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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_contributors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_contributors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Notable contributors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_contributors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental archaeology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_archeologie" title="Environmentální archeologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Environmentální archeologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umweltarch%C3%A4ologie" title="Umweltarchäologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Umweltarchäologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Περιβαλλοντική αρχαιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περιβαλλοντική αρχαιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="باستان‌شناسی محیطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باستان‌شناسی محیطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9ologie_environnementale" title="Archéologie environnementale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Archéologie environnementale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seand%C3%A1la%C3%ADocht_chomhshaoil" title="Seandálaíocht chomhshaoil – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seandálaíocht chomhshaoil" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nk%C3%A0_mm%E1%BB%A5ta_ihe_ochie_gburugburu_ebe_obibi" title="Nkà mmụta ihe ochie gburugburu ebe obibi – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Nkà mmụta ihe ochie gburugburu ebe obibi" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi_lingkungan" title="Arkeologi lingkungan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arkeologi lingkungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologia_ambientale" title="Archeologia ambientale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Archeologia ambientale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6rnyezeti_r%C3%A9g%C3%A9szet" title="Környezeti régészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Környezeti régészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Археологија на животната средина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Археологија на животната средина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="環境考古学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="環境考古学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milj%C3%B8arkeologi" title="Miljøarkeologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Miljøarkeologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="چاپېريالي لرغونپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چاپېريالي لرغونپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පාරිසරික පුරාවිද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පාරිසරික පුරාවිද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87evresel_arkeoloji" title="Çevresel arkeoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çevresel arkeoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sub-discipline of archaeology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the subfield of archaeology. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Archaeology" title="Environmental Archaeology"><i>Environmental Archaeology</i></a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two men in a field of wheat struggling to push a rod into soil." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg/220px-Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg/330px-Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg/440px-Palaeoenvironmental_core_retrieval_with_a_sediment_coring_unit..jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Geoarchaeological survey of stratigraphic units using a versatile coring unit, a common tool for environmental archaeologists.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Environmental archaeology</b> is a sub-field of <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> which emerged in 1970s<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the science of reconstructing the relationships between past societies and the environments they lived in.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field represents an archaeological-palaeoecological approach to studying the palaeoenvironment through the methods of human <a href="/wiki/Palaeoecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoecology">palaeoecology</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Geoscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoscience">geosciences</a>. Reconstructing past <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environments</a> and past peoples' relationships and interactions with the landscapes they inhabited provide archaeologists with insights into the origins and evolution of anthropogenic environments and human systems. This includes subjects such as including <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> lifestyle adaptations to change and <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> practices.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental archaeology is commonly divided into three sub-fields: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">archaeobotany</a> (the study of plant remains)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">zooarchaeology</a> (the study of faunal remains)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">geoarchaeology</a> (the study of geological processes and their relationship to the archaeological record)</li></ul> <p>Environmental archaeology often involves studying plant and animal remains in order to investigate which plant and animal species were present at the time of prehistoric habitations, and how past societies managed them. It may also involve studying the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Geography">physical</a> environment and how similar or different it was in the past compared to the present day. An important component of such analyses represents the study of site formation processes.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This field is particularly useful when <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> may be absent from an excavated or surveyed site, or in cases of earth movement, such as <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, which may have buried artifacts and archaeological features. While specialist sub-fields, for example <a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">bioarchaeology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>, are defined by the materials they study, the term "environmental" is used as a general template in order to denote a general field of scientific inquiry that is applicable across time periods and geographical regions studied by archaeology as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Archaeobotany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unknown,_Animal_Remains_(FindID_774474).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg/220px-Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg/330px-Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg/440px-Unknown%2C_Animal_Remains_%28FindID_774474%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5316" data-file-height="7200" /></a><figcaption>Animal remains</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Archaeobotany</a> is the study and interpretation of plant remains. By determining the uses of plants in historical contexts, researchers can reconstruct the diets of past humans, as well as determine their <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">Subsistence economy</a> strategies and plant economy. This provides greater insight into a people's social and cultural behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysis of specimen like wood charcoal, for example, can reveal the source of fuel or construction for a society. Archaeobotanists also often study seed and fruit remains, along with pollen and starch.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants can be preserved in a variety of ways, but the most common are <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">carbonization</a>, water logging, mineralization, and desiccation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A field within archaeobotany is ethnobotany, which looks more specifically at the relationship between plants and humans, and the cultural impacts plants have had and continue to have on human societies. Plant usage as food and as crops or as medicine is of interest, as well the plants' economic influences.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Zooarchaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a> is the study of animal remains and what these remains can tell us about the human societies the animals existed among.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animal remains can provide evidence of predation by humans (or vice versa) or domestication. Despite revealing the specific relationships between animals and humans, discovery of animal bones, hides, or DNA in a certain area can describe the location's past landscape or climate.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geoarchaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</a> is the study of landscape and of geological processes. It looks at environments within the human timeline to determine how past societies may have influenced or been influenced by the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sediment and soil are often studied because this is where the majority of artifacts are found, but also because natural processes and human behavior can alter the soil and reveal its history.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from visual observation, computer programming and satellite imaging are often employed to reconstruct past landscapes or architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_related_fields">Other related fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other related fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the multidisciplinary nature of archaeology in general, the range of research in the earth and environmental sciences, and possibility of methodologies, environmental archaeology has branched and connected with a number of other fields to include numerous cross and subfields such as:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">aerial archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracology" title="Anthracology">anthracology</a> – Study of preserved charcoal remains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">archaeoastronomy</a> – Interdisciplinary study of astronomies in cultures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobiology" title="Archaeobiology">archaeobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">archaeoentomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">archaeological geophysics</a> – Non-invasive physical sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">archaeological science</a> – Application of scientific techniques to archaeology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_survey_(archaeology)" title="Magnetic survey (archaeology)">archaeomagnometry</a> – Magnetic detection of archaeological artefacts and features</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">archival research</a> – Type of research using evidence from archival records</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">bioarchaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_archaeology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coastal archaeology (page does not exist)">coastal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">computational archaeology</a> – Archaeological sub-discipline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">environmental history</a> – Specialisation of history</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a> – Scientific study of landforms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_archaeology" title="Landscape archaeology">landscape archaeology</a> – Sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_history" title="Landscape history">landscape history</a> – Study of changes in the physical environment caused by human activities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">maritime archaeology</a> – Archaeological study of human interaction with the sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoclimatology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoclimatology">palaeoclimatology</a> – Study of changes in ancient climate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoecology">palaeoecology</a> – Study of interactions between organisms and their environments across geologic timescales<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> research</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_in_archaeology" title="Remote sensing in archaeology">remote sensing</a></li> <li>as well as fields related to various <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">chronological dating</a> techniques; including <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">luminescence dating</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">archaeomagnetic dating</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_environment_department,_Institute_of_Archaeology,_1970s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg/220px-Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg/330px-Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg/440px-Human_environment_department%2C_Institute_of_Archaeology%2C_1970s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>The human environment department of the <a href="/wiki/UCL_Institute_of_Archaeology" title="UCL Institute of Archaeology">UCL Institute of Archaeology</a> in the 1970s.</figcaption></figure> <p>Environmental archaeology has emerged as a distinct discipline since the second half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Murphy_Fuller_2017_pp._1–10_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murphy_Fuller_2017_pp._1–10-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years it has grown rapidly in significance and is now an established component of most excavation projects. The field is multidisciplinary, and environmental archaeologists, as well as palaeoecologists, work side by side with archaeologists and anthropologists specialising in material culture studies in order to achieve a more holistic understanding of past human livelihood and people-environment interactions, especially how climatic stress affected humans and forced them to adapt.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In archaeology in the 1960s, the environment was seen as having a "passive" interaction with humans. With the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> and ecological principles, however, this paradigm began to shift. Prominent theories and principles of the time (<a href="/wiki/Oasis_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Oasis Theory">oasis theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Longue_duree" class="mw-redirect" title="Longue duree">longue duree</a></i>) emphasized this philosophy. Catastrophism, for instance, discussed how catastrophes like natural disaster could be the determining factor in a society's survival.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The environment could have social, political, and economic impacts on human communities. It became more important for researchers to look at the direct influence the environment could have on a society. This gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Middle-range_theory_(archaeology)" title="Middle-range theory (archaeology)">middle range theory</a> and the major questions asked by environmental archaeology in the 20th and 21st centuries. Research has since led environmental archaeology to two major conclusions: <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">humanity originated in Africa</a> and agriculture originated in south-west Asia. Another important shift in thinking within the field centered around the notion of cost-effectivity. Before, archaeologists thought that humans usually acted to maximize their use of resources, but have since come to believe that this is not the case. Subsequent theories/principles include <a href="/wiki/Sociality" title="Sociality">sociality</a> and agency, and the focus on relationships between archaeological sites.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government research audits and the 'commercialisation' of environmental archaeology<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have also shaped the sub-discipline in more recent times.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental archaeologists approach a site through evaluation and/or excavation. Evaluation seeks to analyze the resources and artifacts given in an area and their potential significance. <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavation</a> takes samples from different layers in the ground and uses a similar strategy to evaluation. The samples typically sought after are human and faunal remains, pollen and spores, wood and charcoal, insects, and even isotopes<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Biomolecules like lipids, proteins, and DNA can be revelatory samples.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With respect to geoarchaeology, computer systems for topography and satellites imaging are often used to reconstruct landscapes. The <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic Information System (GIS)</a> is a computer system that can process spatial data and construct virtual landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climate records are able to be reconstructed through <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">paleoclimatology proxies</a>, which can provide information on temperatures, precipitation, vegetation, and other climate-dependent conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These proxies can be used to provide context for present climate and compare past climate against the present.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest,_Washington._(38853497655).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg/220px-2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg/330px-2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg/440px-2016._Lake_sediment_core._Forlorn_Lakes._Gifford_Pinchot_National_Forest%2C_Washington._%2838853497655%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Lake sediment core used to help archaeologists reconstruct past climates.</figcaption></figure> <p>Each focus within environmental archaeology collects information about a different aspect of humans' relation with their surrounding environment. Together these components (along with methods from other fields) are combined to fully understand a past society's lifestyle and interactions with their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Past aspects of land use, food production, tool use, and occupation patterns can all be established and the knowledge applied to current and future human-environment interactions. Through predation, agriculture, and introduction of foreign <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biota</a> into new environments, humans have altered past environments. Understanding these past processes can help us pursue conservation and restorative processes in the present.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental archaeology provides insight on <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> and why some cultures collapsed while others survived. <a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a> has occurred many times throughout history, one of the most prominent examples being the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>. Using lake sediment core and climate reconstruction technology discussed earlier, archaeologists were able to reconstruct the climate present at the time of the Mayans.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Yucatán Peninsula was found to have extreme drought at the time Mayan society collapsed, many other factors contributed to their demise. Deforestation, overpopulation, and manipulating wetlands are only a few theories as to why the Maya civilization collapsed, but all of these worked in tandem to negatively impact the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a sustainability perspective, studying how the Mayans impacted the environment allows researchers to see how these changes have permanently affected the landscape and subsequent populations living in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeologists are increasingly under pressure to demonstrate that their work has impact beyond the discipline. This has prompted environmental archaeologists to argue that an understanding of past environmental changes is essential to model future outcomes in areas such as climate change, land cover change, <a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">soil health</a> and food security.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_contributors">Notable contributors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notable contributors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Birks" title="John Birks">John Birks</a>, a botanist and emeritus professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bergen" title="University of Bergen">University of Bergen</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, is renowned for his novel quantitative techniques in <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> palaeoecology. His extensive research focuses on the vegetational and environmental history of the past 10-20,000 years across various regions, including <a href="/wiki/Fennoscandia" title="Fennoscandia">Fennoscandia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Brothwell" title="Don Brothwell">Don Brothwell</a> (1933–2016), was a distinguished British archaeologist and anthropologist, who specialised in human palaeoecology and environmental archaeology. His career spanned several prominent institutions including the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_York" title="University of York">University of York</a>. Brothwell was celebrated as a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">archaeological science</a>, contributing extensively to the study of human and animal remains, and founding the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Archaeological_Science" title="Journal of Archaeological Science">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Butzer" title="Karl Butzer">Karl Butzer</a> is a notable pioneer of environmental archaeology and has won numerous awards and conducted research in the fields of archaeology, geography, and geology.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Stowe_Higgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Stowe Higgs">Eric Higgs</a> researched the development of agriculture in Asia and the method of "site catchment analysis", which looks at the exploitation of land based on the land's potential.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglas_Kennett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Douglas Kennett (page does not exist)">Douglas Kennett</a> is a controversial environmental archaeologist and human behavioral ecologist known for his work investigating how climate change affected Maya civilization in its development and disintegration.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for his contributions as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Comet_Research_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet Research Group">Comet Research Group</a> to the controversial and disputed <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis" title="Younger Dryas impact hypothesis">Younger Dryas impact hypothesis</a> which asserts that the Clovis culture was destroyed by a shower of comets. His most widely disseminated paper was a collaboration with biblical archaeologists who believe they have discovered the ancient city of Sodom at <a href="/wiki/Tell_el-Hammam" title="Tell el-Hammam">Tell el-Hammam</a>, Jordon, and that it was destroyed by a comet.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On February 15, 2023, the following editor’s note was posted on this paper, "Readers are alerted that concerns raised about the data presented and the conclusions of this article are being considered by the Editors. A further editorial response will follow the resolution of these issues."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Leakey" title="Louis Leakey">Louis Leakey</a> contributed to a vast amount of research in this field. Leakey and his wife <a href="/wiki/Mary_Leakey" title="Mary Leakey">Mary Leakey</a> are most known for their work on human origins in Africa. <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> developed the middle range theory. Under this theory, researchers study the relationship between humans and the environment, which can be depicted in models.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Whitlock" title="Cathy Whitlock">Cathy Whitlock</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Earth_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Science">Earth Scientist</a> and Professor at <a href="/wiki/Montana_State_University" title="Montana State University">Montana State University</a>, specializing in Quaternary <a href="/wiki/Environmental_change" title="Environmental change">environmental change</a> and palaeoclimatology. She is most known for her research on "palaeofire," which uses <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sediment_cores&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sediment cores (page does not exist)">sediment cores</a> to reconstruct historical vegetation, fire, and climate patterns (particularly post-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellowstone_fires&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yellowstone fires (page does not exist)">Yellowstone fires</a>). Whitlock has significantly contributed to academic understandings of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Climate_dynamics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Climate dynamics (page does not exist)">climate dynamics</a> and encouraging informed <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> efforts and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Wilmshurst" title="Janet Wilmshurst">Janet Wilmshurst</a>, a <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>-based palaeoecologist who has researched fossil records to examine relationships between human settlements and natural disturbances, including novel methods of carbon-dated rat-gnawed seeds to trace <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_culture" title="Polynesian culture">Polynesian</a> settlements over time.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Hatfield_and_Thorne" title="Archaeology of Hatfield and Thorne">Archaeology of Hatfield and Thorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeogeography">Archaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_archaeological_potential" title="Area of archaeological potential">Area of archaeological potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioanthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioanthropology">Bioanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">Diatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Archaeology">Digital Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(archaeology)" title="Disturbance (archaeology)">Disturbance (archaeology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_matrix" title="Harris matrix">Harris matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoscience">Geoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> (see also: <a href="/wiki/Human_Geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Geography">Human Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_Geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Geography">Physical Geography</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_in_archaeology" title="GIS in archaeology">GIS in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofossil" title="Macrofossil">Macrofossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy (archaeology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Subfields of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2019" class="citation journal cs1">O'Connor, Terry (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.53.5">"Pinned Down in the Trenches? Revisiting environmental archaeology"</a>. <i>Internet Archaeology</i> (53). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.53.5">10.11141/ia.53.5</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Pinned+Down+in+the+Trenches%3F+Revisiting+environmental+archaeology&rft.issue=53&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11141%2Fia.53.5&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11141%252Fia.53.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/envarch/what/">"What is Environmental Archaeology?"</a>. <i>Florida Museum of Natural History</i>. University of Florida<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Florida+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=What+is+Environmental+Archaeology%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flmnh.ufl.edu%2Fenvarch%2Fwhat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2003" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Keith (2003). <i>Environmental Archaeology: Approaches, Techniques & Applications</i>. Stroud: Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7524-1931-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7524-1931-5"><bdi>0-7524-1931-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Archaeology%3A+Approaches%2C+Techniques+%26+Applications&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7524-1931-5&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranch2014" class="citation book cs1">Branch, Nick (2014). <i>Environmental Archaeology: Theoretical and Practical Approaches</i>. 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(2012-11-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1226299">"Development and Disintegration of Maya Political Systems in Response to Climate Change"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>338</b> (6108): 788–791. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...338..788K">2012Sci...338..788K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1226299">10.1126/science.1226299</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23139330">23139330</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34471136">34471136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Development+and+Disintegration+of+Maya+Political+Systems+in+Response+to+Climate+Change&rft.volume=338&rft.issue=6108&rft.pages=788-791&rft.date=2012-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34471136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Sci...338..788K&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1226299&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23139330&rft.aulast=Kennett&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft.au=Breitenbach%2C+S.+F.+M.&rft.au=Aquino%2C+V.+V.&rft.au=Asmerom%2C+Y.&rft.au=Awe%2C+J.&rft.au=Baldini%2C+J.+U.+L.&rft.au=Bartlein%2C+P.&rft.au=Culleton%2C+B.+J.&rft.au=Ebert%2C+C.&rft.au=Jazwa%2C+C.&rft.au=Macri%2C+M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1226299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Sodom" class="citation journal cs1">Boslough, Mark (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unm.edu/~mbeb/Publications/Boslough_Skeptical_Inquirer_Sodom_2022.pdf">"Sodom Meteor Strike Claims Should Be Taken with a Pillar of Salt"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Skeptical Inquirer</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 10–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Sodom+Meteor+Strike+Claims+Should+Be+Taken+with+a+Pillar+of+Salt&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-14&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Boslough&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unm.edu%2F~mbeb%2FPublications%2FBoslough_Skeptical_Inquirer_Sodom_2022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKincaid2023" class="citation web cs1">Kincaid, Ellie (February 21, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://retractionwatch.com/2023/02/21/journal-investigating-sodom-comet-paper-for-data-problems//">"Journal investigating Sodom comet paper for data problems"</a>. <i>Retraction Watch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 22,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retraction+Watch&rft.atitle=Journal+investigating+Sodom+comet+paper+for+data+problems&rft.date=2023-02-21&rft.aulast=Kincaid&rft.aufirst=Ellie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fretractionwatch.com%2F2023%2F02%2F21%2Fjournal-investigating-sodom-comet-paper-for-data-problems%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+archaeology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_archaeology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.envarch.net/">Association for Environmental Archaeology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/archaeological-science/environmental-archaeology/">Historic England - Environmental Archaeology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/yenv20">Journal of Human Palaeoecology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/eab_eh_2004/">Archaeology Data Service - Environmental Archaeology Bibliography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue53/index.html">Environmental Archaeology - Theory and Practice: Looking Back, Moving Forwards</a> (Open Access)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">Antiquarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Richard_Hoare,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Hoare, 2nd Baronet">Richard Hoare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Heinrich Schliemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John Lloyd Stephens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Holmes" title="William Henry Holmes">William Henry Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Pitt_Rivers" title="Augustus Pitt Rivers">Augustus Pitt Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinders_Petrie" title="Flinders Petrie">Flinders Petrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Garrod" title="Dorothy Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Uhle" title="Max Uhle">Max Uhle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Method and theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">Archaeological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Philosophy of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_diving" title="Archaeological diving">Archaeological diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_ethics" title="Archaeological ethics">Archaeological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_archaeological_sites" title="Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">Survey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_survey" title="Electrical resistance survey">electrical resistance survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sondage" title="Sondage">Sondage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_layer" title="Burnt layer">Burnt layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_excavation" title="Archaeological excavation">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">Lithic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-excavation_analysis" title="Post-excavation analysis">Post-excavation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Sub-disciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_archaeology" title="Prehistoric archaeology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-medieval_archaeology" title="Post-medieval archaeology">Post-Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_archaeology" title="Historical archaeology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_archaeology" title="Contemporary archaeology">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_in_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology in Asia">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian archaeology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_in_Oceania" title="Archaeology in Oceania">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_bioarchaeology" title="Medieval bioarchaeology">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_bioarchaeology" title="Near Eastern bioarchaeology">Near Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calceology" title="Calceology">Calceology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_archaeology" title="Digital archaeology">Digital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogaming" title="Archaeogaming">Archaeogaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_archaeology" title="Computational archaeology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_archaeology" title="Virtual archaeology">Virtual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoarchaeology" title="Geoarchaeology">Geoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_science" title="Archaeological science">Archaeometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_archaeology" title="Conflict archaeology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_archaeology" title="Funerary archaeology">Funerary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_archaeology" title="Gender archaeology">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_archaeology" title="Indigenous archaeology">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_archaeology" title="Industrial archaeology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a 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