_Sarrazin" title="Thilo Sarrazin">Sarrazin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_von_Schrenck-Notzing" title="Caspar von Schrenck-Notzing">von Schrenck-Notzing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimo_Schwilk" title="Heimo Schwilk">Schwilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Stein" title="Dieter Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botho_Strauss" title="Botho Strauss">Strauss (Botho)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_St%C3%BCrmer" title="Michael Stürmer">Stürmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Tichy" title="Roland Tichy">Tichy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Wei%C3%9Fmann" title="Karlheinz Weißmann">Weißmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Zehrer" title="Hans Zehrer">Zehrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Zitelmann" title="Rainer Zitelmann">Zitelmann</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ancillon" title="Friedrich Ancillon">Ancillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uwe_Barschel" title="Uwe Barschel">Barschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">von Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_von_Bose" title="Herbert von Bose">von Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Fehrenbach" title="Constantin Fehrenbach">Fehrenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Filbinger" title="Hans Filbinger">Filbinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_von_Gerlach" title="Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach">von Gerlach</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Goerdeler" title="Carl Friedrich Goerdeler">Goerdeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Held" title="Heinrich Held">Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">von Hindenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg" title="Alfred Hugenberg">Hugenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Jongen" title="Marc Jongen">Jongen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Jung" title="Edgar Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Kapp" title="Wolfgang Kapp">Kapp</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Krah" title="Maximilian Krah">Krah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutz_Graf_Schwerin_von_Krosigk" title="Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk">von Krosigk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Lengsfeld" title="Vera Lengsfeld">Lengsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Maa%C3%9Fen" title="Hans-Georg Maaßen">Maaßen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Joachim_von_Merkatz" title="Hans-Joachim von Merkatz">von Merkatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Merz" title="Friedrich Merz">Merz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Michaelis" title="Georg Michaelis">Michaelis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">von Papen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frauke_Petry" title="Frauke Petry">Petry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Radowitz" title="Joseph von Radowitz">von Radowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Rauschning" title="Hermann Rauschning">Rauschning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ritter_von_Kahr" title="Gustav Ritter von Kahr">Ritter von Kahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">von Roon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Sch%C3%A4ffer" title="Fritz Schäffer">Schäffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sch%C3%A4ffler" title="Frank Schäffler">Schäffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">von Schleicher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">vom und zum Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Stresemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">vom Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Stoecker" title="Adolf Stoecker">Stoecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatrix_von_Storch" title="Beatrix von Storch">von Storch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Wagener" title="Hermann Wagener">Wagener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Weidel" title="Alice Weidel">Weidel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuno_von_Westarp" title="Kuno von Westarp">von Westarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Winnig" title="August Winnig">Winnig</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst-Wolfgang_B%C3%B6ckenf%C3%B6rde" title="Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde">Böckenförde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Gierke" title="Otto von Gierke">von Gierke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_M%C3%B6ser" title="Justus Möser">Möser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">von Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Wagener" title="Hermann Wagener">Wagener</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Kohlmann" title="Martin Kohlmann">Kohlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6tz_Kubitschek" title="Götz Kubitschek">Kubitschek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Sabaditsch-Wolff" title="Elisabeth Sabaditsch-Wolff">Sabaditsch-Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Seibt" title="Naomi Seibt">Seibt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Six" title="Billy Six">Billy Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_von_Stauffenberg" title="Claus von Stauffenberg">von Stauffenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_St%C3%BCrzenberger" title="Michael Stürzenberger">Stürzenberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_von_Thurn_und_Taxis" title="Elisabeth von Thurn und Taxis">von Thurn und Taxis (Elisabeth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_von_Thurn_und_Taxis" title="Gloria von Thurn und Taxis">von Thurn und Taxis (Gloria)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">Active <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany</a> (AfD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavaria_Party" title="Bavaria Party">Bavaria Party</a> (BP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCndnis_Deutschland" title="Bündnis Deutschland">Bündnis Deutschland</a> (BD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a> (CDU) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union in Bavaria</a> (CSU)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_Democratic_Party" title="Ecological Democratic Party">Ecological Democratic Party</a> (ÖDP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Party_of_Germany" title="Family Party of Germany">Family Party of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Republicans_(Germany)" title="The Republicans (Germany)">The Republicans</a> (REP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_Union" title="Values Union">Values Union</a> (WU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Citizens_(Germany)" title="We Citizens (Germany)">We Citizens</a> (WB)</li></ul> Defunct <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_People%27s_Party" title="Bavarian People's Party">Bavarian People's Party</a> (BVP) 1918-1933</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Prussia)" title="Conservative Party (Prussia)">Conservative Party</a> 1848-1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Conservative_Party" title="Free Conservative Party">Free Conservative Party</a> (FKP) 1866-1918</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Conservative_Party" title="German Conservative Party">German Conservative Party</a> (DkP) 1876-1918</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Freedom_Party" title="German Freedom Party">German Freedom Party</a> 2010-2016</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party" title="German National People's Party">German National People's Party</a> (DNVP) 1918-1933</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Party_(1947)" title="German Party (1947)">German Party</a> (DP) 1947-1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_People%27s_Party" title="German People's Party">German People's Party</a> (DVP) 1918-1933</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aufbau_Vereinigung" title="Aufbau Vereinigung">Aufbau Vereinigung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliothek_des_Konservatismus" title="Bibliothek des Konservatismus">Bibliothek des Konservatismus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung" title="Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung">Desiderius-Erasmus-Stiftung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Deutschen_Konservativen" title="Die Deutschen Konservativen">Die Deutschen Konservativen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_German_Catholics" title="Forum of German Catholics">Forum of German Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_L%C3%B6wenthal_Prize" title="Gerhard Löwenthal Prize">Gerhard Löwenthal Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Burschenschaft" title="German Burschenschaft">German Burschenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens%27_Movement_Pax_Europa" title="Citizens' Movement Pax Europa">Citizens' Movement Pax Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanns_Seidel_Foundation" title="Hanns Seidel Foundation">Hanns Seidel Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Filbinger_Foundation" title="Hans Filbinger Foundation">Hans Filbinger Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identitarian_movement#Germany" title="Identitarian movement">Identitäre Aktion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Staatspolitik" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut für Staatspolitik">Institut für Staatspolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Foundation" title="Konrad Adenauer Foundation">Konrad Adenauer Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegida" title="Pegida">PEGIDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studienzentrum_Weikersheim" title="Studienzentrum Weikersheim">Studienzentrum Weikersheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition_und_Leben" title="Tradition und Leben">Tradition und Leben</a></li></ul> Defunct <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_Foundation" title="Germany Foundation">Germany Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Louise_League" title="Queen Louise League">Queen Louise League</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #154E9D; 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border-top:1px solid #154E9D; border-bottom:1px solid #154E9D"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/14px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/21px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/28px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/17px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/26px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/34px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Template:Conservatism in Germany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Template talk:Conservatism in Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism in Germany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ernst Nolte (11 January 1923 – 18 August 2016)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> was a German <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. Nolte's major interest was the comparative studies of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism</a>). Originally trained in philosophy, he was <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>, where he taught from 1973 until his 1991 retirement. He was previously a professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a> from 1965 to 1973. He was best known for his seminal work <a href="/wiki/Fascism_in_Its_Epoch" title="Fascism in Its Epoch">Fascism in Its Epoch</a>, which received widespread acclaim when it was published in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-Welch1993-2">[2]</a> Nolte was a prominent conservative academic from the early 1960s and was involved in many controversies related to the interpretation of the history of fascism and communism, including the <a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a> in the late 1980s. In later years, Nolte focused on <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Islamofascism" title="Islamofascism">Islamic fascism</a>". Nolte received several awards, including the <a href="/wiki/Hanns_Martin_Schleyer_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize">Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Prize" title="Konrad Adenauer Prize">Konrad Adenauer Prize</a>. He was the father of the legal scholar and judge of the International Court of Justice <a href="/wiki/Georg_Nolte" title="Georg Nolte">Georg Nolte</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a>]</div> Nolte was born in <a href="/wiki/Witten" title="Witten">Witten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> family. Nolte's parents were Heinrich Nolte, a school rector, and Anna (née Bruns) Nolte.<a href="#cite_note-Strute_1194-3">[3]</a> According to Nolte in a 28 March 2003 interview with a French newspaper Eurozine, his first encounter with communism occurred when he was 7 years old in 1930, when he read in a doctor's office a German translation of a Soviet children's book attacking the Catholic Church, which angered him.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In 1941, Nolte was excused from military service because of a deformed hand, and he studied <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> at the Universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="University of Münster">Münster</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">Berlin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Freiburg" title="University of Freiburg">Freiburg</a>. At Freiburg, Nolte was a student of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, whom he acknowledges as a major influence.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-mai38-6">[6]</a> From 1944 onwards, Nolte was a close friend of the Heidegger family, and when in 1945 the professor feared arrest by the French, Nolte provided him with food and clothing for an attempted escape.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fink" title="Eugen Fink">Eugen Fink</a> was another professor who influenced Nolte. After 1945 when Nolte received his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a> in philosophy at Freiburg, he worked as a Gymnasium (high school) teacher. In 1952, he received a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> in philosophy at Freiburg for his thesis Selbstentfremdung und Dialektik im deutschen Idealismus und bei Marx (Self Alienation and the Dialectic in German Idealism and Marx). Subsequently, Nolte began studies in Zeitgeschichte (contemporary history). He published his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitationsschrift</a> awarded at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cologne" title="University of Cologne">University of Cologne</a>, Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche, as a book in 1963. Between 1965 and 1973, Nolte worked as a professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a>, and from 1973 to 1991 at the <a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a>. Nolte married Annedore Mortier<a href="#cite_note-Strute_1194-3">[3]</a> and they had a son, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Nolte" title="Georg Nolte">Georg Nolte</a>, now a professor of international law at <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fascism_in_Its_Epoch">Fascism in Its Epoch</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fascism in Its Epoch">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fascism_in_Its_Epoch" title="Fascism in Its Epoch">Fascism in Its Epoch</a></div> Nolte came to notice with his 1963 book Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche (Fascism in Its Epoch; translated into English in 1965 as The Three Faces of Fascism), in which he argued that fascism arose as a form of resistance to and a reaction against <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>. Nolte's basic hypothesis and methodology were deeply rooted in the German "philosophy of history" tradition, a form of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">intellectual history</a> which seeks to discover the "metapolitical dimension" of history.<a href="#cite_note-gr47-8">[8]</a> The "metapolitical dimension" is considered to be the history of grand ideas functioning as profound spiritual powers, which infuse all levels of society with their force.<a href="#cite_note-gr47-8">[8]</a> In Nolte's opinion, only those with training in philosophy can discover the "metapolitical dimension", and those who use normal historical methods miss this dimension of time.<a href="#cite_note-gr47-8">[8]</a> Using the methods of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, Nolte subjected German <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>, Italian <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Fascism</a>, and the French <a href="/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a> movements to a comparative analysis. Nolte's conclusion was that fascism was the great anti-movement: it was anti-liberal, <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-capitalist">anti-capitalist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-bourgeois">anti-bourgeois</a>. In Nolte's view, fascism was the rejection of everything the modern world had to offer and was an essentially negative phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-gr48-9">[9]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/Hegelian_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian dialectic">Hegelian dialectic</a>, Nolte argued that the Action Française was the thesis, Italian Fascism was the antithesis, and German National Socialism the synthesis of the two earlier fascist movements.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Nolte argued that fascism functioned at three levels, namely in the world of politics as a form of opposition to <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, at the sociological level in opposition to bourgeois values, and in the "metapolitical" world as "resistance to transcendence" ("transcendence" in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> can be translated as the "spirit of modernity").<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Nolte defined the relationship between fascism and Marxism as such: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Fascism is anti-Marxism which seeks to destroy the enemy by the evolvement of a radically opposed and yet related ideology and by the use of almost identical and yet typically modified methods, always, however within the unyielding framework of national self-assertion and autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></blockquote> Nolte defined "transcendence" as a "metapolitical" force comprising two types of change.<a href="#cite_note-ker27-13">[13]</a> The first type, "practical transcendence", manifesting in material progress, technological change, political equality, and social advancement, comprises the process by which humanity liberates itself from traditional, hierarchical societies in favor of societies where all men and women are equal.<a href="#cite_note-ker27-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-m86-87-14">[14]</a> The second type is "theoretical transcendence", the striving to go beyond what exists in the world towards a new future, eliminating traditional fetters imposed on the human mind by poverty, backwardness, ignorance, and class.<a href="#cite_note-m86-87-14">[14]</a> Nolte himself defined "theoretical transcendence" as such: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Theoretical transcendence may be taken to mean the reaching out of the mind beyond what exists and what can exist toward an absolute whole; in a broader sense this may be applied to all that goes beyond, that releases man from the confines of the everyday world, and which, as an ‘awareness of the horizon’, makes it possible for him to experience the world as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gagarin_in_Sweden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Gagarin_in_Sweden.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="176" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>The flight of <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> around the earth in 1961 was used by Nolte in his 1963 book Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche as an example of “transcendence”</figcaption></figure> Nolte cited the flight of <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> in 1961 as an example of “practical transcendence”, of how humanity was pressing forward in its technological development and rapidly acquiring powers traditionally thought to be only the province of the gods.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Drawing upon the work of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, Nolte argued that the progress of both types of "transcendence" generates fear as the older world is swept aside by a new world, and that these fears led to fascism.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Nolte wrote that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">The most central of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a>'s ideas have been seen to penetrate to this level. By ‘monotheism’ and ‘anti-nature’ he did not imply a political process: he related these terms to the tradition of Western philosophy and religion, and left no doubt that for him they were not only adjuncts of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>'s notion of liberty, but also of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gospel" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Gospel">Christian Gospels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>' concept of being. It is equally obvious that he regarded the unity of world economics, technology, science and emancipation merely as another and more recent form of ‘anti-nature’. It was not difficult to find a place for Hitler ideas as a cruder and more recent expression of this schema. Maurras' and Hitler's real enemy was seen to be ‘freedom towards the infinite’ which, intrinsic in the individual and a reality in evolution, threatens to destroy the familiar and beloved. From all this it begins to be apparent what is meant by ‘transcendence’.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></blockquote> In regard to the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, Nolte contended that because <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> identified Jews with modernity, the basic thrust of Nazi policies towards Jews had always aimed at genocide.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Nolte wrote that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Auschwitz was contained in the principles of Nazi racist theory like the seed in the fruit.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></blockquote> Nolte believed that, for Hitler, Jews represented "the historical process itself".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Nolte argues that Hitler was "logically consistent" in seeking genocide of the Jews because Hitler detested modernity and identified Jews with the things that he most hated in the world.<a href="#cite_note-mar39-22">[22]</a> According to Nolte, "In Hitler's extermination of the Jews, it was not a case of criminals committing criminal deeds, but of a uniquely monstrous action in which principles ran riot in a frenzy of self-destruction".<a href="#cite_note-mar39-22">[22]</a> Nolte's theories about Nazi <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> as a rejection of modernity inspired the Israeli historian <a href="/wiki/Otto_Dov_Kulka" title="Otto Dov Kulka">Otto Dov Kulka</a> to argue that National Socialism was an attack on "the very roots of Western civilisation, its basic values and moral foundations".<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The Three Faces of Fascism has been much praised[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] as a seminal contribution to the creation of a theory of generic fascism based on a history of ideas, as opposed to the previous class-based analyses (especially the "Rage of the Lower Middle Class" thesis) that had characterized both Marxist and liberal interpretations of fascism.<a href="#cite_note-gr48-9">[9]</a> The German historian Jen-Werner Müller wrote that Nolte "almost single-handedly" brought down the totalitarianism paradigm in the 1960s and replaced it with the fascism paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> British historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Griffin" title="Roger Griffin">Roger Griffin</a> has written that although written in arcane and obscure language, Nolte's theory of fascism as a "form of resistance to transcendence" marked an important step in the understanding of fascism, and helped to spur scholars into new avenues of research on fascism.<a href="#cite_note-gr48-9">[9]</a> Criticism from the left, for example by Sir <a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Ian Kershaw</a>, centered on Nolte's focus on ideas as opposed to social and economic conditions as a motivating force for fascism, and that Nolte depended too much on fascist writings to support his thesis.<a href="#cite_note-ker27-13">[13]</a> Kershaw described Nolte's theory of fascism as "resistance to transcendence" as "mystical and mystifying".<a href="#cite_note-ker27-13">[13]</a> The American historian <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Stern" title="Fritz Stern">Fritz Stern</a> wrote that The Three Faces of Fascism was an "uneven book" that was "weak" on Action Française, "strong" on Fascism and "masterly" on National Socialism.<a href="#cite_note-Stern,_Fritz_p._435-25">[25]</a> Later in the 1970s, Nolte was to reject aspects of the theory of generic fascism that he had championed in The Three Faces of Fascism and instead moved closer to embracing <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> theory as a way of explaining both <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. In Nolte's opinion, Nazi Germany was a "mirror image" of the Soviet Union and, with the exception of the "technical detail" of mass gassing, everything the Nazis did in Germany had already been done by the communists in Russia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methodology">edit</a>]</div> All of Nolte's historical work has been heavily influenced by German traditions of philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In particular, Nolte seeks to find the essences of the "metapolitical phenomenon" of history, to discover the grand ideas which motivated all of history. As such, Nolte's work has been oriented towards the general as opposed to the specific attributes of a particular period of time.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In his 1974 book Deutschland und der kalte Krieg (Germany and the Cold War), Nolte examined the <a href="/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">partition</a> of Germany after 1945, not by looking at the specific history of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and Germany, but rather by examining other divided states throughout history, treating the German partition as the supreme culmination of the "metapolitical" idea of partition caused by rival ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-b8-28">[28]</a> In Nolte's view, the division of Germany made that nation the world's central battlefield between Soviet communism and American democracy, both of which were rival streams of the "transcendence" that had vanquished Nazi Germany, the ultimate enemy of "transcendence".<a href="#cite_note-m28-29">[29]</a> Nolte called the Cold War <blockquote>the ideological and political conflict for the future structure of a united world, carried on for an indefinite period since 1917 (indeed anticipated as early as 1776) by several militant universalisms, each of which possesses at least one major state.<a href="#cite_note-m28-29">[29]</a></blockquote> Nolte ended Deutschland und der kalte Krieg with a call for Germans to escape their fate as the world's foremost battleground for the rival ideologies of American democracy and Soviet communism by returning to the values of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mai39-30">[30]</a> Likewise, Nolte called for the end of what he regarded as the unfair stigma attached to German nationalism because of National Socialism, and demanded that historians recognize that every country in the world had at some point in its history had "its own Hitler era, with its monstrosities and sacrifices".<a href="#cite_note-mai39-30">[30]</a> In 1978, the American historian Charles S. Maier described Nolte's approach in Deutschland und der kalte Krieg as:<blockquote> This approach threatens to degenerate into the excessive valuation of abstraction as a surrogate for real transactions that Heine satirized and Marx dissected. How should we cope with a study that begins its discussion of the Cold War with Herodotus and the Greeks versus the Persians? ... Instead Nolte indulges in a potted history of Cold War events as they engulfed Asia and the Middle East as well as Europe, up through the Sino-Soviet dispute, the Vietnam War and SALT. The rationale is evidently that Germany can be interpreted only in the light of the world conflict, but the result verges on a centrifugal, coffee-table narrative.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></blockquote> Nolte has little regard for specific historical context in his treatment of the history of ideas, opting to seek what <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a> labeled the abstract "final" or "ultimate" ends of ideas, which for Nolte are the most extreme conclusions which can be drawn from an idea, representing the ultima terminus of the "metapolitical".<a href="#cite_note-b8-28">[28]</a> For Nolte, ideas have a force of their own, and once a new idea has been introduced into the world, except for the total destruction of society, it cannot be ignored any more than the discovery of how to make fire or the invention of nuclear weapons can be ignored.<a href="#cite_note-b9-32">[32]</a> In his 1974 book Deutschland und der kalte Krieg (Germany and the Cold War), Nolte wrote there was "a worldwide reproach that the United States was after all putting into practice in Vietnam, nothing less than its basically crueler version of Auschwitz". The books Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche, Deutschland und der kalte Krieg, and Marxismus und industrielle Revolution (Marxism and the Industrial Revolution) formed a trilogy in which Nolte seeks to explain what he considered to be the most important developments of the 20th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Historikerstreit">The Historikerstreit</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Historikerstreit">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nolte's_thesis">Nolte's thesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nolte's thesis">edit</a>]</div> Nolte is best known for his role in launching the <a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a> ("Historians' Dispute") of 1986 and 1987. On 6 June 1986 Nolte published a <a href="/wiki/Feuilleton" title="Feuilleton">feuilleton</a> opinion piece entitled "Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will: Eine Rede, die geschrieben, aber nicht mehr gehalten werden konnte" ("The Past That Will Not Pass: A Speech That Could Be Written but Not Delivered") in the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> His feuilleton was a distillation of ideas he had first introduced in lectures delivered in 1976 and in 1980. Earlier in 1986, Nolte had planned to deliver a speech before the Frankfurt Römerberg Conversations (an annual gathering of intellectuals), but he had claimed that the organizers of the event withdrew their invitation.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In response, an editor and co-publisher of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Fest" title="Joachim Fest">Joachim Fest</a>, allowed Nolte to have his speech printed as a feuilleton in his newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-m30-35">[35]</a> One of Nolte's leading critics, British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a>, claims that the organizers of the Römerberg Conversations did not withdraw their invitation, and that Nolte had just refused to attend.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Nolte began his feuilleton by remarking that it was necessary in his opinion to draw a "line under the German past".<a href="#cite_note-n19-37">[37]</a> Nolte argued that the memory of the Nazi era was "a bugaboo, as a past that in the process of establishing itself in the present or that is suspended above the present like an executioner's sword".<a href="#cite_note-n18-38">[38]</a> Nolte complained that excessive present-day interest in the Nazi period had the effect of drawing "attention away from the pressing questions of the present—for example, the question of "unborn life" or the presence of genocide <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">yesterday in Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">today in Afghanistan</a>".<a href="#cite_note-n18-38">[38]</a> The crux of Nolte's thesis was presented when he wrote: <blockquote>"It is a notable shortcoming of the literature about National Socialism that it does not know or does not want to admit to what degree all the deeds—with the sole exception of the technical process of gassing—that the National Socialists later committed had already been described in a voluminous literature of the early 1920s: mass deportations and shootings, torture, death camps, extermination of entire groups using strictly objective selection criteria, and public demands for the annihilation of millions of guiltless people who were thought to be "enemies". It is probable that many of these reports were exaggerated. It is certain that the “<a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror</a>” also committed terrible deeds, even though its program contained no analogy to the “extermination of the bourgeoisie”. Nonetheless, the following question must seem permissible, even unavoidable: Did the National Socialists or Hitler perhaps commit an “<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Asiatic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Asiatic">Asiatic</a>” deed merely because they and their ilk considered themselves to be the potential victims of an “Asiatic” deed? Wasn’t the '<a href="/wiki/Gulag_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulag Archipelago">Gulag Archipelago</a>' more original than Auschwitz? Was the Bolshevik murder of an entire class not the logical and factual <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prius" class="extiw" title="wikt:prius">prius</a> of the "racial murder" of National Socialism? Cannot Hitler's most secret deeds be explained by the fact that he had not forgotten the rat cage? Did Auschwitz in its root causes not originate in a past that would not pass?</blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birkenau_gate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birkenau_gate.JPG/250px-Birkenau_gate.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birkenau_gate.JPG/375px-Birkenau_gate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Birkenau_gate.JPG/500px-Birkenau_gate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Nolte called the Auschwitz death camp and the other German death camps of World War II a "copy" of the Soviet Gulag camps.</figcaption></figure> In addition, Nolte sees his work as the beginning of a much-needed revisionist treatment to end the "negative myth" of Nazi Germany that dominates contemporary perceptions.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Nolte took the view that the principal problem of German history was this "negative myth" of Nazi Germany, which cast the Nazi era as the ne plus ultra of evil.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Nolte contends that the great decisive event of the 20th century was the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>, which plunged all of Europe into a long-simmering civil war that lasted until 1945. To Nolte, fascism, communism's twin, arose as a desperate response by the threatened middle classes of Europe to what Nolte has often called the "Bolshevik peril". He suggests that if one wishes to understand the Holocaust, one should begin with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in Britain, and then understand the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. In his 1987 book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, 1917–1945, Nolte argued in the interwar period, Germany was Europe's best hope for progress.<a href="#cite_note-ev99-41">[41]</a> Nolte wrote that "if Europe was to succeed in establishing itself as a world power on an equal footing [with the United States and the Soviet Union], then Germany had to be the core of the new 'United States'".<a href="#cite_note-ev99-41">[41]</a> Nolte claimed if Germany had to continue to abide by Part V of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, which had disarmed Germany, then Germany would have been destroyed by aggression from her neighbors sometime later in the 1930s, and with Germany's destruction, there would have been no hope for a "United States of Europe".<a href="#cite_note-ev99-41">[41]</a> The British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> accused Nolte of engaging in a geopolitical fantasy.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_ensuing_controversy">The ensuing controversy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The ensuing controversy">edit</a>]</div> These views ignited a firestorm of controversy. Most historians in West Germany and virtually all historians outside Germany condemned Nolte's interpretation as factually incorrect, and as coming dangerously close to justifying the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-ker173-43">[43]</a> Many historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Steven_T._Katz" title="Steven T. Katz">Steven T. Katz</a>, claimed that Nolte's “Age of Genocide” concept “trivialized” the Holocaust by reducing it to just one of many 20th century genocides.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> A common line of criticism was that Nazi crimes, above all the Holocaust, were singular and unique in their nature, and should not be loosely analogized to the crimes of others. Some historians such as <a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Hans-Ulrich Wehler</a> were most forceful in arguing that the sufferings of the "<a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>" deported during the Soviet "<a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a>" campaign of the early 1930s were in no way analogous to the suffering of the Jews deported in the early 1940s. Many were angered by Nolte's claim that "the so-called annihilation of the Jews under the Third Reich was a reaction or a distorted copy and not a first act or an original", with many wondering why Nolte spoke of the "so-called annihilation of the Jews" in describing the Holocaust. Some of the historians who denounced Nolte's views included <a href="/wiki/Hans_Mommsen" title="Hans Mommsen">Hans Mommsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Jürgen Kocka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detlev_Peukert" title="Detlev Peukert">Detlev Peukert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Broszat" title="Martin Broszat">Martin Broszat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Ulrich_Wehler" title="Hans-Ulrich Wehler">Hans-Ulrich Wehler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wolffsohn" title="Michael Wolffsohn">Michael Wolffsohn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler" title="Heinrich August Winkler">Heinrich August Winkler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Mommsen" title="Wolfgang Mommsen">Wolfgang Mommsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher" title="Karl Dietrich Bracher">Karl Dietrich Bracher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_J%C3%A4ckel" title="Eberhard Jäckel">Eberhard Jäckel</a>. Much (though not all) of the criticism of Nolte came from historians who favored either the <a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a> (Special Way) and/or <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_versus_intentionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Functionalism versus intentionalism">intentionalist/functionalist</a> interpretations of German history. Coming to Nolte's defence were the journalist <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Fest" title="Joachim Fest">Joachim Fest</a>, the philosopher Helmut Fleischer, and the historians <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hildebrand" title="Klaus Hildebrand">Klaus Hildebrand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Zitelmann" title="Rainer Zitelmann">Rainer Zitelmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hagen_Schulze" title="Hagen Schulze">Hagen Schulze</a>, Thomas Nipperdey and <a href="/wiki/Imanuel_Geiss" title="Imanuel Geiss">Imanuel Geiss</a>. The last was unusual amongst Nolte's defenders as Geiss was normally identified with the left, while the rest of Nolte's supporters were seen as either on the right or holding centrist views. In response to Wehler's book, Geiss later published a book entitled Der Hysterikerstreit. Ein unpolemischer Essay (The Hysterical Dispute: An Unpolemical Essay) in which he largely defended Nolte against Wehler's criticisms. Geiss wrote Nolte's critics had "taken in isolation" his statements and were guilty of being "hasty readers"<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In particular, controversy centered on an argument of Nolte's 1985 essay “Between Myth and Revisionism” from the book Aspects of the Third Reich, first published in German as "Die negative Lebendigkeit des Dritten Reiches" ("The Negative Vitality of the Third Reich") as an opinion piece in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 24 July 1980, but which did not attract widespread attention until 1986 when <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> criticized the essay in a feuilleton piece.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Nolte had delivered a lecture at the Siemens-Stiftung in 1980, and excerpts from his speech were published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung without attracting controversy.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In his essay, Nolte argued that if the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">PLO</a> were to destroy Israel, then the subsequent history written in the new Palestinian state would portray the former Israeli state in the blackest of colors with no references to any of the positive features of the defunct state.<a href="#cite_note-koch21-48">[48]</a> In Nolte's opinion, a similar situation of history written only by the victors exists in regards to the history of Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-koch21-48">[48]</a> Many historians, such as British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a>, have asserted that, based on this statement, Nolte appears to believe that the only reason why Nazism is regarded as evil is because Germany lost World War II, with no regard for the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In a review which appeared in the Historische Zeitschrift journal on 2 April 1986 Klaus Hildebrand called Nolte's essay "Between Myth and Revisionism" "trailblazing".<a href="#cite_note-L213-50">[50]</a> In the same review Hildebrand argued Nolte had in a praiseworthy way sought: <blockquote>"to incorporate in historicizing fashion that central element for the history of National Socialism and of the "Third Reich" of the annihilatory capacity of the ideology and of the regime, and to comprehend this totalitarian reality in the interrelated context of Russian and German history".<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habermas'_attack">Habermas' attack</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Habermas' attack">edit</a>]</div> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> in an article in the <a href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a> of 11 July 1986 strongly criticized Nolte, along with <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Hillgruber" title="Andreas Hillgruber">Andreas Hillgruber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_St%C3%BCrmer" title="Michael Stürmer">Michael Stürmer</a>, for engaging in what Habermas called “apologetic” history writing in regards to the Nazi era, and for seeking to “close Germany’s opening to the West” that in Habermas's view has existed since 1945.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In particular, Habermas took Nolte to task for suggesting a moral equivalence between the Holocaust and the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Khmer Rouge genocide</a>. In Habermas's opinion, since Cambodia was a backward, Third World agrarian state and Germany a modern, industrial state, there was no comparison between the two genocides.<a href="#cite_note-Low_p._474-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_of_words_in_the_German_press">War of words in the German press</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: War of words in the German press">edit</a>]</div> In response to Habermas's essay, <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hildebrand" title="Klaus Hildebrand">Klaus Hildebrand</a> came to Nolte's defence. In an essay entitled "The Age of Tyrants", first published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 31 July 1986, he went on to praise Nolte for daring to open up new questions for research.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Nolte, for his part, started to write a series of letters to newspapers such as <a href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a> attacking his critics; for example, in a letter to Die Zeit on 1 August 1986, Nolte complained that his critic <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> was attempting to censor him for expressing his views, and accused Habermas of being the person responsible for blocking him from attending the Römerberg Conversations.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In the same letter, Nolte described himself as the unnamed historian whose views on the reasons for the Holocaust had caused <a href="/wiki/Saul_Friedl%C3%A4nder" title="Saul Friedländer">Saul Friedländer</a> to walk out in disgust from a dinner party hosted by Nolte in Berlin in February or March 1986 that Habermas had alluded to an earlier letter<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedländer2016216-57">[57]</a> Responding to the essay "The Age of Tyrants: History and Politics" by Klaus Hildebrand that defended Nolte, Habermas wrote: <blockquote>"In his essay Ernst Nolte discusses the 'so-called' annihilation of the Jews (in H.W. Koch, ed. Aspects of the Third Reich, London, 1985). Chaim Weizmann's declaration in the beginning of September 1939 that the Jews of the world would fight on the side of Britain, 'justified' – so opined Nolte – Hitler to treat the Jews as prisoners of war and intern them. Other objections aside, I cannot distinguish between the insinuation that world Jewry is a subject of international law and the usual anti-Semitic projections. And if it had at least stopped with deportation. All this does not stop Klaus Hildebrand in the Historische Zeitschrift from commending Nolte's 'pioneering essay', because it 'attempts to project exactly the seemingly unique aspects of the history of the Third Reich onto the backdrop of the European and global development'. Hildebrand is pleased that Nolte denies the singularity of the Nazi atrocities."<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></blockquote> In an essay entitled "Encumbered Remembrance", first published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 29 August 1986, Fest claimed that Nolte's argument that Nazi crimes were not singular was correct.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Fest accused Habermas of "academic dyslexia" and "character assassination" in his attacks on Nolte.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In a letter to the editor of Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung published on 6 September 1986 <a href="/wiki/Karl_Dietrich_Bracher" title="Karl Dietrich Bracher">Karl Dietrich Bracher</a> accused both Habermas and Nolte of both "...tabooing the concept of totalitarianism and inflating the formula of fascism".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The historian <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_J%C3%A4ckel" title="Eberhard Jäckel">Eberhard Jäckel</a>, in an essay first published in the Die Zeit newspaper on 12 September 1986, argued that Nolte's theory was ahistorical on the grounds that Hitler held the Soviet Union in contempt and could not have felt threatened as Nolte claimed.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Jäckel later described Nolte's methods as a "game of confusion", comprising dressing hypotheses up as questions and then attacking critics demanding evidence for his assertions as seeking to block one from asking questions.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The philosopher Helmut Fleischer, in an essay first published in the Nürnberger Zeitung newspaper on 20 September 1986, defended Nolte against Habermas on the grounds that Nolte was only seeking to place the Holocaust into a wider political context of the time.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Fleischer accused Habermas of seeking to impose on Germans a left-wing moral understanding of the Nazi period and of creating a "moral" <a href="/wiki/Sondergericht" title="Sondergericht">Sondergericht</a> (Special Court).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Fleischer argued that Nolte was only seeking the "historicization" of National Socialism that Martin Broszat had called for in a 1985 essay by trying to understand what caused National Socialism, with a special focus on the fear of communism.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In an essay first published in Die Zeit on 26 September 1986, the historian <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Kocka" title="Jürgen Kocka">Jürgen Kocka</a> argued against Nolte that the Holocaust was indeed a "singular" event because it had been committed by an advanced Western nation, and argued that Nolte's comparisons of the Holocaust with similar mass killings in <a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> were invalid because of the backward nature of those societies.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hagen_Schulze" title="Hagen Schulze">Hagen Schulze</a>, in an essay first published in Die Zeit on 26 September 1986, defended Nolte, together with <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Hillgruber" title="Andreas Hillgruber">Andreas Hillgruber</a>, and argued that Habermas was acting from "incorrect presuppositions" in attacking Nolte and Hillgruber for denying the "singularity" of the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-s94-68">[68]</a> Schulze argued that Habermas's attack on Nolte was flawed because he failed to provide any proof that the Holocaust was unique, and argued there were many "aspects" of the Holocaust that were "common" to other historical events.<a href="#cite_note-s94-68">[68]</a> In an essay first published in the Frankfurter Rundschau newspaper on 14 November 1986, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_August_Winkler" title="Heinrich August Winkler">Heinrich August Winkler</a> wrote of Nolte's essay "The Past That Will Not Pass": <blockquote>"Those who read the Frankfurter Allgemeine all the way through to the culture section were able to read something under the title "The Past That Will Not Pass" that no German historian to date had noticed: that Auschwitz was only a copy of a Russian original – the Stalinist Gulag Archipelago. From a fear of the Bolsheviks’ Asiatic will to annihilate, Hitler himself committed an "Asiatic deed". Was the annihilation of the Jews a kind of putative self-defence? That is what Nolte’s speculation amounts to."<a href="#cite_note-w173-69">[69]</a></blockquote> The political scientist Kurt Sontheimer, in an essay first published in the Rheinischer Merkur newspaper on 21 November 1986, accused Nolte and his supporters of attempting to create a new “national consciousness” intended to sever the Federal Republic's “intellectual and spiritual ties with the West”.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The German political scientist <a href="/wiki/Richard_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Richard Löwenthal">Richard Löwenthal</a> noted that news of the Soviet kulak expulsions and the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> did not reach Germany until 1941, so that Soviet atrocities could not possibly have influenced the Germans as Nolte claimed.<a href="#cite_note-b9-32">[32]</a> In a letter to the editor of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 29 November 1986, Löwenthal argued the case for a "fundamental difference" in mass murder between Germany and the Soviet Union, and against the "equalizing" of various crimes in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-L199-71">[71]</a> The German historian <a href="/wiki/Horst_M%C3%B6ller" title="Horst Möller">Horst Möller</a>, in an essay first published in late 1986 in the Beiträge zur Konfliktforschung magazine, argued that Nolte was not attempting to "excuse" Nazi crimes by comparing them with the crimes of others, but was instead trying to explain Nazi war-crimes.<a href="#cite_note-mo218-72">[72]</a> Möller argued that Nolte was only attempting to explain "irrational" events rationally, and that the Nazis really did believe that they were confronted with a world Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy out to destroy Germany.<a href="#cite_note-mo218-72">[72]</a> In an essay entitled "The Nazi Reign – A Case of Normal Tyranny?", first published in Die neue Gesellschaft magazine in late 1986, the political scientist Walter Euchner wrote that Nolte was wrong when he wrote of Hitler's alleged terror of the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria" title="Social Democratic Party of Austria">Austrian Social Democratic Party</a> parades before 1914, arguing that Social Democratic parties in both Germany and Austria were fundamentally humane and pacifistic, instead of the terrorist-revolutionary entities Nolte alleged them to be.<a href="#cite_note-e240-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Der_europäische_Bürgerkrieg">Der europäische Bürgerkrieg</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Der europäische Bürgerkrieg">edit</a>]</div> Another area of controversy was Nolte's 1987 book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg (The European Civil War) and some accompanying statements, by which Nolte appeared to flirt with <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> as a serious historical argument.<a href="#cite_note-ev83-74">[74]</a> In a letter to Otto Dov Kulka of 8 December 1986 Nolte criticized the work of French Holocaust denier <a href="/wiki/Robert_Faurisson" title="Robert Faurisson">Robert Faurisson</a> on the ground that the Holocaust did in fact occur, but he went on to argue that Faurisson's work had admirable motives in the form of sympathy for <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian people">Palestinians</a> and opposition to Israel.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, Nolte claimed that the intentions of Holocaust deniers are "often honorable", and that some of their claims are "not evidently without foundation". Kershaw has argued that Nolte was operating on the borderlines of Holocaust denial with his implied claim that the "negative myth" of Nazi Germany was created by Jewish historians, his allegations of the domination of Holocaust scholarship by Jewish historians, and his statements that one should withhold judgment on Holocaust deniers, who Nolte insists are not exclusively Germans or fascists. In Kershaw's opinion, Nolte is attempting to imply that Holocaust deniers are perhaps on to something. In Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, Nolte put forward five different arguments as a way of criticizing the uniqueness of the Shoah thesis. These were as follows: <ul><li>There were other equally horrible acts of violence in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Some of the examples Nolte cited were the Armenian genocide; Soviet <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deportations</a> of the so-called "traitor nations", such as the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a>; British "area bombing" in World War II; and American violence in the Vietnam War.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._81-77">[77]</a></li> <li>Nazi genocide was only a copy of Soviet genocide, and thus can in no way be considered unique.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._81-77">[77]</a></li> <li>Nolte argued that the vast majority of Germans had no knowledge of the Holocaust while it was happening<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._81-77">[77]</a> Nolte claimed that the genocide of the Jews was Hitler's personal pet project, and that the Holocaust was the work of only a few Germans who were entirely unrepresentative of German society<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._81-77">[77]</a> Contradicting the American historian <a href="/wiki/Raul_Hilberg" title="Raul Hilberg">Raul Hilberg</a>, who claimed that hundreds of thousands of Germans were complicit in the Holocaust, from high-ranking bureaucrats to railway clerks and locomotive conductors, Nolte argued that the functional division of labour in modern society meant that most people in Germany had no idea of how they were assisting in genocide.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._82-78">[78]</a> In support of this, Nolte cited the voluminous memoirs of German generals and Nazi leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a>, who claimed to have no idea that their country was engaging in genocide during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._82-78">[78]</a></li> <li>Nolte maintained that to a certain degree Nazi anti-Semitic policies were justifiable responses to Jewish actions against Germany, such as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Weizmann's alleged 1939 "declaration of war"</a> on Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._82-78">[78]</a></li> <li>Finally, Nolte hinted at the possibility that the Holocaust had never happened at all.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._83-79">[79]</a> Nolte claimed that the <a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a> never took place, and argued that most Holocaust scholarship is flawed because most Holocaust historians are Jewish, and thus "biased" against Germany and in favour of the idea that there was a Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._83-79">[79]</a></li></ul> The British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> criticized Nolte, accusing him of taking too seriously the work of Holocaust deniers, whom Evans called cranks, not historians.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._83-79">[79]</a> Likewise, Evans charged that Nolte was guilty of making assertions unsupported by the evidence, such as claiming that SS massacres of Russian Jews were a form of counterinsurgency, or taking at face value the self-justifying claims of German generals who professed to be ignorant of the Shoah.<a href="#cite_note-Evans,_Richard_p._83-79">[79]</a> Perhaps the most extreme response to Nolte's thesis occurred on 9 February 1988, when his car was burned by leftist extremists in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ev177-80">[80]</a> Nolte called the case of arson "terrorism", and maintained that the attack was inspired by his opponents in the Historikerstreit.<a href="#cite_note-ev177-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_reaction">International reaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: International reaction">edit</a>]</div> Criticism from abroad came from <a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Ian Kershaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gordon_A._Craig" title="Gordon A. Craig">Gordon A. Craig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Friedl%C3%A4nder" title="Saul Friedländer">Saul Friedländer</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">John Lukacs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Marrus" title="Michael Marrus">Michael Marrus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Mason" title="Timothy Mason">Timothy Mason</a>. Mason wrote against Nolte, calling for the sort of theories of generic fascism that Nolte himself had once championed: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">If we can do without much of the original contents of the concept of ‘fascism’, we cannot do without comparison. ‘Historicization’ may easily become a recipe for provincialism. And the moral absolutes of Habermas, however politically and didactically impeccable, also carry a shadow of provincialism, as long as they fail to recognize that fascism was a continental phenomenon, and that Nazism was a peculiar part of something much larger. Pol Pot, the <a href="/wiki/Rat_torture" title="Rat torture">rat torture</a>, and the fate of the Armenians are all extraneous to any serious discussion of Nazism; Mussolini’s Italy is not.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Anson_Rabinbach" title="Anson Rabinbach">Anson Rabinbach</a> accused Nolte of attempting to erase German guilt for the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Ian Kershaw</a> wrote that Nolte was claiming that the Jews had essentially brought the Holocaust down on themselves, and were the authors of their own misfortunes in the Shoah.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Elie Wiesel</a> called Nolte, together with <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hildebrand" title="Klaus Hildebrand">Klaus Hildebrand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Hillgruber" title="Andreas Hillgruber">Andreas Hillgruber</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_St%C3%BCrmer" title="Michael Stürmer">Michael Stürmer</a>, one of the “four bandits” of German <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The American historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Maier" title="Charles S. Maier">Charles Maier</a> rejected Nolte's claims regarding the moral equivalence of the Holocaust and Soviet terror on the grounds that while the latter was extremely brutal, it did not seek the physical annihilation of an entire people as state policy.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The American historian Donald McKale blasted both Nolte and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Hillgruber" title="Andreas Hillgruber">Andreas Hillgruber</a> for their statements that the Allied strategic bombing offensives were just as much acts of genocide as the Holocaust, writing that that was just the sort of nonsense one would expect from Nazi apologists like Nolte and Hillgruber.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In a 1987 essay, the Austrian-born Israeli historian Walter Grab accused Nolte of engaging in an “apologia” for Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Grab,_Walter_pp._273-278-87">[87]</a> Grab called Nolte's claim that <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann" title="Chaim Weizmann">Weizmann</a>'s letter to Chamberlain was a "Jewish declaration of war" that justified the Germans "interning" European Jews a "monstrous thesis" that was not supported by the facts.<a href="#cite_note-Grab,_Walter_pp._273-278-87">[87]</a> Grab accused Nolte of ignoring the economic impoverishment and total lack of civil rights that the Jewish community in Germany lived under in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-Grab,_Walter_pp._273-278-87">[87]</a> Grab wrote that Nolte "mocks" the Jewish victims of National Socialism with his "absolutely infamous" statement that it was Weizmann with his letter that caused all of the Jewish death and suffering during the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-Grab,_Walter_pp._273-278-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conclusion_of_dispute">Conclusion of dispute</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conclusion of dispute">edit</a>]</div> In his 1989 book, In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape From the Nazi Past, British historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Finally, Nolte's attempts to establish the comparability of Auschwitz rest in part upon an extension of the concept of "genocide" to actions which cannot plausibly justify being described in this way. However much one might wish to criticize the Allied strategic-bombing offensive against German cities, it cannot be termed genocidal because there was no intention to exterminate the entire German people. Dresden was bombed after Coventry, not the other way around, and it is implausible to suggest that the latter was a response to the former; on the contrary, there was indeed an element of retaliation and revenge in the strategic bombing offensive, which is precisely one of the grounds on which it has often been criticized. There is no evidence to support Nolte's speculation that the ethnic Germans in Poland would have been entirely exterminated had the Nazis not completed their invasion quickly. Neither the Poles nor the Russians had any intention of exterminating the German people as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></blockquote> Citing <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>, Evans said that Hitler was an anti-Semite long before 1914 and it was the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> (the moderate left), not the Bolsheviks, whom Hitler regarded as his main enemies.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Nolte's opponents have expressed intense disagreement with his evidence for a Jewish "war" on Germany. They argue that Weizmann's letter to Chamberlain was written in his capacity as head of the World Zionist Organization, not on behalf of the entire Jewish people of the world,<a href="#cite_note-ev38-90">[90]</a> and that Nolte's views are based on the spurious idea that all Jews comprised a distinct "nationality" who took their marching orders from Jewish organizations.<a href="#cite_note-ev38-90">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command,_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Aerial view of hollow, destroyed urban buildings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/220px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/330px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/440px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2143" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>The ruins of Hamburg after the 1943 firebombing. Nolte called British “area bombing” of Germany a policy of “genocide”</figcaption></figure> Because of the views that he expressed during the Historikerstreit, Nolte has often been accused of being a Nazi apologist and an anti-Semite. Nolte himself has always vehemently denied these charges. Nolte is by his own admission an intense German <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> and his stated goal is to restore the Germans' sense of pride in their history that he feels has been missing since 1945. In a September 1987 interview, Nolte stated that the Germans were "once the master race (Herrenvolk), now they are the "guilty race" (Sündervolk). The one is merely an inversion of the other".<a href="#cite_note-w219-91">[91]</a> Nolte's defenders have pointed to numerous statements on his part condemning <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. Nolte's critics have acknowledged these statements, but claim that Nolte's arguments can be constructed as being sympathetic to the Nazis, such as his defence of the <a href="/wiki/Commissar_Order" title="Commissar Order">Commissar Order</a> as a legitimate military order, his argument that the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> massacres of Soviet Jews were a reasonable "preventative security" response to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">partisan</a> attacks, his statements citing <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Suvorov" title="Viktor Suvorov">Viktor Suvorov</a> that <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> was a "preventive war" forced on Hitler allegedly by an impending Soviet attack, his claim that too much scholarship on the Holocaust has been the work of "biased" Jewish historians, or his use of Nazi-era language such as his practice of referring to <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> soldiers in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as “Asiatic hordes”.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_work">Later work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later work">edit</a>]</div> In his 1991 book Geschichtsdenken im 20. Jahrhundert (Historical Thinking in the 20th Century), Nolte asserted that the 20th century had produced three “extraordinary states”, namely Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and Israel. He claimed that all three were “abnormal once”, but whereas the Soviet Union and Germany were now “normal” states, Israel was still “abnormal” and, in Nolte's view, in danger of becoming a fascist state that might commit <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> against the Palestinians. Between 1995 and 1997, Nolte debated with the French historian <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a> in an exchange of letters on the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>. The debate had started with a footnote in Furet's book, Le Passé d'une illusion (The Passing of an Illusion), in which Furet acknowledged Nolte's merit of comparatively studying communism and Nazism, an almost-forbidden practice in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a>. Both ideologies typify in a radical way the contradictions of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>. They follow a chronological sequence: Lenin predates Mussolini, who, in turn, precedes Hitler. Furet noted that Nolte's theses went against the established notions of culpability and apprehension to criticize the idea of anti-fascism common in the West. This prompted an epistolary exchange between the two of them in which Furet argued that both ideologies were <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian twins">totalitarian twins</a> that shared the same origins, but Nolte maintained his views of a kausaler Nexus (causal nexus) between fascism and communism to which the former had been a response. After Furet's death, their correspondence was published as a book in France in 1998, Fascisme et Communisme: échange épistolaire avec l'historien allemand Ernst Nolte prolongeant la Historikerstreit (Fascism and Communism: Epistolary Exchanges with the German Historian Ernst Nolte Extending the Historikerstreit). It was translated into English as Fascism and Communism in 2001. While pronouncing Stalin guilty of great crimes, Furet contended that although the histories of fascism and communism were essential to European history, there were singular events associated with each movement which differentiated them. He did not feel there was a precise parallel, as Nolte suggested, between the Holocaust and <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Furet,_François_p._38-94">[94]</a> Nolte often contributed Feuilleton (opinion pieces) to German newspapers such as <a href="/wiki/Die_Welt" title="Die Welt">Die Welt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a>. He was often described as one of the "most brooding, German thinkers about history".<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The historical consciousness and self-understanding of the Germans form a major theme of his essays. Nolte called the Federal Republic "a state born of contemporary history, a product of catastrophe erected to overcome catastrophe"<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In a Feuilleton piece published in Die Welt entitled "Auschwitz als Argument in der Geschichtstheorie" (Auschwitz as An Argument in Historical Theory) on 2 January 1999, Nolte criticized his old opponent <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a> for his book In The Defence of History, on the grounds that aspects of the Holocaust are open to revision and so Evans’s attacks on Nolte during the Historikerstreit had been unwarranted.<a href="#cite_note-history.ac.uk-97">[97]</a> Specifically, citing the American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jonah_Goldhagen" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Jonah Goldhagen">Daniel Jonah Goldhagen</a>, Nolte argued that the effectiveness of the gas chambers as killing instruments was exaggerated, more Jews were killed by mass shooting than by mass gassing, the number of people killed at <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> was overestimated after 1945 (the Soviets initially exaggerated the death toll at 4 million although the consensus today is 1.1 million), <a href="/wiki/Binjamin_Wilkomirski" class="mw-redirect" title="Binjamin Wilkomirski">Binjamin Wilkomirski</a>'s memoir of Auschwitz was a forgery and so the history of the Holocaust is open to reinterpretation.<a href="#cite_note-history.ac.uk-97">[97]</a> In October 1999, Evans stated in response that he agreed with Nolte on those points but argued that form of argument to be an attempt by Nolte to avoid responding to his criticism of him during the Historikerstreit.<a href="#cite_note-history.ac.uk-97">[97]</a> On 4 June 2000, Nolte was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Prize" title="Konrad Adenauer Prize">Konrad Adenauer Prize</a>. The award attracted considerable public debate and was presented to Nolte by <a href="/wiki/Horst_M%C3%B6ller" title="Horst Möller">Horst Möller</a>, the Director of the <a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Zeitgeschichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut für Zeitgeschichte">Institut für Zeitgeschichte</a> (Institute for Contemporary History), who praised Nolte’s scholarship but tried to steer clear of Nolte’s more controversial claims.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In his acceptance speech, Nolte commented, "We should leave behind the view that the opposite of National Socialist goals is always good and right," while suggesting that excessive "Jewish" support for Communism furnished the Nazis with "rational reasons" for their <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In August 2000, Nolte wrote a favorable review in the Die Woche newspaper of <a href="/wiki/Norman_Finkelstein" title="Norman Finkelstein">Norman Finkelstein</a>’s book <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_Industry" title="The Holocaust Industry">The Holocaust Industry</a>, claiming Finkelstein’s book buttressed his claim that the memory of the Holocaust had been used by Jewish groups for their own reasons. Nolte’s positive review of The Holocaust Industry may have been related to Finkelstein’s endorsement in his book of Nolte’s demand, first made during the Historikerstreit, for the “normalization” of the German past<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In a 2004 book review of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Overy" title="Richard Overy">Richard Overy</a>'s monograph The Dictators, the American historian <a href="/wiki/Anne_Applebaum" title="Anne Applebaum">Anne Applebaum</a> argued that it was a valid intellectual exercise to compare the German and the Soviet dictatorships, but she complained that Nolte's arguments had needlessly discredited the comparative approach.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In response, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Paul Gottfried</a> in 2005 defended Nolte from Applelbaum's charge of attempting to justify the Holocaust by contending that Nolte had merely argued that the Nazis had made a link in their own minds between Jews and communists and that the Holocaust was their attempt to eliminate the most likely supporters of communism.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In a June 2006 interview with the newspaper Die Welt, Nolte echoed theories that he had first expressed in The Three Faces of Fascism by identifying <a href="/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism" title="Islamic fundamentalism">Islamic fundamentalism</a> as a "third variant", after communism and National Socialism, of "the resistance to transcendence". He expressed regret that he would not have enough time for a full study of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic fascism">Islamic fascism</a><a href="#cite_note-Köppel-103">[103]</a> In the same interview, Nolte said that he could not forgive Augstein for calling Hillgruber a "constitutional Nazi" during the Historikerstreit and claimed that Wehler had helped to hound Hillgruber to his death in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-Köppel-103">[103]</a> Nolte ended the interview by calling himself a philosopher, not a historian, and argued that the hostile reactions that he often encountered from historians were caused by his status as a philosopher writing history.<a href="#cite_note-Köppel-103">[103]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG/220px-Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG/330px-Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG/440px-Ernst_Nolte_-_Mutter_Erde_fec.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>Ernst Nolte's grave in <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedhof_der_St.-Matthias-Gemeinde_(Berlin-Tempelhof)" class="extiw" title="de:Friedhof der St.-Matthias-Gemeinde (Berlin-Tempelhof)">Friedhof der St.-Matthias-Gemeinde (Berlin-Tempelhof)</a></figcaption></figure> In his 2005 book The Russian Roots of Nazism: White Émigrés and The Making of National Socialism, the American historian Michael Kellogg argued that there were two extremes of thinking about the origins of National Socialism, with Nolte arguing for a "causal nexus" between communism in Russia and Nazism in Germany, but the other extreme was represented by the American historian <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goldhagen" title="Daniel Goldhagen">Daniel Goldhagen</a>, whose theories debate a unique German culture of "eliminationist" anti-Semitism.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Kellogg argued that his book represented an attempt at adopting a middle position between Nolte's and Goldhagen's positions but that he leaned closer to Nolte's by contending that anti-Bolshevik and anti-Semitic Russian émigrés played an underappreciated key role in the 1920s in the development of Nazi ideology, their influence on Nazi thinking about <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Bolshevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Bolshevism">Judeo-Bolshevism</a> being especially notable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg20056-105">[105]</a> In his 2006 book <a href="/wiki/Europe_at_War_1939%E2%80%931945:_No_Simple_Victory" title="Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory">Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory</a>, the British historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> lends Nolte's theories support: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Ten years later, in The European Civil War (1987), the German historian Ernst Nolte (b. 1923) brought ideology into the equation. The First World War had spawned the Bolshevik Revolution, he maintained, and fascism should be seen as a "counter-revolution" against communism. More pointedly, since fascism followed communism chronologically, he argued that some of the Nazis' political techniques and practices had been copied from those of the Soviet Union. Needless to say, such propositions were thought anathema by leftists who believe that fascism was an original and unparalleled evil.</blockquote> Davies concluded that revelations made after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe about Soviet crimes had discredited Nolte's critics.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Awards">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanns_Martin_Schleyer_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize">Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Prize" title="Konrad Adenauer Prize">Konrad Adenauer Prize</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Gerhard Löwenthal">Gerhard Löwenthal</a> Honor Award (2011)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>"Marx und Nietzsche im Sozialismus des jungen Mussolini" pp. 249–335 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 191, Issue #2, October 1960.</li> <li>"Die Action Française 1899–1944" pp. 124–165 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 9, Issue 2, April 1961.</li> <li>"Eine frühe Quelle zu Hitlers Antisemitismus" pp. 584–606 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 192, Issue #3, June 1961.</li> <li>“Zur Phänomenologie des Faschismus” pp. 373–407 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 10, Issue #4, October 1962.</li> <li>Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche: die Action française der italienische Faschismus, der Nationalsozialismus, München : R. Piper, 1963, translated into English as The Three Faces of Fascism; Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1965.</li> <li>Review of Action Français Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth-Century France by Eugen Weber pp. 694–701 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 199, Issue # 3, December 1964.</li> <li>Review of Le origini del socialismo italiano by Richard Hostetter pp. 701–704 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 199, Issue #3, December 1964.</li> <li>Review of Albori socialisti nel Risorgimento by Carlo Francovich pp. 181–182 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 200, Issue # 1, February 1965.</li> <li>“Grundprobleme der Italienischen Geschichte nach der Einigung” pp. 332–346 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 200, Issue #2, April 1965.</li> <li>“Zur Konzeption der Nationalgeschichte heute” pp. 603–621 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 202, Issue #3, June 1966.</li> <li>"Zeitgenössische Theorien über den Faschismus" pp. 247–268 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 15, Issue #3, July 1967.</li> <li>Der Faschismus: von Mussolini zu Hitler. Texte, Bilder und Dokumente, Munich: Desch, 1968.</li> <li>Die Krise des liberalen Systems und die faschistischen Bewegungen, Munich: R. Piper, 1968.</li> <li>Sinn und Widersinn der Demokratisierung in der Universität, Rombach Verlag: Freiburg, 1968.</li> <li>Les Mouvements fascistes, l'Europe de 1919 a 1945, Paris : Calmann-Levy, 1969.</li> <li>"Big Business and German Politics: A Comment" pp. 71–78 from The American Historical Review, Volume 75, Issue#1, October 1969.</li> <li>“Zeitgeschichtsforschung und Zeitgeschichte” pp. 1–11 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 18. Issue #1, January 1970.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNolte1974" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2NjEAAAAIAAJ">Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg. – München, Zürich: Piper (1974). 755 S. 8°</a>. Piper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-492-02092-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-492-02092-3"><bdi>978-3-492-02092-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutschland+und+der+Kalte+Krieg.+%E2%80%93+M%C3%BCnchen%2C+Z%C3%BCrich%3A+Piper+%281974%29.+755+S.+8%C2%B0&rft.pub=Piper&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-3-492-02092-3&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2NjEAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>“The Relationship Between "Bourgeois" And "Marxist" Historiography” pp. 57–73 from History & Theory, Volume 14, Issue 1, 1975.</li> <li>“Review: Zeitgeschichte als Theorie. Eine Erwiderung” pp. 375–386 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 222, Issue #2, April 1976.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1972" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HdqBZwEACAAJ">Theorien über den Faschismus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-462-00607-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-462-00607-0"><bdi>978-3-462-00607-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theorien+%C3%BCber+den+Faschismus&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-3-462-00607-0&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHdqBZwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Ashby_Turner1975" class="citation book cs1">Henry Ashby Turner (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wSttAAAAIAAJ">Reappraisals of fascism</a>. New Viewpoints. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-531-05372-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-531-05372-0"><bdi>978-0-531-05372-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+fascism&rft.pub=New+Viewpoints&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-531-05372-0&rft.au=Henry+Ashby+Turner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwSttAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1984" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ElWBZwEACAAJ">Die faschistischen Bewegungen: die Krise des liberalen Systems und die Entwicklung der Faschismen</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-423-04004-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-423-04004-4"><bdi>978-3-423-04004-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+faschistischen+Bewegungen%3A+die+Krise+des+liberalen+Systems+und+die+Entwicklung+der+Faschismen&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-3-423-04004-4&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DElWBZwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1982" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Q2_QgAACAAJ">Marxism, fascism, Cold War</a>. Van Gorcum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-232-1877-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-232-1877-7"><bdi>978-90-232-1877-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxism%2C+fascism%2C+Cold+War&rft.pub=Van+Gorcum&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-90-232-1877-7&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Q2_QgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Was ist bürgerlich? und andere Artikel, Abhandlungen, Auseinandersetzungen, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979.</li> <li>"What Fascism Is Not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept: Comment" pp. 389–394 from The American Historical Review, Volume 84, Issue #2, April 1979.</li> <li>“Deutscher Scheinkonstitutionalismus?” pp. 529–550 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 288, Issue #3, June 1979.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1983" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WNtvAAAAIAAJ">Marxismus und industrielle Revolution</a>. Klett-Cotta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-608-91128-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-608-91128-2"><bdi>978-3-608-91128-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxismus+und+industrielle+Revolution&rft.pub=Klett-Cotta&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-3-608-91128-2&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWNtvAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>"Marxismus und Nationalsozialismus" pp. 389–417 from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 31, Issue # 3 July 1983.</li> <li>Review of Revolution und Weltbürgerkrieg. Studien zur Ouvertüre nach 1789 by Roman Schnur pp. 720–721 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 238, Issue # 3 June 1984.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHannsjoachim_Wolfgang_Koch1985" class="citation book cs1">Hannsjoachim Wolfgang Koch (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ahloAAAAMAAJ">Aspects of the Third Reich</a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-35272-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-35272-4"><bdi>978-0-333-35272-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-333-35272-4&rft.au=Hannsjoachim+Wolfgang+Koch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DahloAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Review of Der italienische Faschismus. Probleme und Forschungstendenzen pp. 469–471 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 240, Issue #2 April 1985.</li> <li>“Zusammenbruch und Neubeginn: Die Bedeutung des 8. Mai 1945” pp. 296–303 from Zeitschrift für Politik, Volume 32, Issue #3, 1985.</li> <li>“Philosophische Geschichtsschreibung heute?” pp. 265–289 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 242, Issue #2, April 1986.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte2000" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3MJFSwAACAAJ">Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, 1917–1945: Nationalsozialismus und Bolschewismus</a>. Herbig. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-9003-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-9003-3"><bdi>978-3-7766-9003-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+europ%C3%A4ische+B%C3%BCrgerkrieg%2C+1917%E2%80%931945%3A+Nationalsozialismus+und+Bolschewismus&rft.pub=Herbig&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-7766-9003-3&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3MJFSwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>“Une Querelle D'Allemandes? Du Passe Qui Ne Veut Pas S'Effacer” pp. 36–39 from Documents, Volume 1, 1987.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1987" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FiBoAAAAMAAJ">Das Vergehen der Vergangenheit</a>. Ullstein. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-550-07217-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-550-07217-8"><bdi>978-3-550-07217-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Vergehen+der+Vergangenheit&rft.pub=Ullstein&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-550-07217-8&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFiBoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Review: Ein Höhepunkt der Heidegger-Kritik? Victor Farias' Buch "Heidegger et le Nazisme" pp. 95–114 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 247, Issue #1, August 1988.</li> <li>"Das Vor-Urteil als "Strenge Wissenschaft." Zu den Rezensionen von Hans Mommsen und Wolfgang Schieder” pp. 537–551 from Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Volume 15, Issue #4, 1989.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte2000" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jH9AQAACAAJ">Nietzsche und der Nietzscheanismus</a>. Herbig. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2153-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2153-2"><bdi>978-3-7766-2153-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nietzsche+und+der+Nietzscheanismus&rft.pub=Herbig&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-7766-2153-2&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3jH9AQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1991" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9dFmAAAAMAAJ">Lehrstück oder Tragödie?</a>. Böhlau. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-412-04291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-412-04291-2"><bdi>978-3-412-04291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrst%C3%BCck+oder+Trag%C3%B6die%3F&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-3-412-04291-2&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9dFmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1991" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G5NmAAAAMAAJ">Geschichtsdenken im 20. Jahrhundert</a>. Propyläen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05379-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05379-9"><bdi>978-3-549-05379-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichtsdenken+im+20.+Jahrhundert&rft.pub=Propyl%C3%A4en&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-3-549-05379-9&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG5NmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1992" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=whIQAQAAIAAJ">Martin Heidegger: Politik und Geschichte im Leben und Denken</a>. Propyläen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-549-07241-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-549-07241-7"><bdi>978-3-549-07241-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martin+Heidegger%3A+Politik+und+Geschichte+im+Leben+und+Denken&rft.pub=Propyl%C3%A4en&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-549-07241-7&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwhIQAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKnowltonTruett_Cates1993" class="citation book cs1">Knowlton, James; Truett Cates (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EfchAQAAIAAJ">Forever in the shadow of Hitler?: original documents of the Historikerstreit, the controversy concerning the singularity of the Holocaust</a>. Humanities Press Intl. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-03784-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-03784-7"><bdi>978-0-391-03784-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+in+the+shadow+of+Hitler%3F%3A+original+documents+of+the+Historikerstreit%2C+the+controversy+concerning+the+singularity+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Humanities+Press+Intl&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-391-03784-7&rft.aulast=Knowlton&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Truett+Cates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEfchAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte1993" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9OTiAAAAMAAJ">Streitpunkte</a>. Propyläen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05234-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05234-1"><bdi>978-3-549-05234-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Streitpunkte&rft.pub=Propyl%C3%A4en&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-549-05234-1&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9OTiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Review of The Politics of Being The Political Thought of Martin Heidegger by Richard Wolin pp. 123–124 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 258, Issue # 1 February 1994.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bu5XPQAACAAJ">Die Deutschen und ihre Vergangenheit</a>. Herbig Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-9004-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-9004-0"><bdi>978-3-7766-9004-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Deutschen+und+ihre+Vergangenheit&rft.pub=Herbig+Verlag&rft.isbn=978-3-7766-9004-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBu5XPQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>"Die historisch-genetische Version der Totalitarismusthorie: Ärgernis oder Einsicht?" pp. 111–122 from Zeitschrift für Politik, Volume 43, Issue #2, 1996.</li> <li>Historische Existenz: Zwischen Anfang und Ende der Geschichte?, Munich: Piper 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-492-04070-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-492-04070-9">978-3-492-04070-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFuretErnst_Nolte2001" class="citation book cs1">Furet, François; Ernst Nolte (1 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tiZMdNSJXJkC">Fascism and communism</a>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1995-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1995-3"><bdi>978-0-8032-1995-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascism+and+communism&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2001-09-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1995-3&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Ernst+Nolte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtiZMdNSJXJkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte2002" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw1oAAAAMAAJ">Der kausale Nexus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2279-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2279-9"><bdi>978-3-7766-2279-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+kausale+Nexus&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-7766-2279-9&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGw1oAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Les Fondements historiques du national-socialisme, Paris: Editions du Rocher, 2002.</li> <li>L'eredità del nazionalsocialismo, Rome: Di Renzo Editore, 2003.</li> <li>co-written with Siegfried Gerlich Einblick in ein Gesamtwerk, Edition Antaios: Dresden 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-935063-61-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-935063-61-6">978-3-935063-61-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolte2006" class="citation book cs1">Nolte, Ernst (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AgJoAAAAMAAJ">Die Weimarer Republik</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7766-2491-5"><bdi>978-3-7766-2491-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Weimarer+Republik&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-7766-2491-5&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAgJoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Die dritte radikale Widerstandsbewegung: Der Islamismus, Landt Verlag, Berlin 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-938844-16-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-938844-16-8">978-3-938844-16-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> Notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/debatten/deutscher-historiker-ernst-nolte-mit-93-jahren-gestorben-14394292.html">"Ernst Nolte ist gestorben: Der Historiker als "Geschichtsdenker""</a>. Faz.net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faz.net&rft.atitle=Ernst+Nolte+ist+gestorben%3A+Der+Historiker+als+%22Geschichtsdenker%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Faktuell%2Ffeuilleton%2Fdebatten%2Fdeutscher-historiker-ernst-nolte-mit-93-jahren-gestorben-14394292.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welch1993-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Welch1993_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWelch1993" class="citation book cs1">Welch, David (1993). The Third Reich: politics and propaganda. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27508-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27508-3"><bdi>0-415-27508-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Reich%3A+politics+and+propaganda&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-415-27508-3&rft.aulast=Welch&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strute_1194-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strute_1194_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strute_1194_3-1">b</a> Strute, Karl and Doelken, Theodor (editors) Who's Who In Germany 1982–1983 Volume 2 N-Z, Verlag AG: Zurich, 1983 p. 1194 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoman2003" class="citation web cs1">Roman, Thomas (28 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191214/http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2003-03-28-roman-fr.html">"Questions a Ernst Nolte (Interview with Nolte in French)"</a>. Eurozine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2003-03-28-roman-fr.html">the original</a> on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Questions+a+Ernst+Nolte+%28Interview+with+Nolte+in+French%29&rft.pub=Eurozine&rft.date=2003-03-28&rft.aulast=Roman&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurozine.com%2Farticles%2F2003-03-28-roman-fr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Maier (1988) pp. 26, 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-mai38-6"><a href="#cite_ref-mai38_6-0">^</a> Maier (1986) p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1993" class="citation web cs1">Sheehan, Thomas (14 January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926142855/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/relstud/faculty/sheehan/pdf/NormalNa.pdf">"A Normal Nazi"</a> (PDF). New York Review of Books. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/relstud/faculty/sheehan/pdf/NormalNa.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Normal+Nazi&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=1993-01-14&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2Frelstud%2Ffaculty%2Fsheehan%2Fpdf%2FNormalNa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gr47-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gr47_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gr47_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gr47_8-2">c</a> Griffin, p. 47 </li> <li id="cite_note-gr48-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gr48_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gr48_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gr48_9-2">c</a> Griffin, p. 48 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Maier (1988) pp. 85–86 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Griffin, pp. 47–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Nolte, pp. 20–21 </li> <li id="cite_note-ker27-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ker27_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ker27_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ker27_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ker27_13-3">d</a> Kershaw, p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-m86-87-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-m86-87_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m86-87_14-1">b</a> Maier (1988) pp. 86–87 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Nolte, p. 433 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Nolte, pp. 452–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEpstein1976" class="citation cs2">Epstein, Klaus (1976), "A New Study of Fascism", in Turner, Henry A (ed.), Reappraisals of Fascism, New York: Franklin Watts, pp. 19–22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+New+Study+of+Fascism&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+Fascism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Franklin+Watts&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Nolte, p. 430 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Marrus, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Bauer, Yehuda Rethinking the Holocaust New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001 p. 104 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Marrus, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-mar39-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mar39_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mar39_22-1">b</a> Marrus, p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Marrus, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Müller, Jen-Werner Another Country, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000 p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stern,_Fritz_p._435-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Stern,_Fritz_p._435_25-0">^</a> Stern, Fritz Five Germanys I Have Known, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2006 p. 435. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Baldwin in Baldwin (1990) p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Baldwin in Baldwin (1990) pp. 7–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-b8-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b8_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b8_28-1">b</a> Baldwin in Baldwin (1990) p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-m28-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-m28_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m28_29-1">b</a> Maier (1988) p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-mai39-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mai39_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mai39_30-1">b</a> Maier (1986) p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Maier, Charles "West Germany as Subject...and Object" pp. 376–384 from Central European History, Volume XI, Issue # 4, December 1978 pp. 377–379. </li> <li id="cite_note-b9-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b9_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-b9_32-1">b</a> Baldwin in Baldwin (1990) p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">"Federal Republic of Germany". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014182223/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1988_9_CentralEurope.pdf">American Jewish Year Book 1988</a> (PDF). p. 319. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1988_9_CentralEurope.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Federal+Republic+of+Germany&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+Year+Book+1988&rft.pages=319&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajcarchives.org%2FAJC_DATA%2FFiles%2F1988_9_CentralEurope.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Maier (1988) p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-m30-35"><a href="#cite_ref-m30_35-0">^</a> Maier (1988) p. 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Evans, pp. 148–149 </li> <li id="cite_note-n19-37"><a href="#cite_ref-n19_37-0">^</a> Nolte in Knowlton (1993) p. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-n18-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-n18_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-n18_38-1">b</a> Nolte in Knowlton, (1993) p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Nolte in Knowlton, (1993) pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> 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Pantheon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-72348-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-72348-6"><bdi>978-0-679-72348-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Hitler%27s+shadow%3A+West+German+historians+and+the+attempt+to+escape+from+the+Nazi+past&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=1989-08-12&rft.isbn=978-0-679-72348-6&rft.au=Evans%2C+Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finhitlersshadow00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Friedländer, Saul "West Germany and the Burden of the Past: The Ongoing Debate" pp. 3–18 from Jerusalem Quarterly, Volume 42, Spring 1987.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFriedländer2016" class="citation book cs1">Friedländer, Saul (2016). Where memory leads : my life. New York: Other Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59051-809-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59051-809-0"><bdi>978-1-59051-809-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+memory+leads+%3A+my+life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Other+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-59051-809-0&rft.aulast=Friedl%C3%A4nder&rft.aufirst=Saul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFriedländer,_Saul1993" class="citation book cs1">Friedländer, Saul (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AE3I7LDuUdIC">Memory, history, and the extermination of the Jews of Europe</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-32483-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-32483-2"><bdi>978-0-253-32483-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memory%2C+history%2C+and+the+extermination+of+the+Jews+of+Europe&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-253-32483-2&rft.au=Friedl%C3%A4nder%2C+Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAE3I7LDuUdIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Joachim_Friedrich" title="Carl Joachim Friedrich">Friedrich, Carl</a> “Review: Fascism versus Totalitarianism: Ernst Nolte's Views Reexamined” pp. 271–284 from Central European History, Volume 4, Issue #3, September 1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Gilbert" title="Felix Gilbert">Gilbert, Felix</a> “Review of Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg” pp. 618–620 from The American Historical Review, Volume 81, Issue #3 June 1976.</li> <li>Grab, Walter “German Historians And The Trivialization Of Nazi Criminality: Critical Remarks On The Apologetics Of Joachim Fest, Ernst Nolte And Andreas Hillgruber” pp. 273–278 from Australian Journal of Politics and History, Volume 33, Issue #3, 1987.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGriffin1998" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Roger (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQrFQgAACAAJ">International fascism: theories, causes and the new consensus</a>. Bloomsbury USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-70613-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-70613-8"><bdi>978-0-340-70613-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+fascism%3A+theories%2C+causes+and+the+new+consensus&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-340-70613-8&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxQrFQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gutman, Yisreal "Nolte and Revisionism" pp. 115–150 from Yad Vashem Studies, Volume 19, 1988.</li> <li>Heilbrunn, Jacob "Germany's New Right" pp. 80–98 from Foreign Affairs, Volume 75, Issue #6, November–December 1996.</li> <li>Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Review of Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg pp. 1316–1318 from American Political Science Review, Volume 71, September 1977.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Hirschfeld" title="Gerhard Hirschfeld">Hirschfeld, Gerhard</a> "Erasing the Past?" pp. 8–10 from History Today Volume 37, Issue 8, August 1987.</li> <li>Jarausch, Konrad "Removing the Nazi Stain? The Quarrel of the German Historians" pp. 285–301 from German Studies Review, Volume 11, 1988.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKershaw1989" class="citation book cs1">Kershaw, Ian (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XlioQgAACAAJ">The Nazi dictatorship: problems and perspectives of interpretation</a>. Hodder Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-49008-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-49008-2"><bdi>978-0-340-49008-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+dictatorship%3A+problems+and+perspectives+of+interpretation&rft.pub=Hodder+Arnold&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-340-49008-2&rft.aulast=Kershaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXlioQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kitchen, Martin "Ernst Nolte And The Phenomenology Of Fascism" pp. 130–149 from Science & Society, Volume 38, Issue #2 1974.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKoch,_Hannsjoachim_Wolfgang1985" class="citation book cs1">Koch, Hannsjoachim Wolfgang (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ahloAAAAMAAJ">Aspects of the Third Reich</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-35272-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-35272-4"><bdi>978-0-333-35272-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-333-35272-4&rft.au=Koch%2C+Hannsjoachim+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DahloAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKnowlton1993" class="citation book cs1">Knowlton, James (1993). Forever in the shadow of Hitler? : original documents of the Historikerstreit, the controversy concerning the singularity of the Holocaust. Atlantic Highlands, N.J: Humanities Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57392-561-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-57392-561-6"><bdi>1-57392-561-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+in+the+shadow+of+Hitler%3F+%3A+original+documents+of+the+Historikerstreit%2C+the+controversy+concerning+the+singularity+of+the+Holocaust&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Humanities+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=1-57392-561-6&rft.aulast=Knowlton&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kulka, Otto Dov "Singularity and Its Relativization: Changing Views in German Historiography on National Socialism and the `Final Solution'" pp. 151–186 from Yad Vashem Studies, Volume 19, 1988.</li> <li>LaCapra, Dominick "Revisiting The Historians’ Debate: Mourning And Genocide" pp. 80–112 from History & Memory, Volume 9, Issue #1–2 1997.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaqueur,_WalterJudith_Tydor_Baumel2001" class="citation book cs1">Laqueur, Walter; Judith Tydor Baumel (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC">The Holocaust encyclopedia</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08432-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08432-0"><bdi>978-0-300-08432-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+encyclopedia&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08432-0&rft.au=Laqueur%2C+Walter&rft.au=Judith+Tydor+Baumel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnPbr0XzlTzcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLipstadt,_Deborah_E.1993" class="citation book cs1">Lipstadt, Deborah E. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/denyingholocaust00debo">Denying the Holocaust: the growing assault on truth and memory</a>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-919235-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-919235-1"><bdi>978-0-02-919235-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Denying+the+Holocaust%3A+the+growing+assault+on+truth+and+memory&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-02-919235-1&rft.au=Lipstadt%2C+Deborah+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdenyingholocaust00debo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Loewenberg, Peter Review of Theorien uber den Faschismus by Ernst Nolte pp. 368–370 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 41, Issue # 3, September 1969.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBuse,_Dieter_K.Juergen_C._Doerr1998" class="citation book cs1">Buse, Dieter K.; Juergen C. Doerr (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h0EOAQAAMAAJ">Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people, and culture, 1871–1990</a>. Garland Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0503-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-0503-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-0503-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Germany%3A+an+encyclopedia+of+history%2C+people%2C+and+culture%2C+1871%E2%80%931990&rft.pub=Garland+Pub.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-0503-3&rft.au=Buse%2C+Dieter+K.&rft.au=Juergen+C.+Doerr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh0EOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLukacs,_John1997" class="citation book cs1">Lukacs, John (28 October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9f5nAAAAMAAJ">The Hitler of history</a>. Knopf Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-44649-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-44649-1"><bdi>978-0-679-44649-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hitler+of+history&rft.pub=Knopf+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1997-10-28&rft.isbn=978-0-679-44649-1&rft.au=Lukacs%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9f5nAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaier,_Charles_S.1988" class="citation book cs1">Maier, Charles S. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hg90vAeg7NoC">The unmasterable past: history, holocaust, and German national identity</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92975-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92975-3"><bdi>978-0-674-92975-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+unmasterable+past%3A+history%2C+holocaust%2C+and+German+national+identity&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-674-92975-3&rft.au=Maier%2C+Charles+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhg90vAeg7NoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Maier, Charles "Immoral Equivalence" pp. 36–41 from <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, Volume 195, Number 22, Issue 3, 750, 1 December 1986.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarrus,_Michael_Robert1987" class="citation book cs1">Marrus, Michael Robert (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QcmMPwAACAAJ">The Holocaust in history</a>. Lester & Orpen Dennys. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88619-155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88619-155-9"><bdi>978-0-88619-155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+in+history&rft.pub=Lester+%26+Orpen+Dennys&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88619-155-9&rft.au=Marrus%2C+Michael+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQcmMPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mosse" title="George Mosse">Mosse, George</a> Review of Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism pp. 621–625 from Journal of the History of Ideas, Volume 27, Issue #4, October 1966.</li> <li>Muller, Jerry "German Historians At War" pp. 33–42 from <a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a> Volume 87, Issue #5, May 1989.</li> <li>Nolan, Mary "The Historikerstreit and Social History" pp. 51–80 from New German Critique, Volume 44, 1988.</li> <li>Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces of Fascism, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1965.</li> <li>Peacock, Mark S. "The Desire To Understand And The Politics Of Wissenschaft: An Analysis Of The Historikerstreit" pp. 87–110 from History of the Human Sciences, Volume 14, Issue #4, 2001.</li> <li>Pulzer, Peter "Germany Searches for A Less Traumatic Past" pp. 16–18 from The Listerner, Volume 117, Issue 3017, 25 June 1987.</li> <li>Pulzer, Peter "Germany: Whose History?" pp. 1076–1088 from Times Literary Supplement, 2–8 October 1987.</li> <li>Pulzer, Peter Review of Das Vergehen der Vergangenheit Antwort an meine Kritiker im sogenannten Historikerstreit p. 1095 from The English Historical Review, Volume 103, Issue # 409, October 1988.</li> <li>Shlaes, Amity "More History" pp. 30–32 from The American Spectator, April 1987.</li> <li>Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: Totalitarianism or Fascism?" pp. 404–424 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967.</li> <li>Schönpflug, Daniel "Histoires Croisees: François Furet, Ernst Nolte and A Comparative History of Totalitarian Movements" pp. 265–290 from European History Quarterly, Volume 37, Issue #2, 2007.</li> <li>Shorten, Richard "Europe’s Twentieth Century In Retrospect? A Cautious Note On The Furet/Nolte Debate" pp. 285–304 from European Legacy, Volume 9, Issue #, 2004.</li> <li>Sternhell, Zeev "Fascist Ideology" pp. 315–406 from Fascism: A Reader's Guide edited by Walter Laqueur, Harmondsworth, 1976.</li> <li>Strute, Karl and Doelken, Theodor (editors) Who's Who In Germany 1982–1983 Volume 2 N–Z, Verlag AG: Zurich, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-921220-46-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-921220-46-7">978-3-921220-46-7</a>.</li> <li>Thomas, Gina (editor) The Unresolved Past A Debate In German History, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-05796-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-05796-1">978-0-312-05796-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurner,_Henry_Ashby1975" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Henry Ashby (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wSttAAAAIAAJ">Reappraisals of fascism</a>. New Viewpoints. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-531-05372-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-531-05372-0"><bdi>978-0-531-05372-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+fascism&rft.pub=New+Viewpoints&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-531-05372-0&rft.au=Turner%2C+Henry+Ashby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwSttAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Vidal-Naquet" title="Pierre Vidal-Naquet">Vidal-Naquet, Pierre</a> Assassins of Memory Essays on the Denial of the Holocaust, New York: Columbia University Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-07458-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-07458-1">0-231-07458-1</a>.</li> <li>Winkler, Karen "German Scholars Sharply Divided Over Place of the Holocaust in History" pp. 4–7 from The Chronicle of Higher Education, 27 May 1987.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWyden,_Peter2002" class="citation book cs1">Wyden, Peter (6 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uBE0_CfNmD0C">The Hitler Virus: The Insidious Legacy of Adolf Hitler</a>. Arcade Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55970-616-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55970-616-2"><bdi>978-1-55970-616-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hitler+Virus%3A+The+Insidious+Legacy+of+Adolf+Hitler&rft.pub=Arcade+Pub&rft.date=2002-05-06&rft.isbn=978-1-55970-616-2&rft.au=Wyden%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuBE0_CfNmD0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>German</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Augstein, Rudolf "Ein historisches Recht Hitlers?" (interview with Nolte) pp. 83–103 from Der Spiegel, Issue 40, 3 October 1994.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKronenberg,_Volker1999" class="citation book cs1">Kronenberg, Volker (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DcmBAAAAIAAJ">Ernst Nolte und das totalitäre Zeitalter: Versuch einer Verständigung</a>. Bouvier Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-416-02874-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-416-02874-5"><bdi>978-3-416-02874-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernst+Nolte+und+das+totalit%C3%A4re+Zeitalter%3A+Versuch+einer+Verst%C3%A4ndigung&rft.pub=Bouvier+Verlag&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-416-02874-5&rft.au=Kronenberg%2C+Volker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDcmBAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gauweiler, Peter "Bocksgesang im Duett" pp. 55–58 from Der Spiegel, Issue 46, 14 November 1994.* Leinemann, Jürgen "Der doppelte Aussenseiter" pp. 30–33 from Der Spiegel, Issue 22, 30 May 1994.</li> <li>Mommsen, Hans “Das Ressentiment Als Wissenschaft: Ammerkungen zu Ernst Nolte’s Der Europäische Bürgrkrieg 1917–1945: Nationalsozialimus und Bolschewismus” pp. 495–512 from Geschichte und Gesellschaft, Volume 14, Issue #4 1988.</li> <li>Nipperdey, Thomas "Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche: Zu den Werken von Ernst Nolte zum Faschismus" pp. 620–638 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 210, Issue #3, June 1970.</li> <li>Nipperdey, Thomas, Doering-Manteuffel, Anselm & Thamer, Hans-Ulrich (editors) Weltburgerkrieg der Ideologien: Antworten an Ernst Nolte : Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstag, Berlin: Propyläen Verlag, 1993 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05326-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-549-05326-3">978-3-549-05326-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeter,_Jürgen1995" class="citation book cs1">Peter, Jürgen (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OStoAAAAMAAJ">Der Historikerstreit und die Suche nach einer nationalen Identität der achtziger Jahre</a>. Peter Lang Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-49294-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-49294-9"><bdi>978-3-631-49294-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Historikerstreit+und+die+Suche+nach+einer+nationalen+Identit%C3%A4t+der+achtziger+Jahre&rft.pub=Peter+Lang+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-631-49294-9&rft.au=Peter%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOStoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Scheibert, Peter Review of Der europäische Bürgerkrieg 1917-1945 Nationalsozialismus und Bolschewismus pp. 745–747 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 250, Issue # 3 June 1990.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchneider,_Michael1995" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, Michael (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_S9oAAAAMAAJ">Volkspädagogik von rechts: Ernst Nolte, die Bemühungen um die Historisierung des Nationalsozialismus und die selbstbewusste Nation</a>. Not Avail. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86077-463-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86077-463-2"><bdi>978-3-86077-463-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volksp%C3%A4dagogik+von+rechts%3A+Ernst+Nolte%2C+die+Bem%C3%BChungen+um+die+Historisierung+des+Nationalsozialismus+und+die+selbstbewusste+Nation&rft.pub=Not+Avail&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-3-86077-463-2&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_S9oAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnst+Nolte" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stern, Fritz Review of Der Faschismus in Seiner Epoche: Die Action Française, der Italienische Faschismus, der Nationalsozialismus by Ernst Nolte pp. 225–227 from The Journal of Modern History, Volume 36, Issue # 2, June 1964.</li> <li>Zitelmann, Rainer Review of Geschichtsdenken im 20 Jahrhundert Von Max Weber bis Hans Jonas pp. 710–711 from Historische Zeitschrift, Volume 256, Issue # 3, June 1993.</li> <li>Bernhard Valentinitsch: Max-Erwin von Scheubner-Richter (1884–1923) – Zeuge des Genozids an den Armeniern und früher, enger Mitarbeiter Hitlers. Diplomarbeit, Universität Graz, 2012; uni-graz.at (PDF; 5,6 MB), (about Nolte´s interpretation of National Socialism and of Scheubner-Richter, who is a key figure in Nolte`s theory of the `causal nexus´).</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Bosnian</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Kopi%C4%87" title="Mario Kopić">Kopić, Mario</a> "Nolteovo povijesno relacioniranje" pp. 40–43 from Odjek, Volume 52, Issue #3, 1999</li> <li>Kopić, Mario "Nolte u svojoj epohi" pp. 91–99 from Odjek, Volume 68, Issues #1–4, 2015</li> <li>Kopić, Mario "Nolte" pp. 1-9 from Lamed, Volume 10, Issues #3, 2017</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Czech</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Moravcová, Dagmar "Interpretace fašismu v západoněmecké historiografii v 60. a 70. letech" pp. 657–675 from Československý časopis historický, Volume 26, Issue #5, 1978</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>French</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Groppo, Bruno “"Revisionnisme" Historique Et Changement Des Paradigmes En Italie Et En Allemagne” pp. 7–13 from Matériaux pour l'Histoire de Notre Temps, Volume 68, 2002.</li> <li>Jäckel, Eberhard “Une Querelle D'Allemandes? La Miserable Pratique Des Sous-Entendus” pp. 95–98 from Documents, Volume 2, 1987.</li> <li>Soutou, Georges-Henri “La "Querelle Des Historiens" Allemands: Polemique, Histoire Et Identite Nationale” pp. 61–81 from Relations Internationales, Volume 65, 1991.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Italian</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Corni, Gustavo “La storiografia 'privata' di Ernst Nolte” pp. 115–120 from Italia Contemporanea, Volume 175, 1989.</li> <li>Iannone, Luigi "Storia, Europa, Modernità. Intervista ad Ernst Nolte", Le Lettere, 2008</li> <li>Landkammer, Joachim “Nazionalsocialismo e Bolscevismo tra universalismo e particolarismo” pp. 511–539 from Storia Contemporanea, Volume 21, Issue 3, 1990</li> <li>Perfetti, Francesco “La concezione transpolitica della storia nel carteggio Nolte-Del Noce” pp. 725–784 from Storia Contemporanea, Volume 24, Issue #5, 1993.</li> <li>Tranfaglia, Nicola “Historikerstreit e dintorni: una questione non solo tedesca” pp. 10–15 from Passato e Presente Rivista di Storia Contemporanea, Volume 16, 1988.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Russian</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Galkin, I. S "Velikaia Oktiabr'Skaia Sotsialisicheskaia Revoliutsiia i Bor'ba Idei v Istoricheskoi Nauke Na Soveremennom Etape" pp. 14–25 from Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Seriia 8: Istoriia, Volume 5, 1977</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Slovene</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Kopi%C4%87" title="Mario Kopić">Kopić, Mario</a> "Revizionistična zgodovina Ernsta Nolteja" pp. 8–12 from Nova revija, Volume 24, Issue 273–274, 2005</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ernst_Nolte" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ernst Nolte">Ernst Nolte</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/15px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/30px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> German <a href="/wiki/Wikiquote" title="Wikiquote">Wikiquote</a> has quotations related to: <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/de:Ernst_Nolte" class="extiw" title="q:de:Ernst Nolte">Ernst Nolte</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180322173109/http://www.ernst-nolte.de/">Ernst Nolte</a> – archived copy of now-defunct personal website (in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern History">Modern History</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Marburg" title="University of Marburg">University of Marburg</a> 1965–1973 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern History">Modern History</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Berlin" title="Free University of Berlin">Free University of Berlin</a> 1973– (Professor Emeritus since 1991) </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFF179;">Awards and achievements </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_von_Hayek" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich August von Hayek">Friedrich August von Hayek</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Hanns_Martin_Schleyer_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize">Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize</a> 1985 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Carstens" title="Karl Carstens">Karl Carstens</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sch%C3%A4uble" title="Wolfgang Schäuble">Wolfgang Schäuble</a>, freedom</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Prize" title="Konrad Adenauer Prize">Konrad Adenauer Prize</a>, science (with <a href="/wiki/Otfried_Preu%C3%9Fler" title="Otfried Preußler">Otfried Preußler</a>, literature) 2000 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Maffay" title="Peter Maffay">Peter Maffay</a>, culture</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121473702">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/109425217">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/87517/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJf49cDCQBFdjVWv7pXcfq">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118831542">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82024340">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12021106f">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12021106f">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00451420">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV046515">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35389616">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990006158&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1001217">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/80984">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068346689">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90166917">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000006782&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000002934&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/97mqt7mt2176cfs">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810629792305606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007266049205171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058581296406706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14158104">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02033408?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=56836300400">Scopus</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/935508">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118831542.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118831542">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028359739">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&oldid=1276524886">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_Nolte&oldid=1276524886</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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[\"CITEREFKoch,_Hannsjoachim_Wolfgang1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKronenberg,_Volker1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöppel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaqueur,_WalterJudith_Tydor_Baumel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipstadt,_Deborah_E.1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukacs,_John1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaier,_Charles_S.1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarrus,_Michael_Robert1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNolte2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolte2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter,_Jürgen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider,_Michael1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheehan1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner,_Henry_Ashby1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelch1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyden,_Peter2002\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ernst Nolte","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ernst_Nolte","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q65108","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q65108","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-07-27T04:51:47Z","dateModified":"2025-02-19T10:20:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/3\/36\/Ernst_Nolte.jpg","headline":"German historian and philosopher (1923\u20132016)"}</script> </body> </html>