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class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Philadelphia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philadelphia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Education subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary_and_collegiate_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_and_collegiate_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Secondary and collegiate education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_and_collegiate_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funding_and_philanthropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_and_philanthropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Funding and philanthropy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding_and_philanthropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methodists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Methodists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baptists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baptists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Baptists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baptists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Urban churches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_interpretation_of_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_interpretation_of_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Religious interpretation of history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_interpretation_of_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deteriorating_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deteriorating_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Deteriorating status</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Deteriorating_status-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Deteriorating status subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Deteriorating_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jim_Crow_laws_and_segregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jim_Crow_laws_and_segregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Jim Crow laws and segregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jim_Crow_laws_and_segregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lynching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lynching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Lynching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lynching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Public images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Leadership</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Leadership subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anna_J._Cooper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anna_J._Cooper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Anna J. Cooper</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anna_J._Cooper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frederick_Douglass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frederick_Douglass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Frederick Douglass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frederick_Douglass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Key figures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leadership_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individual_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1</span> <span>Individual leaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_local_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_local_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>State and local studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_local_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>civil rights movement (1865–1896)</b> aimed to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial discrimination</a> against <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, improve their educational and employment opportunities, and establish their electoral power, just after the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a>. The period from 1865 to 1895 saw a tremendous change in the fortunes of the Black community following the elimination of slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a>. </p><p>Immediately after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the federal government launched a program known as <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> which aimed to rebuild the states of the former <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>. The federal programs also provided aid to the former slaves and attempted to integrate them into society as citizens. Both during and after this period, Black people gained a substantial amount of political power and many of them were able to move from abject poverty to land ownership. At the same time resentment of these gains by many whites resulted in an unprecedented campaign of violence which was waged by local chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, and in the 1870s it was waged by <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups like the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>. </p><p>In 1896, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_163" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 163">163</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/163/537/">537</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-fn1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a landmark upholding "separate but equal" racial segregation as constitutional. It was a very significant setback for civil rights, as the legal, social, and political status of the Black population <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">reached a nadir</a>. From 1890 to 1908, beginning with Mississippi, southern states passed new constitutions and laws <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchising most Black people</a> and excluding them from the political system, a status that was maintained in many cases into the 1940s. </p><p>Much of the early reform movement during this era was spearheaded by the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a>, a faction of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>. By the end of the 19th century, with disenfranchisement in progress to exclude Black people from the political system altogether, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">lily-white movement</a> also worked to substantially weaken the power of remaining Black people in the party. The most important civil rights leaders of this period were <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (1818–1895) and <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (1856–1915). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstruction">Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">History of the United States (1865–1918)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/220px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/330px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/440px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedmen</a> voting in New Orleans, 1867</figcaption></figure> <p>Reconstruction lasted from Lincoln's <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> of January 1, 1863 to the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major issues faced by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> were the status of the ex-slaves (called "Freedmen"), the loyalty and civil rights of ex-rebels, the status of the 11 ex-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions. </p><p>The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a>, operated by the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three "<a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a>" were passed to expand civil rights for Black Americans: the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> outlawed slavery; the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for Black people; the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a> prevented race from being used to disfranchise men. </p><p>Of more immediate usefulness than the constitutional amendments, were laws passed by Congress to allow the federal government, through the new Justice Department and through the federal courts to enforce the new civil rights Even if the state governments ignored the problem. These included the <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> of 1870–71 and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ex-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for more than two years, but that changed when the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, who sought easy terms for reunions with ex-rebels, was virtually powerless; he escaped by one vote removal through impeachment. Congress enfranchised Black men and temporarily suspended many ex-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen together with <a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a> (new arrivals from the North), and <a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> (native white Southerners). They were backed by the US Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. State by state they lost power to a conservative-Democratic coalition, which gained control by violence and fraud of the entire South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white-supremacist organization opposed to Black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's vigorous enforcement of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a> of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. But from 1868 elections in many southern states were increasingly surrounded by violence to suppress Black voting. Rifle clubs had thousands of members. In 1874, <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a> emerged that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress Black voting and disrupt the Republican Party to regain white political power in states across the South. Rable described them as the "military arm of the Democratic Party."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reconstruction ended after the disputed <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 election</a> between Republican candidate <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> and Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a>. With a compromise Hayes won the White House, the federal government withdrew its troops from the South, abandoning the freedmen to white conservative Democrats, who regained power in state governments.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kansas_exodus">Kansas exodus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Kansas exodus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></div> <p>Following the end of Reconstruction, many Black people feared the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> which continued to make them second-class citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-africana_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-africana-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motivated by important figures such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_%22Pap%22_Singleton" title="Benjamin "Pap" Singleton">Benjamin "Pap" Singleton</a>, as many as forty thousand <a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a> left the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> to settle in Kansas, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first general migration of Black people following the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1880s, Black people bought more than 20,000 acres (81 km<sup>2</sup>) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements made during this time (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nicodemus,_Kansas" title="Nicodemus, Kansas">Nicodemus, Kansas</a>, which was founded in 1877) still exist today. Many Black people left the South with the belief that they were receiving free passage to Kansas, only to be stranded in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis, Missouri</a>. Black churches in St. Louis, together with Eastern philanthropists, formed the Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis to reach Kansas.<sup id="cite_ref-africana_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-africana-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One particular group was the <i>Kansas Fever Exodus</i>, which consisted of six thousand Black people who moved from <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> to Kansas.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many in Louisiana were inspired to leave the state when the 1879 Louisiana Constitutional Convention decided that voting rights were a matter for the state, not federal, government, thereby clearing the way for the disenfranchisement of Louisiana's Black population.<sup id="cite_ref-africana_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-africana-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> was a critic.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Douglass felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_organization">Political organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Political organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Negro_Republican_Party" title="Negro Republican Party">Negro Republican Party</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg/220px-First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg/330px-First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg/440px-First_Colored_Senator_and_Representatives.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5741" data-file-height="4332" /></a><figcaption>First Colored Senator and Representatives: Sen. <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Rhodes Revels">Hiram Revels</a> (R-MS), Rep. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_S._Turner" title="Benjamin S. Turner">Benjamin Turner</a> (R-AL), <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._De_Large" title="Robert C. De Large">Robert DeLarge</a> (R-SC), <a href="/wiki/Josiah_T._Walls" title="Josiah T. Walls">Josiah Walls</a> (R-FL), <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_F._Long" title="Jefferson F. Long">Jefferson Long</a> (R-GA), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Elliott" title="Robert B. Elliott">Robert B. Elliott</a> (R-SC), 1872</figcaption></figure> <p>Black men across the South obtained the right to vote in 1867, and joined the Republican Party. The typical organization was through the <a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union League</a>, a secret society organized locally but promoted by the national Republican Party. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> reports: </p> <dl><dd>By the end of 1867 it seemed that virtually every Black voter in the South had enrolled in the Union League, the Loyal League, or some equivalent local political organization. Meetings were generally held in a Black church or school.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The Union Leagues promoted militia-like organizations in which the Black people banded together to protect themselves from being picked off one-by-one by harassers. Members were not allowed to vote the Democratic ticket.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Union Leagues and similar groups came under violent assault from the KKK after 1869, and largely collapsed. Later efforts to revive the Union League failed.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black ministers provided much of the Black political leadership, together with newcomers who had been free Black people in the North before the Civil War. Many cities had Black newspapers that explained the issues and rallied the community.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factionalism">Factionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Factionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">Lily-white movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black-and-tan_faction" title="Black-and-tan faction">Black-and-tan faction</a></div> <p>In state after state across the South, a polarization emerged inside the Republican Party, with the Black people and their <a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">carpetbagger</a> allies forming the <a href="/wiki/Black-and-tan_faction" title="Black-and-tan faction">Black-and-tan faction</a>, which faced the <a href="/wiki/Lily-white_movement" title="Lily-white movement">all-white "lily-white" faction</a> of local white <a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">scalawag</a> Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The terms for the factions became common after 1888, a decade after the end of Reconstruction.)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black people comprised the majority of Republican voters, but got a small slice of the patronage. They demanded more. Hahn explains the steps they took: </p> <dl><dd>Black assertiveness....looked toward local political power and independence and began to construct a new political identity. Black laborers called white party leaders to account. They moved to control the county and district party machinery. They rejected white office-seekers and substituted Black ones. They nominated all-Black electoral slates.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The Black-and-tan element usually won the factional battle, but as scalawags lost intra-party battles, many started voting for the conservative or Democratic tickets. The Republican Party became "Blacker and Blacker over time", as it lost white voters.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most dramatic episode was the <a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a> in Arkansas in 1874.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael Les Benedict says, "Every modern history of Reconstruction stresses its [factionalism] contribution to the collapse of southern Republicanism."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of racial issues, <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Woolfolk_Wiggins" title="Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins">Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins</a> argues: </p> <dl><dd>White Republicans as well as Democrats solicited Black votes but reluctantly rewarded Black people with nominations for office only when necessary, even then reserving the more choice positions for whites. The results were predictable: these half-a-loaf gestures satisfied neither Black nor white Republicans. The fatal weakness of the Republican Party in Alabama, as elsewhere in the South, was its inability to create a biracial political party. And while in power even briefly, they failed to protect their members from Democratic terror. Alabama Republicans were forever on the defensive, verbally and physically.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Populism">Populism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Populism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)" title="People's Party (United States)">People's Party (United States)</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)#Populism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">History of the United States (1865–1918) § Populism</a></div> <p>In 1894, a wave of agrarian unrest swept through the cotton and tobacco regions of the South. The most dramatic impact came in North Carolina, where the poor white farmers who comprised the Populist party formed a working coalition with the Republican Party, then largely controlled by Black people in the low country, and poor whites in the mountain districts. They took control of the state legislature in both 1894 and 1896, and the governorship in 1896. The state legislature lowered property requirements, expanding the franchise for the white majority in the state as well as for Black people. In 1895, the Legislature rewarded its Black allies with patronage, naming 300 Black magistrates in eastern districts, as well as deputy sheriffs and city policemen. They also received some federal patronage from the coalition congressman, and state patronage from the governor.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Determined to regain power, white Democrats mounted a campaign based on white supremacy and fears about miscegenation. The white supremacy election campaign of 1898 was successful, and Democrats regained control of the state legislature. But Wilmington, the largest city and one with a Black majority, elected a biracial Fusionist government, with a white mayor and two-thirds of the city council being whites. Democrats had already planned to overthrow the government if they lost the election here and proceeded with the <a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington Insurrection of 1898</a>. The Democrats ran Black people and Fusionist officials out of town, attacking the only Black newspaper in the state; white mobs attacked Black areas of the city, killing and injuring many, and destroying homes and businesses built up since the war.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 2100 Black people left the city permanently, leaving it a white-majority city. There were no further insurgencies in any Southern states that had a successful Black-Populist coalition at the state level. In 1899, the white Democratic-dominated North Carolina legislature passed a suffrage amendment <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchising most Black people</a>. They would largely not recover the power to vote until after passage of the federal <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_and_social_conditions">Economic and social conditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Economic and social conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great majority of Black people in this period were farmers. Among them were four main groups, three of which worked for white landowners: tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and agricultural laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fourth group were the Black people who owned their own farms, and were to some degree independent of white economic control.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_elements">Urban elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Urban elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The South had relatively few cities of any size in 1860, but during the war, and afterward, refugees both Black and white flooded in from rural areas. The growing Black population produced a leadership class of ministers, professionals, and businessmen.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These leaders typically made civil rights a high priority. Of course, great majority of Black people in urban America were unskilled or low skilled blue-collar workers.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian August Meier reports: </p> <dl><dd>From the late 1880s there was a remarkable development of Negro business – banks and insurance companies, undertakers and retail stores.... It occurred at a time when Negro barbers, tailors caterers, trainmen, Black peoplemiths, and other artisans were losing their white customers. Depending upon the Negro market, the promoters of the new enterprises naturally upheld the spirit of racial self-help and solidarity.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Memphis">Memphis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Memphis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Memphis,_Tennessee" title="History of Memphis, Tennessee">History of Memphis, Tennessee</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg/400px-Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg/600px-Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg/800px-Black_Americans_attacked_in_Memphis_Riot_of_1866.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9016" data-file-height="5997" /></a><figcaption>Black people in Memphis under attack, <i>Harper's Weekly</i>, 26 May 1866</figcaption></figure> <p>During the war thousands of slaves escaped from rural plantations to Union lines, and the Army established a contraband camp next to Memphis, Tennessee. By 1865, there were 20,000 Black people in the city, a sevenfold increase from the 3,000 before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryan_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryan-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of Black Union soldiers was resented by Irish Catholics in the city, who competed with Black people for unskilled labor jobs. In 1866, there was a <a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">major riot</a> with whites attacking Black people. Forty-five Black people were killed, and nearly twice as many wounded; much of their makeshift housing was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-carden_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carden-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1870, the Black population was 15,000 in a city total of 40,226.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryan_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryan-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reed_Church" title="Robert Reed Church">Robert Reed Church</a> (1839–1912), a freedman, was the South's first Black millionaire.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made his wealth from speculation in city real estate, much of it after Memphis became depopulated after the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> epidemics. He founded the city's first Black-owned bank, Solvent Savings Bank, ensuring that the Black community could get loans to establish businesses. He was deeply involved in local and national Republican politics and directed patronage to the Black community. His son became a major politician in Memphis. He was a leader of Black society and a benefactor in numerous causes. Because of the drop in city population, Black people gained other opportunities. They were hired to the police force as patrolmen and retained positions in it until 1895, when imposed segregation forced them out.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atlanta">Atlanta</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Atlanta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Atlanta" title="History of Atlanta">Atlanta, Georgia</a> had been devastated in the war, but as a major railroad center it rebuilt rapidly afterwards, attracting many rural migrants. From 1860 to 1870 Fulton County (of which Atlanta was the county seat) more than doubled in population, from 14,000 to 33,000. In a pattern seen across the South, many freedmen moved from plantations to towns or cities for work and to gather in communities of their own. Fulton County went from 20.5% Black in 1860 to 45.7% Black in 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atlanta quickly became a leading national center of Black education. The faculty and students provided a supportive environment for civil rights discussions and activism. <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University#Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a> was established in 1865. The forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse College</a> opened in 1867, <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University#Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark University</a> opened in 1869. What is now <a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman College</a> opened in 1881, and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Brown_College" title="Morris Brown College">Morris Brown College</a> in 1885. This would be one of several factors aiding the establishment of one of the nation's oldest and best-established <a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">African American elite</a> in Atlanta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philadelphia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Philadelphia" title="History of Philadelphia">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</a> was one of the largest cities north of the Mason–Dixon line, and attracted many free Black people before the Civil War. They generally lived in the Southwark and Moyamensing neighborhoods. By the 1890s, the neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime, poverty, and mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> W.E.B. Du Bois, in his pioneering sociological study <i>The Philadelphia Negro</i> (1899), undermined the stereotypes with experimental evidence. He shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on Black lives and reputations. The results led Du Bois to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black school</a></div> <p>The African-American community engaged in a long-term struggle for quality public schools. Historian Hilary Green says it "was not merely a fight for access to literacy and education, but one for freedom, citizenship, and a new postwar social order."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black community and its white supporters in the North emphasized the critical role of education is the foundation for establishing equality in civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-literacy law">Anti-literacy laws</a> for both free and enslaved Black people had been in force in many southern states since the 1830s,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The widespread illiteracy made it urgent that high on the African-American agenda was creating new schooling opportunities, including both private schools and public schools for Black children funded by state taxes. The states did pass suitable laws during Reconstruction, but the implementation was weak in most rural areas, and with uneven results in urban areas. After Reconstruction ended the tax money was limited, but local Black people and national religious groups and philanthropists helped out. </p><p>Integrated public schools meant local white teachers in charge, and they were not trusted. The Black leadership generally supported segregated all-Black schools.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black community wanted Black principals and teachers, or (in private schools) highly supportive whites sponsored by northern churches. Public schools were segregated throughout the South during Reconstruction and afterward into the 1950s. New Orleans was a partial exception: its schools were usually integrated during Reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the era of Reconstruction, the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> opened 1000 schools across the South for Black children using federal funds. Enrollments were high and enthusiastic. Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for Black people and by the end of 1865, more than 90,000 Freedmen were enrolled as students in public schools. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of Reconstruction, however, state funding for Black schools was minimal, and facilities were quite poor.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Freedman Bureau teachers were well-educated Yankee women motivated by religion and abolitionism. Half the teachers were southern whites; one-third were Black people, and one-sixth were northern whites.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black men slightly outnumbered Black women. The salary was the strongest motivation except for the northerners, who were typically funded by northern organizations and had a humanitarian motivation. As a group, only the Black cohort showed a commitment to racial equality; they were the ones most likely to remain teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_and_collegiate_education">Secondary and collegiate education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Secondary and collegiate education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Almost all colleges in the South were strictly segregated; a handful of northern colleges accepted Black students. Private schools were established across the South by churches, and especially by northern denominations, to provide education after elementary schooling. They focused on secondary level (high school) work and provided a small amount of collegiate work.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tuition was minimal, so national and local churches often supported the colleges financially, and also subsidized some teachers. The largest dedicated organization was the <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">American Missionary Association</a>, chiefly sponsored by the Congregational churches of New England.<sup id="cite_ref-Joe_M._Richardson_1986_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joe_M._Richardson_1986-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1900, Northern churches or organizations they sponsored operated 247 schools for Black people across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students.<sup id="cite_ref-Joe_M._Richardson_1986_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joe_M._Richardson_1986-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the collegiate level the most prominent private schools were <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a> in Nashville, <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Atlanta University</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton Institute</a> in Virginia. A handful were founded in northern states. <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> was a federal school based in Washington. </p><p>In 1890, Congress expanded the land-grant plan to include federal support for state-sponsored colleges across the South. It required southern states with segregated systems to establish Black colleges as land-grant institutions so that all students would have an opportunity to study at such places. <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute</a> was of national importance because it set the standards for industrial education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson198833–78_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson198833–78-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of even greater influence was <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers</a>, founded in 1881 by the state of Alabama and led by Hampton alumnus <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> until his death in 1915. Elsewhere, in 1900 there were few Black students enrolled in college-level work.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only 22 Black people graduated from college before the Civil War. <a href="/wiki/Oberlin_College" title="Oberlin College">Oberlin College</a> in Ohio was a pioneer; it graduated its first Black student in 1844.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of Black graduates rose rapidly: 44 graduated in the 1860s; 313 in the 1870s; 738 in the 1880s; 1126 in the 1890s; and 1613 in the decade 1900–1909. They became professionals; 54% became teachers; 20% became clergyman; others were physicians, lawyers or editors. They averaged about $15,000 in wealth. Many provided intellectual and organizational support for civic projects, especially civil rights activities at the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the colleges and academies were generally coeducational, historians until recently largely ignored the role of women as students and teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding_and_philanthropy">Funding and philanthropy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Funding and philanthropy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Funding for education for Black people in the South came from multiple sources. From 1860 to 1910, religious denominations and philanthropies contributed about $55 million. Black people themselves through their churches, contributed over $22 million. The southern states spent about $170 million in tax dollars on Black schools, and about six times that amount for white schools.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much philanthropy from rich Northerners focused on the education of Black people in the South. By far the largest early funding came from the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Education_Fund" title="Peabody Education Fund">Peabody Education Fund</a>. The money was donated by <a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a>, originally of Massachusetts, who made a fortune in finance in Baltimore and London. He gave $3.5 million to "encourage the intellectual, moral, and industrial education of the destitute children of the Southern States."<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Slater_Fund" title="Slater Fund">John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen</a> was created in 1882 with $1.5 million for "Uplifting the legally emancipated population of the Southern states and their posterity."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1900, even larger sums came from Rockefeller's <a href="/wiki/General_Education_Board" title="General Education Board">General Education Board</a>, from Andrew Carnegie and from the <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Fund" title="Rosenwald Fund">Rosenwald Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1900, the Black population in the United States had reached 8.8 million; it was based overwhelmingly in the rural South. The school-age population was 3 million; half of them were in attendance. They were taught by 28,600 teachers, the vast majority of whom were Black. Schooling (for both whites and Black people) was geared to teaching the three R's to younger children. There were only 86 high schools for Black people in the entire South, plus 6 in the North. These 92 schools had 161 male teachers, and 111 female teachers; they taught 5200 students in the high school grades. In 1900, there were only 646 Black people who graduated from high school.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black churches played a powerful role in the civil rights movement. They were the core community group around which Black Republicans organize their partisanship.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great majority of the Black Baptist and Methodist churches rapidly became independent of the primarily white national or regional denominations after 1865. Black Baptist congregations set up their own associations and conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their ministers became leading political spokesman for their congregations.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black women found their own space and church-sponsored organizations, ranging from choirs to missionary projects, to church schools and Sunday schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Righteous_Discontent_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Righteous_Discontent-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In San Francisco there were three Black churches in the early 1860s. They all sought to represent the interests of the Black community, provided spiritual leadership and rituals, organized help for the needy, and fought against attempts to deny Black people their civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The San Francisco Black churches had decisive support from the local Republican Party. In the 1850s, the Democrats controlled the state and enacted anti-Black legislation. Even though Black slavery had never existed in California, the laws were harsh. The Republican Party came to power in the early 1860s, and rejected exclusion and legislative racism. Republican leaders joined Black activists to win the legal rights, especially in terms of the right to vote, the right to attend public schools, equal treatment in public transportation, and equal access to the court system.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black Americans, once freed from slavery, were very active in forming their own churches, most of them Baptist or Methodist, and giving their ministers both moral and political leadership roles. In a process of self-segregation, practically all Black people left white churches so that few racially integrated congregations remained (apart from some Catholic churches in Louisiana). Four main organizations competed with each other across the South to form new Methodist churches composed of freedmen. They were the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a>, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church</a>, founded in New York City; the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Christian Methodist Episcopal Church">Colored Methodist Episcopal Church</a> (which was sponsored by the white <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" title="Methodist Episcopal Church, South">Methodist Episcopal Church, South</a>), and the well-funded <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> (Northern white Methodists).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1871, the Northern Methodists had 88,000 Black members in the South, and had opened numerous schools for them.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Black people during <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a> were politically the core element of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, and the ministers played a powerful political role. Their ministers could be more outspoken since they did not primarily depend on white support, in contrast to teachers, politicians, businessmen, and tenant farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting on the principle expounded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Pearce" title="Charles H. Pearce">Charles H. Pearce</a>, an AME minister in Florida: "A man in this State cannot do his whole duty as a minister except he looks out for the political interests of his people," over 100 Black ministers were elected to state legislatures during Reconstruction. Several served in Congress and one, <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Rhodes Revels">Hiram Revels</a>, in the U.S. Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methodists">Methodists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Methodists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg/180px-Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="291" /></a><figcaption>Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, AME leader in Georgia.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most well organized and active of the Black churches was the African Methodist Episcopal church (AME). In Georgia, AME Bishop <a href="/wiki/Henry_McNeal_Turner" title="Henry McNeal Turner">Henry McNeal Turner</a> (1834–1915) became a leading spokesman for justice and equality. He served as a pastor, writer, newspaper editor, debater, politician, the chaplain of the Army, and a key leader of emerging Black Methodist organization in Georgia and the Southeast. In 1863, during the Civil War, Turner was appointed as the first Black chaplain in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a>. Afterward, he was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> in Georgia. He settled in <a href="/wiki/Macon,_Georgia" title="Macon, Georgia">Macon, Georgia</a>, and was elected to the state legislature in 1868 during Reconstruction. He planted many AME churches in Georgia. In 1880, he was elected as the first southern bishop of the AME Church after a fierce battle within the denomination. He fought Jim Crow laws.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turner was the leader of Black nationalism and promoted emigration of Black people to Africa. He believed in separation of the races. He started a back-to-Africa movement in support of the Black American colony in Liberia.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turner built Black pride by proclaiming "God is a Negro."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was a second all-Black Methodist Church, the smaller <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church</a> (AMEZ). AMEZ remained smaller than AME because some of its ministers lacked the authority to perform marriages, and many of its ministers avoided political roles. Its finances were weak, and in general its leadership was not as strong as AME. However it was the leader among all Protestant denominations in ordaining women and giving them powerful roles.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One influential leader was bishop <a href="/wiki/James_Walker_Hood" title="James Walker Hood">James Walker Hood</a> (1831–1918) of North Carolina. He not only created and fostered his network of AMEZ churches in North Carolina, but he also was the grand master for the entire South of the <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry" title="Prince Hall Freemasonry">Prince Hall Masonic Lodge</a>, a secular organization that strengthen the political and economic forces inside the Black community.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to all-Black churches, many Black Methodists were associated with the Northern Methodist Church. Others were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Christian Methodist Episcopal Church">Colored Methodist Episcopal Church</a> CME; CME was an organ of the white Southern Methodist Church.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the most politically active Black ministers affiliated with AME.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baptists">Baptists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Baptists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black Baptists broke from the white churches and formed independent operations across the South,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rapidly forming state and regional associations.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the Methodists, who had a hierarchical structure led by bishops, the Baptist churches were largely independent of each other, although they pooled resources for missionary activities, especially missions in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Baptist women worked hard to carve out a partially independent sphere inside the denomination.<sup id="cite_ref-Righteous_Discontent_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Righteous_Discontent-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_churches">Urban churches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Urban churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great majority of Black people lived in rural areas where services were held in small makeshift buildings. In the cities Black churches were more visible. Besides their regular religious services, the urban churches had numerous other activities, such as scheduled prayer meetings, missionary societies, women's clubs, youth groups, public lectures, and musical concerts. Regularly scheduled revivals operated over a period of weeks reaching large, appreciative and noisy crowds.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Charitable activities abounded concerning the care of the sick and needy. The larger churches had a systematic education program, besides the Sunday schools, and Bible study groups. They held literacy classes to enable older members to read the Bible. Private Black colleges, such as Fisk in Nashville, often began in the basement of the churches. Church supported the struggling small business community.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most important was the political role. Churches hosted protest meetings, rallies, and Republican party conventions. Prominent laymen and ministers negotiated political deals, and often ran for office until disfranchisement took effect in the 1890s. In the 1880s, the prohibition of liquor was a major political concern that allowed for collaboration with like-minded white Protestants. In every case, the pastor was the dominant decision-maker. His salary ranged from $400 a year to upwards of $1500, plus housing – at a time when 50 cents a day was good pay for unskilled physical labor.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasingly the Methodists reached out to college or seminary graduates for their ministers, but most Baptists felt that education was a negative factor that undercut the intense religiosity and oratorical skills they demanded of their ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1910, as Black people migrated to major cities in both the North and the South, there emerged the pattern of a few very large churches with thousands of members and a paid staff, headed by an influential preacher. At the same time there were many "storefront" churches with a few dozen members.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_interpretation_of_history">Religious interpretation of history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religious interpretation of history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and Black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said: </p> <blockquote><p>God had chastised them and given them a special mission – to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.</p></blockquote> <p>In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as: </p> <blockquote><p>God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and <a href="/wiki/Racial_uplift" title="Racial uplift">Racial uplift</a>, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, Black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deteriorating_status">Deteriorating status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Deteriorating status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></div> <p>After 1880, legal conditions worsened for Black people, and they were almost powerless to resist.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Northern allies in the Republican Party made an effort in 1890 to stop the deteriorating legal conditions by congressional legislation, but failed.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every southern state passed codes requiring segregation in most public places. These persisted until 1964, when they were repealed by Congress. They are known as <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Southern states In the 1890–1905 period systematically reduced the number of Black people allowed to vote to about 2% through restrictions that skirted the 15th amendment, because they did not explicitly mention race. These restrictions included literacy requirements, voter-registration laws, and poll taxes. The U.S. Supreme Court in 1896 ruled in favor of Jim Crow in the case of <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy vs. Ferguson</a>, declaring that "separate but equal" facilities for Black people were legal under the 14th Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jim_Crow_laws_and_segregation">Jim Crow laws and segregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Jim Crow laws and segregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Racism in the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;;font-size:150%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American<br />race relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/232px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/348px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/464px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="3605" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Violence in the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Common actions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">Expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynchings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vigilante groups</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legion_(political_movement)" title="Black Legion (political movement)">Black Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lynchings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Andrew_Richards" title="Lynching of Andrew Richards">Andrew Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joe Vermillion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">People's Grocery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Frazier_B._Baker_and_Julia_Baker" title="Lynching of Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker">Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_McIlherron" title="Lynching of Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Massacres and riots</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_Valley_Race_Riot_of_1895" title="Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895">Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix election riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evansville_race_riot" title="Evansville race riot">Evansville race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Atlanta Massacre of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Jeffries_riots" title="Johnson–Jeffries riots">Johnson–Jeffries riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Chester_race_riot" title="1917 Chester race riot">1917 Chester race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919" title="Washington race riot of 1919">Washington race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Reactions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa movement">Back to Africa movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template talk:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Typically in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> across the seven states of the lower South in 1866 intermarriage was illegal. The new Republican legislatures in six states repealed the restrictive laws. After the Democrats returned to power, the restriction was reimposed. Not until 1967 did the United States Supreme Court, in <i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/1/">1</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-fn2_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn2-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rule that all provisions like it in 16 states were unconstitutional. A major concern in the 1860s was how to draw the line between Black and white in a society in which white men and Black slave women had fathered numerous children. On the one hand, a person's reputation, as Black or white, was usually decisive. On the other hand, most laws used a "one drop of blood" criteria to the effect that one Black ancestor legally put a person in the Black category.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal segregation was imposed only in schooling, and marriage, but that changed in 1880s when new Jim Crow laws mandated the physical separation of the races in public places.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1890 to 1908, southern states effectively <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a> most Black voters and many poor whites by making voter registration more difficult through <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll taxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a>, and other arbitrary devices. They passed segregation laws and imposed second-class status on Black people in a system known as <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> that lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political activities on behalf of equality often centered around transportation issues, such as segregation on streetcars and railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the 1850s, lawsuits were filed against segregated streetcars and railroads in both the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a> and South. Some notable plaintiffs included <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jennings_Graham" title="Elizabeth Jennings Graham">Elizabeth Jennings Graham</a> in New York,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_L._Brown" title="Charlotte L. Brown">Charlotte L. Brown</a><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Pleasant" title="Mary Ellen Pleasant">Mary Ellen Pleasant</a> in San Francisco,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B.Wells</a> in Memphis, Tennessee <sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fox_(activist)" title="Robert Fox (activist)">Robert Fox</a> in Louisville, Kentucky.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrorism">Terrorism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts (United States)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lynching">Lynching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lynching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></div> <p>Lynch mob attacks on Black people, especially in the South, rose at the end of the 19th century. The perpetrators were rarely or never arrested or convicted. Nearly 3,500 <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> and 1,300 whites were <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynched in the United States</a>, mostly from 1882 to 1901. The peak year was 1892.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The frequency of lynchings and the episodes that sparked them varied from state to state as functions of local race relations. Lynching was higher in the context of worsening economic conditions for poor rural whites in heavily Black counties, especially the low price of cotton in the 1890s.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a> (1862–1931) used her newspaper in Memphis Tennessee to attack lynchings; fearful for her life, she fled to the more peaceful precincts of Chicago in 1892 where she continued her one-person crusade.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationally organized opposition to lynching began with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) in 1909. There were 82 lynchings in 1909, and 10 in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_images">Public images</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Public images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the mainstream national and local media of the late 19th century, "Black people were persistently stereotyped as criminals, savages, or comic figures. They were superstitious, lazy, violent, immoral, the butt of humor, and the source of danger to civilized life."<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Booker T. Washington, the young college president from Alabama, became famous for his articulate challenges to the extremely negative stereotypes. According to his biographer Robert J. Norrell, Washington: </p> <dl><dd>challenged the ideological positions of white Southerners on several fronts. His emphasis on Black progress countered the white supremacists insistence on Black degeneracy and criminality. His declaration of affection and loyalty to white Southerners defied the white nationalists believe that all Black people were ethnic enemies. The same time, Washington demonstrated to white Northerners that he and his fellow Black people were loyal, patriotic Americans, the rightful and deserving inheritors of Lincoln's interpretation of democratic values....African-Americans accepted the inherently competitive nature of American society and wanted only a fair chance to prove themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership">Leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of the Black political leadership in this area came from the ministry, and from Union Civil War veterans. The white political leadership featured veterans and lawyers. Ambitious young Black men had a difficult time becoming lawyers, with few exceptions such as <a href="/wiki/James_T._Rapier" title="James T. Rapier">James T. Rapier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Alpeoria_Bradley" title="Aaron Alpeoria Bradley">Aaron Alpeoria Bradley</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Mercer_Langston" title="John Mercer Langston">John Mercer Langston</a>. </p><p>The upper class among the Black population was largely <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulatto</a> and had been free before the war. During Reconstruction, 19 of the 22 Black members of Congress were mulattoes. These wealthier, mixed-race Black people represented the majority of the leaders in the civil rights movement of the 20th century as well.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hahn reports that the mulatto element held disproportionate power in the Black political community in South Carolina and Louisiana.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the leaders, however, were also dark-skinned and former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anna_J._Cooper">Anna J. Cooper</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Anna J. Cooper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1892, <a href="/wiki/Anna_J._Cooper" title="Anna J. Cooper">Anna J. Cooper</a> (1858–1964) published <i>A Voice from the South: By A Woman from the South</i>. It led to many speeches where she called for civil rights and woman's rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Washington_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washington-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>A Voice from the South</i> was one of the first articulations of <a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black feminism</a>. The book advanced a vision of self-determination through education and social uplift for African-American women. Its central thesis was that the educational, moral, and spiritual progress of Black women would improve the general standing of the entire African-American community. She says that the violent natures of men often run counter to the goals of higher education, so it is important to foster more female intellectuals because they will bring more elegance to education.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritchie_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritchie-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was criticized by some as submissive to the 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Domesticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult of Domesticity">cult of true womanhood</a>, but others label it as one of the most important arguments for Black feminism in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritchie_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritchie-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cooper advanced the view that it was the duty of educated and successful Black women to support their underprivileged peers in achieving their goals. The essays in <i>A Voice from the South</i> also touched on a variety of topics, from racism and the socioeconomic realities of Black families to the administration of the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal Church</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_Douglass_(circa_1879).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg/220px-Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg/330px-Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg/440px-Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Frederick Douglass, (1818–1895)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frederick_Douglass">Frederick Douglass</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Frederick Douglass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (1818–1895), an escaped slave, was a tireless <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionist</a> before the war. He was an author, publisher, lecturer and diplomat afterward. His biographer argues: </p> <dl><dd>The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience. He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of reform causes: women's rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education, and the abolition of capital punishment. But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent, and boundless energy to ending slavery and gaining equal rights for African Americans. These were the central concerns of his long reform career. Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and unyielding agitation. And he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle. Less than a month before his death, when a young Black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation: "Agitate! Agitate! Agitate!<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_figures">Key figures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Key figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Wright_Cuney" title="Norris Wright Cuney">Norris Wright Cuney</a> (1846–1898), <a href="/wiki/Galveston,_Texas" title="Galveston, Texas">Galveston, Texas</a> union organizer and chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Republican Party of Texas</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Thomas_Fortune" title="Timothy Thomas Fortune">Timothy Thomas Fortune</a> (1856–1928), journalist, publisher, and founder of the <a href="/wiki/National_Afro-American_League" title="National Afro-American League">National Afro-American League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mercer_Langston" title="John Mercer Langston">John Mercer Langston</a> (1829–1897), Virginia <a href="/wiki/Attorneys_in_the_United_States" title="Attorneys in the United States">attorney</a>, U.S. House representative, and president of Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute (now <a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_University" title="Virginia State University">Virginia State University</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Myers" title="Isaac Myers">Isaac Myers</a> (1835–1891), trade unionist, founder of <a href="/wiki/Colored_National_Labor_Union" title="Colored National Labor Union">Colored National Labor Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Smalls" title="Robert Smalls">Robert Smalls</a> (1839–1915), Civil War Union Army hero, U.S. House representative from <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> and founder of the <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="South Carolina Republican Party">Republican Party of South Carolina</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_St._Pierre_Ruffin" title="Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin">Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin</a> (1842–1924) editor, organizer, suffragist and founder of the Woman's Era, the first newspaper by and for African-American women</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a> (1797–1883), speaker and activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (1856–1915), educator, author, and first head of the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a> (1862–1931), journalist, newspaper editor, and activist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></div> <ul><li>1863 - <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> frees three of the 4 million slaves, 1863–65.</li> <li>1863 - The first Black to become a college president is <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Payne" title="Daniel Payne">Daniel Payne</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce University</a> in Ohio, When it comes under the control of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.</li> <li>1865 - Congress establishes the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedman's Bureau</a>.</li> <li>1865 - The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> abolishes slavery in the handful of remaining Border states.</li> <li>1865 - <a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw Institute</a> was founded in Raleigh, North Carolina, the first <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically Black college</a> (<a href="/wiki/HBCU" class="mw-redirect" title="HBCU">HBCU</a>) in the South.</li> <li>1865 - Every southern state passed <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> that restricted the Freedmen, who were emancipated but not yet full citizens; the Freedman's Bureau blocks enforcement of these laws.</li> <li>1865 – Atlanta University is founded by the American Missionary Association.</li> <li>1866 - <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a> passed establishing that all persons born in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> are now citizens.</li> <li>1866 - The first chapter of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> is formed in <a href="/wiki/Pulaski,_Tennessee" title="Pulaski, Tennessee">Pulaski, Tennessee</a>, a paramilitary insurgent group, made up of white Confederate Army veterans, to enforce white supremacy.</li> <li>1866 - The U.S. Army regiment of <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldiers</a> (African Americans) formed.</li> <li>1866 - <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Missouri)" title="Lincoln University (Missouri)">Lincoln Institute</a>, later renamed Lincoln University, is founded by returning Black Union soldiers.</li> <li>1867 - <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> founded in Washington, D.C. Funded by the federal government.</li> <li>1868 - The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>; guarantees citizenship and requires that state governments provide <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">equal protection</a>.</li> <li>1870 - The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> prevents the restriction of the vote based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.</li> <li>1870 - <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Rhodes Revels">Hiram Rhodes Revels</a> becomes the first Black member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a> becomes the first Black member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a>.</li> <li>1870- African American Police Constable <a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Outlaw" title="Wyatt Outlaw">Wyatt Outlaw</a> of Graham, North Carolina lynched by the Ku Klux Klan.</li> <li>1871 - US <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Civil Rights Act of 1871</a> passed, also known as the Klan Act.</li> <li>1872 - <a href="/wiki/P._B._S._Pinchback" title="P. B. S. Pinchback">P.B.S. Pinchback</a> is sworn in as the first Black Governor of a state of the United States of America.</li> <li>1873 - In the <i><a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughterhouse Cases</a></i> the U.S. Supreme Court votes to exclude state laws from being subject to the 14th amendment.</li> <li>1873 - The <a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coushatta_massacre" title="Coushatta massacre">Coushatta Massacres</a> - Murders of Black and white Republicans in Louisiana.</li> <li>1874 - Founding of paramilitary groups that acted as the "military arm of the Democratic Party": the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> in Louisiana and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a> in Mississippi, and North and South Carolina. They terrorized Black people and Republicans, turning them out of office, killing some, disrupting rallies, and suppressing voting.</li> <li>1875 - <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> Becomes law.</li> <li>1876 - The <a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg Massacre</a> occurs when local people riot against African Americans who were trying to celebrate the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Fourth of July</a>; African American Police Chief James Cook and five other freemen are killed.</li> <li>1877 - With the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a>, federal troops are withdrawn from the South ending Reconstruction.</li> <li>1879 - <a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodus of 1879</a>, where thousands of African Americans migrated to Kansas.</li> <li>1880 - In <i><a href="/wiki/Strauder_v._West_Virginia" title="Strauder v. West Virginia">Strauder v. West Virginia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_100" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 100">100</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/100/303/">303</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-fn3_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn3-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court rules that Black people could not be excluded from juries.</li> <li>1880s - Segregation of public transportation. Tennessee segregated railroad cars, followed by Florida (1887), Mississippi (1888), Texas (1889), Louisiana (1890), Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Georgia (1891), South Carolina (1898), North Carolina (1899), Virginia (1900), Maryland (1904), and Oklahoma (1907).</li> <li>1881 - <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> opens the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute</a> (HBCU) in <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a>.</li> <li>1883 - The United States Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional. The Court declared that the Fourteenth Amendment forbids states, but not citizens, from discriminating.</li> <li>1885 - A biracial populist coalition achieved power in Virginia (briefly).</li> <li>1885 - African-American Samuel David Ferguson was ordained a bishop of the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal church</a>.</li> <li>1886 - <a href="/wiki/Norris_Wright_Cuney" title="Norris Wright Cuney">Norris Wright Cuney</a>, becomes the chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Texas Republican Party</a>, the most powerful role held by any African American in the South during the 19th century.</li> <li>1890 - Mississippi passes a new constitution that effectively disfranchised most Black people (<a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll taxes</a>, residency and <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a>).</li> <li>1892 - <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a> publishes her pamphlet <i>Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases</i>.</li> <li>1893 - <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irvine_Garland_Penn" title="Irvine Garland Penn">Irvine Garland Penn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lee_Barnett_(Chicago)" title="Ferdinand Lee Barnett (Chicago)">Ferdinand Lee Barnett</a> publish <i>The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not At the World's Columbian Exposition</i> and protest Black exclusion from the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition">Chicago World's Fair</a>.</li> <li>1895 - <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> delivered his <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a> address at the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition" title="Cotton States and International Exposition">Cotton States and International Exposition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta, Georgia</a>.</li> <li>1895 - <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> is the first African American to be awarded a Ph.D. by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>.</li> <li>1896 - Wright Cuney is unseated as the chairman of the Texas Republican Party.</li> <li>1896 - In <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-fn1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court upheld <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> of "separate but equal" public facilities.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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/></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_19th-century_African-American_civil_rights_activists" title="List of 19th-century African-American civil rights activists">19th-century African-American civil rights activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">History of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">Racism against African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era in African-American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_racial_tension_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska">Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_backlash#United_States" title="White backlash">White backlash#United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism#United_States" title="White nationalism">White nationalism#United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#United_States" title="White supremacy">White supremacy#United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foner, Eric, <i>A Short History of Reconstruction</i> (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofre00eric">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Wahlgren Summers, <i>The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction</i> (2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cimbala, Paul A., <i>The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War</i> (2005) includes a brief history and primary documents.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaczorowski, Robert J., "To Begin the Nation Anew: Congress, Citizenship, and Civil Rights after the Civil War." <i>American Historical Review</i> 92.1 (1987): 45–68. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1862782">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cresswell, Stephen, "Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890". <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 53#3 (1987): 421–440. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2209362">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rable, George C., <i>But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction</i> (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayers, Edward L., <i>The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction</i> (1992), pp. 3–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-africana-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-africana_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-africana_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-africana_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGates1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Gates, Henry Louis</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi/page/722"><i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Civitas_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Civitas Books">Basic Civitas Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi/page/722">722</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5"><bdi>978-0-465-00071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+Experience&rft.pages=722&rft.pub=Basic+Civitas+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00071-5&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Henry+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricanaencyclop00appi%2Fpage%2F722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/singleton.htm"><i>Benjamin "Pap" Singleton</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-19</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+%22Pap%22+Singleton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fweta%2Fthewest%2Fpeople%2Fs_z%2Fsingleton.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1981" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Daniel Milo (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackmigrationin0000john/page/51"><i>Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackmigrationin0000john/page/51">51</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-0449-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-0449-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-0449-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Migration+in+America%3A+A+Social+Demographic+History&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-0449-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Milo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackmigrationin0000john%2Fpage%2F51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainter1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Painter, Nell Irvin</a> (1992). <i>Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction</i>. <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Norton & Company">W.W. Norton & Company</a>. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00951-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00951-4"><bdi>978-0-393-00951-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodusters%3A+Black+Migration+to+Kansas+After+Reconstruction&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00951-4&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=Nell+Irvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomero1968" class="citation book cs1">Romero, Patricia W. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/itooamamericadoc0000unse/page/150"><i>I Too Am America: Documents from 1619 to the Present</i></a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Publishers_Agency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Publishers Agency (page does not exist)">Publishers Agency</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/itooamamericadoc0000unse/page/150">150</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87781-206-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87781-206-7"><bdi>978-0-87781-206-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Too+Am+America%3A+Documents+from+1619+to+the+Present&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Publishers+Agency&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-87781-206-7&rft.aulast=Romero&rft.aufirst=Patricia+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitooamamericadoc0000unse%2Fpage%2F150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSernett1997" class="citation book cs1">Sernett, Milton C. (1997). <i>Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration</i>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1993-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-1993-1"><bdi>978-0-8223-1993-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bound+for+the+Promised+Land%3A+African+American+Religion+and+the+Great+Migration&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-1993-1&rft.aulast=Sernett&rft.aufirst=Milton+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, "Black Reconstruction Leaders at the Grass Roots" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeon_F._LitwackAugust_Meier1991" class="citation book cs1">Leon F. Litwack; August Meier, eds. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QB-Y2Ejlp9oC&pg=PA221"><i>Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252062131" title="Special:BookSources/9780252062131"><bdi>9780252062131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Leaders+of+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780252062131&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQB-Y2Ejlp9oC%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hahn, Steven (2003), <i>A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration</i>, pp. 174–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald2000" class="citation book cs1">Fitzgerald, Michael W. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9es8ZKgQuA0C&pg=PA2"><i>The Union League Movement in the Deep South: Politics and Agricultural Change During Reconstruction</i></a>. LSU Press. pp. 2–8, 235, 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807126332" title="Special:BookSources/9780807126332"><bdi>9780807126332</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Union+League+Movement+in+the+Deep+South%3A+Politics+and+Agricultural+Change+During+Reconstruction&rft.pages=2-8%2C+235%2C+237&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780807126332&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9es8ZKgQuA0C%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abbott, Richard H. (2004), <i>For Free Press and Equal Rights: Republican Newspapers in the Reconstruction South</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, <i>Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877</i> (1988) pp 303-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul D. Casdorph, "Lily-White Movement," <i>Handbook of Texas Online</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/wfl01">accessed March 17, 2016</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hahn, <i>A Nation under Our Feet</i> (2003), p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hahn, <i>A Nation under Our Feet</i> (2003), p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael W. Fitzgerald, "Republican Factionalism and Black Empowerment: The Spencer-Warner Controversy and Alabama Reconstruction, 1868–1880". <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 64#3 (1998): 473-494. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2587791">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict2006" class="citation book cs1">Benedict, Michael Les (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n0ngj_9Dy6AC&pg=PA247"><i>Preserving the Constitution: Essays on Politics and the Constitution in the Reconstruction Era</i></a>. Fordham University Press. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823225538" title="Special:BookSources/9780823225538"><bdi>9780823225538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preserving+the+Constitution%3A+Essays+on+Politics+and+the+Constitution+in+the+Reconstruction+Era&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780823225538&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Michael+Les&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn0ngj_9Dy6AC%26pg%3DPA247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiggins1977" class="citation book cs1">Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nv9mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA134"><i>The Scalawag In Alabama Politics, 1865-1881</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780817305574" title="Special:BookSources/9780817305574"><bdi>9780817305574</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scalawag+In+Alabama+Politics%2C+1865-1881&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780817305574&rft.aulast=Wiggins&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Woolfolk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnv9mBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Helen_G._Edmonds" title="Helen G. Edmonds">Edmunds, Helen G.</a> (1951), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_and_Fusion_Politics_in_North_Carolina,_1894%E2%80%931901" title="The Negro and Fusion Politics in North Carolina, 1894–1901">The Negro and Fusion Politics in North Carolina, 1894–1901</a></i>, pp. 97–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirshenbaum, Andrea Meryl, <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'The Vampire That Hovers Over North Carolina': Gender, White Supremacy, and the Wilmington Race Riot of 1898", <i>Southern Cultures</i> 4#3 (1998), pp. 6–30 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/southern_cultures/v004/4.3.kirshenbaum.html">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Royce, Edward, <i>The Origins of Southern Sharecropping</i> (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Irwin, James R., and Anthony Patrick O'Brien. "Where Have All the Sharecroppers Gone?: Black Occupations in Postbellum Mississippi." <i>Agricultural History</i> 72#2 (1998): 280-297. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3744383">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralph Shlomowitz, "'Bound' or 'Free'? Black Labor in Cotton and Sugarcane Farming, 1865–1880." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 50.4 (1984): 569–596. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2208473">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharon Ann Holt, "Making freedom pay: Freedpeople working for themselves, North Carolina, 1865–1900." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 60#2 (1994): 229–262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foner, <i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution</i> (1988), pp. 396–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabinowitz, Howard N., <i>Race Relations in the Urban South, 1865–1890</i> (1978), pp. 61–96, 240–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Illingworth, <i>Crescent City Radicals: Black Working People and the Civil War Era in New Orleans.</i> (PhD dissertation, University of California Santa Cruz, 2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1g4548w5.pdf">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier1963" class="citation book cs1">Meier, August (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=masKS7ZroY0C&pg=PA139"><i>Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472061181"><bdi>978-0472061181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Thought+in+America%2C+1880-1915%3A+Racial+Ideologies+in+the+Age+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0472061181&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=August&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmasKS7ZroY0C%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For detailed national report on the numbers of black businessmen and their finances in 1890, see Andrew F. Hilyer, "The Colored American in Business", pp. 13–22, in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oeBtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Proceedings of the National Negro Business League: Its First Meeting Held in Boston, Massachusetts, August 23 and 24, 1900</i></a>. 1901.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Negro+Business+League%3A+Its+First+Meeting+Held+in+Boston%2C+Massachusetts%2C+August+23+and+24%2C+1900&rft.date=1901&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoeBtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ryan-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ryan_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ryan_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James G. Ryan, "The Memphis Riots of 1866: Terror in a Black Community during Reconstruction", <i>Journal of Negro History</i> (1977) 62#3: 243-257, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716953">at JSTOR</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carden-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carden_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mercatus.org/sites/default/files/publication/WP1040_An%20Unrighteous%20Piece%20of%20Business.pdf">Art Carden and Christopher J. Coyne, "An Unrighteous Piece of Business: A New Institutional Analysis of the Memphis Riot of 1866"</a>, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, July 2010, accessed 1 February 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKranz2004" class="citation book cs1">Kranz, Rachel (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCHX6P8ETI0C&pg=PA49"><i>African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs</i></a>. Infobase. pp. 49–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438107790" title="Special:BookSources/9781438107790"><bdi>9781438107790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Business+Leaders+and+Entrepreneurs&rft.pages=49-51&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781438107790&rft.aulast=Kranz&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCHX6P8ETI0C%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caplinger, Christopher, "Yellow Fever Epidemics", <i>Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture</i> (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/index.html">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303160835/http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/index.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> University of West Virginia, Historical Census Browser, 1860 census.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Lane, <i>William Dorsey's Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America</i> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Bulmer, "W. E. B. Du Bois as a Social Investigator: The Philadelphia Negro, 1899," in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds. <i>The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880–1940</i> (1991) pp 170-88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilary Green, <i> Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South, 1865–1890</i> (Fordham University Press, 2016), p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foner, <i>Reconstruction</i>, pp. 96–102, 144–46, 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Heather Andrea, <i><a href="/wiki/Self-Taught:_African_American_Education_in_Slavery_and_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom">Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom</a></i> (U of North Carolina Press, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamerson_Reed2011" class="citation book cs1">Jamerson Reed, Betty (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l2oFNmUlEn8C&pg=PA21"><i>School Segregation in Western North Carolina: A History, 1860s-1970s</i></a>. McFarland. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786487080" title="Special:BookSources/9780786487080"><bdi>9780786487080</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=School+Segregation+in+Western+North+Carolina%3A+A+History%2C+1860s-1970s&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780786487080&rft.aulast=Jamerson+Reed&rft.aufirst=Betty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl2oFNmUlEn8C%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainter1992" class="citation book cs1">Painter, Nell Irvin (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dtXECQAAQBAJ&pg=PA49"><i>Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction</i></a>. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 49–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393352511" title="Special:BookSources/9780393352511"><bdi>9780393352511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodusters%3A+Black+Migration+to+Kansas+After+Reconstruction&rft.pages=49-51&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780393352511&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=Nell+Irvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdtXECQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harlan, Louis R. (1962), "Desegregation in New Orleans Public Schools During Reconstruction." <i>American Historical Review</i> 67#3: 663–675. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844107">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1988" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James D. (1988). <a href="/wiki/The_Education_of_Blacks_in_the_South,_1860%E2%80%931935" title="The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935"><i>The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935</i></a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1793-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1793-3"><bdi>978-0-8078-1793-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Education+of+Blacks+in+the+South%2C+1860%E2%80%931935&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1793-3&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harlan, Louis R. (1958), <i>Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States, 1901–1915</i>, pp. 3–44 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/89767620/separate-and-unequal-public-school-campaigns-and">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButchart2010" class="citation book cs1">Butchart, Ronald E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bLxx14deoRcC"><i>Schooling the Freed People: Teaching, Learning, and the Struggle for Black Freedom, 1861–1876</i></a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3420-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3420-6"><bdi>978-0-8078-3420-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schooling+the+Freed+People%3A+Teaching%2C+Learning%2C+and+the+Struggle+for+Black+Freedom%2C+1861%E2%80%931876&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3420-6&rft.aulast=Butchart&rft.aufirst=Ronald+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbLxx14deoRcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrowl2011" class="citation web cs1">Krowl, Michelle A. (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=32584">"Review of Butchart, Ronald E., <i>Schooling the Freed People: Teaching, Learning, and the Struggle for Black Freedom, 1861–1876</i>"</a>. <i>H-SAWH, H-Net Reviews</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H-SAWH%2C+H-Net+Reviews&rft.atitle=Review+of+Butchart%2C+Ronald+E.%2C+Schooling+the+Freed+People%3A+Teaching%2C+Learning%2C+and+the+Struggle+for+Black+Freedom%2C+1861%E2%80%931876&rft.date=2011-09&rft.aulast=Krowl&rft.aufirst=Michelle+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.php%3Fid%3D32584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooks, F. Erik, and Glenn L. Starks. <i>Historically Black Colleges and Universities: An Encyclopedia</i> (Greenwood, 2011), pp. 11–132, describes the 66 colleges opened by 1900; most are still active today.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joe_M._Richardson_1986-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joe_M._Richardson_1986_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joe_M._Richardson_1986_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, Joe M. (1986), <i>Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampton_Negro_Conference1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Negro_Conference" title="Hampton Negro Conference">Hampton Negro Conference</a> (1901). Browne, Hugh; Kruse, Edwina; Walker, Thomas C.; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Moton, Robert Russa</a>; Wheelock, Frederick D. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jUQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA59"><i>Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference</i></a>. Vol. 5. <a href="/wiki/Hampton,_Virginia" title="Hampton, Virginia">Hampton, Virginia</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_Institute_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton Institute Press (page does not exist)">Hampton Institute Press</a>. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fchi.14025704?urlappend=%3Bseq=65">2027/chi.14025704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Hampton+Negro+Conference&rft.place=Hampton%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Hampton+Institute+Press&rft.date=1901&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fchi.14025704%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D65&rft.au=Hampton+Negro+Conference&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjUQ9AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reportofhamptonn00hamp/page/59/mode/1up">Alt URL</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson198833–78-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson198833–78_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1988">Anderson 1988</a>, pp. 33–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1998" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Kassie (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzweC0P6k2YC&pg=PA146"><i>African American Culture and Heritage in Higher Education Research and Practice</i></a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780275958442" title="Special:BookSources/9780275958442"><bdi>9780275958442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+Culture+and+Heritage+in+Higher+Education+Research+and+Practice&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780275958442&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Kassie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzweC0P6k2YC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornsby2011" class="citation book cs1">Hornsby, Alton (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TkGMnE6g1qMC&pg=PA633"><i>Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 633. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313341120" title="Special:BookSources/9780313341120"><bdi>9780313341120</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+America%3A+A+State-by-State+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=633&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780313341120&rft.aulast=Hornsby&rft.aufirst=Alton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTkGMnE6g1qMC%26pg%3DPA633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_BoisAugustus_Granville_Dill1910" class="citation book cs1">Du Bois, W.E. Burghardt; Augustus Granville Dill, eds. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9G5DAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA99"><i>The College-bred Negro America</i></a>. pp. 29, 45, 66–70, 73, 75–81, 99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+College-bred+Negro+America&rft.pages=29%2C+45%2C+66-70%2C+73%2C+75-81%2C+99&rft.date=1910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9G5DAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gasman, Marybethn, "Swept under the rug? A historiography of gender and Black colleges." <i>American Educational Research Journal</i> 44#4 (2007): 760–805. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1194&context=gse_pubs">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysEyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA180"><i>Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro ...</i></a> 1913. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Year+Book%3A+An+Annual+Encyclopedia+of+the+Negro+....&rft.pages=180&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DysEyAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100604172628/http://www.peabodyevents.library.jhu.edu/history.html">"George Peabody Library History"</a>. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peabodyevents.library.jhu.edu/history.html">the original</a> on 2010-06-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-03-12</span></span>. <q>After the Civil War he funded the Peabody Education Fund which established public education in the South.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=George+Peabody+Library+History&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peabodyevents.library.jhu.edu%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysEyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA181"><i>Negro Year Book: An Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro ...</i></a> 1913. p. 181.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Year+Book%3A+An+Annual+Encyclopedia+of+the+Negro+....&rft.pages=181&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DysEyAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, Eric, and Alfred A. Moss (1999), <i>Dangerous donations: Northern philanthropy and southern Black education, 1902–1930</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampton_Negro_Conference1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Negro_Conference" title="Hampton Negro Conference">Hampton Negro Conference</a> (1901). Browne, Hugh; Kruse, Edwina; Walker, Thomas C.; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Moton, Robert Russa</a>; Wheelock, Frederick D. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jUQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA57"><i>Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference</i></a>. Vol. 5. <a href="/wiki/Hampton,_Virginia" title="Hampton, Virginia">Hampton, Virginia</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampton_Institute_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampton Institute Press (page does not exist)">Hampton Institute Press</a>. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fchi.14025704?urlappend=%3Bseq=63">2027/chi.14025704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Hampton+Negro+Conference&rft.place=Hampton%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Hampton+Institute+Press&rft.date=1901&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fchi.14025704%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D63&rft.au=Hampton+Negro+Conference&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjUQ9AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reportofhamptonn00hamp/page/57/mode/1up">Alt URL</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hahn (2003), <i>A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration</i>, pp. 230–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giggie, John M. 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(1914), "The Methodist Episcopal Church and Reconstruction," <i>Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society</i>, 7#3 pp. 147–165. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40194198">in JSTOR</a> at p.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1993" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Donald Lee (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zpmjRm4cdswC&pg=PA264"><i>The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia</i></a>. U. of Georgia Press. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820323299" title="Special:BookSources/9780820323299"><bdi>9780820323299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+It+Was+in+the+South%3A+The+Black+Experience+in+Georgia&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=U.+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780820323299&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Donald+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzpmjRm4cdswC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foner, Eric (1988), <i>Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877</i>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Angell, Stephen Ward (1992), <i>Henry McNeal Turner and African-American Religion in the South</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Redkey, Edwin S., "Bishop Turner's African Dream." <i>Journal of American History</i> 54#2 (1967): 271–290. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894806">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, Andre E. 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(2000), "The Prince Hall Masons and the African American Church: The Labors of Grand Master and Bishop James Walker Hood, 1831–1918." <i>Church History</i>, 69#4: 770–802. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060905135531/http://faculty.ncf.edu/hite/Secure_Documents/American/Prince%20Hall%20Masons.pdf">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sommerville, Raymond R., <i>An Ex-colored Church: Social Activism in the CME Church, 1870–1970</i> (Mercer University Press, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foner (1988), <i>Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877</i>, pp. 282–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooks, Walter H. (1922), "The Evolution of the Negro Baptist Church", <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 7#1: 11–22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713578">free in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiddBarry_Hankins2015" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, Thomas S.; Barry Hankins (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jz21BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149"><i>Baptists in America: A History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 149–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997753-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997753-6"><bdi>978-0-19-997753-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Baptists+in+America%3A+A+History&rft.pages=149-66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997753-6&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft.au=Barry+Hankins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJz21BwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, Sandy Dwayne (1989), <i>Black Baptists and African Missions: The Origins of a Movement, 1880–1915</i> .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamilton, Shirley (2009), "African American Women Roles In The Baptist Church: Equality Within the National Baptist Convention, USA." (MA Thesis, Wake Forest University). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wakespace.lib.wfu.edu/bitstream/handle/10339/14761/Hamilton_MALS_Thesis.pdf?seq">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howard_N._Rabinowitz_1978_pp_208-213_91-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabinowitz, Howard N. (1978), <i>Race Relations in the Urban South: 1865–1890</i>, pp. 208-213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyrdal1944" class="citation book cs1">Myrdal, Gunnar (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226478"><i>An American Dilemma</i></a>. Harber & Brothers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226478/page/n917">858</a>–78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Dilemma&rft.pages=858-78&rft.pub=Harber+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Myrdal&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.226478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fallin Jr., Wilson (2007), <i>Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama</i>, pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard N. Rabinowitz, "From exclusion to segregation: Southern race relations, 1865–1890." <i>Journal of American History</i> 63#2 (1976): 325-350. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1899640">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard E. Welch, "The Federal Elections Bill of 1890: Postscripts and Prelude." <i>Journal of American History</i> 52#3 (1965): 511-526. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1890845">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Elizabeth Dailey, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, <i>Jumpin'Jim Crow: Southern politics from civil war to civil rights</i> (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Morgan Kousser, "Plessy v. 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Vann Woodward, <i>The strange career of Jim Crow</i> (1955; 3rd ed. 1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vQHg5oBavmYC">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSitkoff2008" class="citation book cs1">Sitkoff, Howard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_idGCdBFGC4C&pg=PT15">"Up from Slavery"</a>. <i>The Struggle for Black Equality</i> (3rd ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781429991919" title="Special:BookSources/9781429991919"><bdi>9781429991919</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Up+from+Slavery&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Black+Equality&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781429991919&rft.aulast=Sitkoff&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_idGCdBFGC4C%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger A. Fischer, "A pioneer protest: the New Orleans street-car controversy of 1867." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 53#3 (1968): 219-233. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716217">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volk, Kyle G. (2014). <i>Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 148, 150-153, 155-159, 162-164. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/019937192X" title="Special:BookSources/019937192X">019937192X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elaine Elinson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/San-Francisco-s-own-Rosa-Parks-2554060.php">San Francisco's own Rosa Parks, San Francisco Chronicle, January 16, 2012</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_Jason_B.2005" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, Jason B. (February 10, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-A-day-for-mother-of-civil-2700412.php">"A day for 'mother of civil rights' / Entrepreneur sued to desegregate streetcars in 1860s"</a>. <i>San Francisco Chronicle</i>. San Francisco<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=A+day+for+%27mother+of+civil+rights%27+%2F+Entrepreneur+sued+to+desegregate+streetcars+in+1860s&rft.date=2005-02-10&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Jason+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fbayarea%2Farticle%2FSAN-FRANCISCO-A-day-for-mother-of-civil-2700412.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuster1970" class="citation book cs1">Duster, Alfreda (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadeforjustic00well/page/"><i>Crusade for Justice</i></a>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadeforjustic00well/page/">xviii</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-89344-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-89344-0"><bdi>978-0-226-89344-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusade+for+Justice&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=xviii&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-226-89344-0&rft.aulast=Duster&rft.aufirst=Alfreda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrusadeforjustic00well%2Fpage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fleming, Maria, <i>A Place at the Table: Struggles for Equality in America</i>, Oxford University Press, USA, 2001, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100629081241/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingsstate.html">"Lynchings: By State and Race, 1882-1968"</a>. University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingsstate.html">the original</a> on 2010-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2010</span>. <q>Statistics provided by the Archives at Tuskegee Institute.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lynchings%3A+By+State+and+Race%2C+1882-1968&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri-Kansas+City+School+of+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fshipp%2Flynchingsstate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingyear.html">Lynchings by year</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrundage1993" class="citation book cs1">Brundage, W. Fitzhugh (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lynchinginnewsou0000brun"><i>Lynching in the new South</i></a></span>. University of Illinois Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lynchinginnewsou0000brun/page/103">103</a>–190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252063459" title="Special:BookSources/9780252063459"><bdi>9780252063459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lynching+in+the+new+South&rft.pages=103-190&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780252063459&rft.aulast=Brundage&rft.aufirst=W.+Fitzhugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flynchinginnewsou0000brun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elwood M. Beck and Stewart E. Tolnay. "The killing fields of the deep south: the market for cotton and the lynching of blacks, 1882–1930." <i>American Sociological Review</i> (1990): 526-539. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utminers.utep.edu/trcurry/Lynching%20article.pdf">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_Jones_Royster" title="Jacqueline Jones Royster">Jacqueline Jones Royster</a>, ed., <i>Southern horrors and other writings: The anti-lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells, 1892–1900</i> (1997), with primary and secondary documents.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Zangrando, <i>The NAACP crusade against lynching, 1909–1950</i> (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Foner, "Introduction," to Rayford W. Logan <i>The Betrayal of the Negro, from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson</i> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b0OQi4wQApMC&pg=PR14">p. xiv online</a>. Foner's 1997 introduction is paraphrasing the 1965 2nd edition of Logan's book.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrel2005" class="citation book cs1">Norrel, Robert J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DNiYbpqfqScC&pg=PA50"><i>The House I Live In : Race in the American Century</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198023777" title="Special:BookSources/9780198023777"><bdi>9780198023777</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+House+I+Live+In+%3A+Race+in+the+American+Century&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780198023777&rft.aulast=Norrel&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDNiYbpqfqScC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald W. Walters and Robert C. Smith, <i>African American Leadership</i> (1999) p 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2003" class="citation book cs1">Hahn, Steven (2003). <i>A Nation Under Our Feet</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674011694" title="Special:BookSources/9780674011694"><bdi>9780674011694</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+Under+Our+Feet&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780674011694&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard N. Rabinowitz, <i>Race, Ethnicity, and Urbanization: Selected Essays</i> (1994), p. 183</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Washington-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Washington_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1988" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Mary Helen (1988). <i>A Voice from the South: Introduction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. xxvii–liv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506323-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506323-3"><bdi>978-0-19-506323-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Voice+from+the+South%3A+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xxvii-liv&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506323-3&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Mary+Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ritchie-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ritchie_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritchie_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitchieRonald2001" class="citation book cs1">Ritchie, Joy; Ronald, Kate (2001). <i>Available Means: An Anthology of Women's Rhetoric(s)</i>. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 163–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5753-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5753-9"><bdi>978-0-8229-5753-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Available+Means%3A+An+Anthology+of+Women%27s+Rhetoric%28s%29&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+PA&rft.pages=163-164&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-5753-9&rft.aulast=Ritchie&rft.aufirst=Joy&rft.au=Ronald%2C+Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy E. Finkenbine. "Douglass, Frederick"; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00186.html"><i>American National Biography Online</i> 2000. Accessed March 16, 2016</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fn1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fn1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fn1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Text of <i>Plessy v. Ferguson</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_163" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 163">163</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 537 (1896) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/163/537">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/94508/plessy-v-ferguson/">CourtListener</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/163/537.html">Findlaw</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16038751515555215717">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/163/537/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep163/usrep163537/usrep163537.pdf">Library of Congress</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fn2-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn2_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Text of <i>Loving v. Virginia</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 1 (1967) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/388/1">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/107480/loving-v-virginia/">CourtListener</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/388/1.html">Findlaw</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5103666188878568597">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/1/case.html">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep388/usrep388001/usrep388001.pdf">Library of Congress</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openjurist.org/388/us/1">OpenJurist</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1966/395">Oyez (oral argument audio)</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fn3-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn3_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Text of <i>Strauder v. West Virginia</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_100" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 100">100</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 303 (1880) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/90039/strauder-v-west-virginia/">CourtListener</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10979220518323133653">Google Scholar</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/100/303/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep100/usrep100303/usrep100303.pdf">Library of Congress</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openjurist.org/100/us/303">OpenJurist</a> </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era">Bibliography of the Reconstruction Era</a></div> <ul><li>Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. <i>The Jim Crow Encyclopedia</i> (Greenwood, 2008)</li> <li>Carle, Susan D. <i>Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915</i> (Oxford UP, 2013). 404pp.</li> <li>Davis, Hugh. <i>"We will be satisfied with nothing less": the African American struggle for equal rights in the North during Reconstruction.</i> (2011).</li> <li>Finkelman, Paul, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895</i> (3 vol. 2006) 700 articles by experts</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner,_Eric1988" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l7PtAwAAQBAJ"><i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution</i></a>. Harper and Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780062383235" title="Special:BookSources/9780062383235"><bdi>9780062383235</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+America%27s+Unfinished+Revolution&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780062383235&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl7PtAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Foner, Eric. "Rights and the Constitution in Black Life during the Civil War and Reconstruction". <i>Journal of American History</i> 74.3 (1987): 863–883. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ericfoner.com/articles/Rights.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Frankel, Noralee. <i>Break Those Chains at Last: African Americans 1860–1880</i> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JV5MCAAAQBAJ">excerpt</a>; for high school audience</li> <li>Hahn, Steven. <i><a href="/wiki/A_nation_under_our_feet" class="mw-redirect" title="A nation under our feet">A nation under our feet</a>: Black political struggles in the rural South, from slavery to the great migration</i> (2003); Pulitzer Prize; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Nation-Under-Our-Feet-Political/dp/067401765X/">excerpt</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=9776">online review</a></li> <li>Jenkins, Jeffery A., Justin Peck, and Vesla M. Weaver. "Between Reconstructions: Congressional Action on Civil Rights, 1891–1940." <i>Studies in American Political Development</i> 24#1 (2010): 57–89. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.virginia.edu/jajenkins/Jenkins-Peck-Weaver.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234116/http://faculty.virginia.edu/jajenkins/Jenkins-Peck-Weaver.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Logan, Rayford. <i>The Betrayal of the Negro from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson</i> (2nd ed. 1965).</li> <li>Lowery, Charles D. <i>Encyclopedia of African-American civil rights: from emancipation to the present</i> (Greenwood, 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/71234654/encyclopedia-of-african-american-civil-rights-from">online</a></li> <li>Raffel, Jeffrey. <i>Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience</i> (Bloomsbury, 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2a7OEAAAQBAJ&dq=HISTORICAL+DICTIONARY+OF+SCHOOL+SEGREGATION+AND+DESEGREGATION&pg=PR7">online</a></li> <li>Strickland, Arvarh E., and Robert E. Weems, eds. <i>The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide</i> (Greenwood, 2001). 442pp; 17 topical chapters by experts.</li> <li>Swinney, Everette. "Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 28#2 (1962): 202–218. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2205188">in JSTOR</a>.</li> <li>Woodward, C. Vann. <i>Origins of the New South, 1877–1913</i> (1951).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership_2">Leadership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chesson, Michael B. "Richmond's Black Councilman, 1871–96," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 191–222.</li> <li>Dray, Philip. <i>Capitol men: the epic story of Reconstruction through the lives of the first Black congressmen</i> (2010).</li> <li>Foner, Eric. <i>Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders during Reconstruction</i> (1993).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatewood,_Willard_B.2000" class="citation book cs1">Gatewood, Willard B. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyQEzCEV9XkC"><i>Aristocrats of color: the Black elite, 1880-1920</i></a>. University of Arkansas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610750257" title="Special:BookSources/9781610750257"><bdi>9781610750257</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristocrats+of+color%3A+the+Black+elite%2C+1880-1920&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9781610750257&rft.au=Gatewood%2C+Willard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCyQEzCEV9XkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holt, Thomas. <i>Black over white: Negro political leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction</i> (1979).</li> <li>Holt, Thomas C. "Negro State Legislators in South Carolina during Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 223–49.</li> <li>Hume, Richard L. "Negro delegates to the state constitutional conventions of 1867–69," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 129–54</li> <li>Hume, Richard L. and Jerry B. Gough. <i>Black people, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: The Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction</i> (LSU Press, 2008); statistical classification of delegates.</li> <li>Jenkins, Jeffery A., and Boris Heersink. "Republican Party Politics and the American South: From Reconstruction to Redemption, 1865–1880." (2016 paper t the 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525214102/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a953/156395e65f8eec3f1cfbcccb02d39b2e16d6.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Loewenberg, Bert James and Ruth Bogin. <i>Black Women in Nineteenth-Century American Life: Their Words, Their Thoughts, Their Feelings</i> (Pennsylvania State UP, 1976).</li> <li>Meir, August. "Afterword: New Perspectives on the Nature of Black Political Leadership during Reconstruction." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) ppe 393–406.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitre,_Merline" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitre, Merline">Pitre, Merline</a>. <i>Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900</i> Eakin Press, 1985.</li> <li>Rabinowitz, Howard N., ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982), 422 pages; 16 chapters by experts, on leaders and key groups.</li> <li>Rankin, David C. "The origins of Negro leadership in New Orleans during Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) 155–90.</li> <li>Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of African American Business</i> (2 vol. Greenwood 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VYN_LWZwf4C&pg=PA164">excerpt</a></li> <li>Vincent, Charles. "Negro Leadership and Programs in the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1868." <i>Louisiana History</i> (1969): 339–351. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4231092">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalters,_Ronald_W.Robert_C._Smith1999" class="citation book cs1">Walters, Ronald W.; Robert C. Smith (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ejjSNIDNeXEC"><i>African American leadership</i></a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791441459" title="Special:BookSources/9780791441459"><bdi>9780791441459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+leadership&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780791441459&rft.au=Walters%2C+Ronald+W.&rft.au=Robert+C.+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DejjSNIDNeXEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Individual_leaders">Individual leaders</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Individual leaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, Eric. "James O'Hara of North Carolina: Black Leadership and local government" in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) 101–128.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euline_W._Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Euline W. Brock">Brock, Euline W.</a> "Thomas W. Cardozo: Fallible Black Reconstruction Leader." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 47.2 (1981): 183–206. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2207949">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Grosz, Agnes Smith. "The Political Career of Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback." Louisiana Historical Quarterly 27 (1944): 527–612.</li> <li>Harlan, Louis R. <i>Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901</i> (1972).</li> <li>Harris, William C. "Blanche K. Bruce of Mississippi: Conservative Assimilationist." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982). 3-38.</li> <li>Harris, William C. "James Lynch: Black Leader in Southern Reconstruction," <i>Historian</i> (1971) 34#1 pp 40–61, DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1971.tb00398.x</li> <li>Haskins, James. <i>Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback</i> (1973).</li> <li>Hine, William C. "Dr. Benjamin A. Boseman, Jr.: Charleston's Black Physician-Politician," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 335–62.</li> <li>Klingman, Peter D. "Race and Faction in the Public Career of Florida's Josiah T. Walls." in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982). 59–78.</li> <li>Klingman, Peter D. <i>Josiah Walls: Florida's Black Congressman of Reconstruction</i> (1976).</li> <li>Lamson, Peggy. <i>The Glorious Failure: Black Congressman Robert Brown Elliott and the Reconstruction in South Carolina</i> (1973).</li> <li>McFeely, William S. <i>Frederick Douglass</i> (1995).</li> <li>Moneyhon, Carl H. "George T. Ruby and the Politics of Expediency in Texas," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 363–92.</li> <li>Norrell, Robert J. "Booker T. Washington: Understanding the Wizard of Tuskegee," <i>Journal of Black people in Higher Education</i> 42 (2003–4) pp. 96–109 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3592453">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Norrell, Robert J. <i>Up from history: The life of Booker T. Washington</i> (2009).</li> <li>Reidy, Joseph P. "Karen A. Bradley: Voice of Black Labor in the Georgia Lowcountry," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 281–309.</li> <li>Richardson, Joe M. "Jonathan C. Gibbs: Florida's Only Negro Cabinet Member." <i>Florida Historical Quarterly</i> 42.4 (1964): 363–368. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30140048">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Russell, James M. and Thornbery, Jerry. "William Finch of Atlanta: The Black Politician as Civic Leader," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982) pp 309–34.</li> <li>Schweninger, Loren. "James Rapier of Alabama and the Noble Cause of Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. <i>Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era</i> (1982). 79–100.</li> <li>Woody, Robert H. "Jonathan Jasper Wright, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of South Carolina, 1870–77." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 18.2 (1933): 114–131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2714290">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation book cs1">White, Richard C. (2017). <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_for_Which_It_Stands" title="The Republic for Which It Stands"><i>The Republic for Which It Stands</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+for+Which+It+Stands&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bond, Beverly G. "'Every Duty Incumbent Upon Them': African-American Women in Nineteenth Century Memphis." <i>Tennessee Historical Quarterly</i> 59.4 (2000): 254.</li> <li>Clinton, Catherine. "Bloody terrain: Freedwomen, sexuality and violence during reconstruction." <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i> 76.2 (1992): 313–332. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40582538">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Edwards, Laura F. <i>Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction</i> (1997).</li> <li>Farmer-Kaiser, Mary. <i>Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation</i> (Fordham Univ Press, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1495&context=adan">online review</a></li> <li>Frankel, Noralee. <i>Freedom's women: Black women and families in Civil War era Mississippi</i> (1999).</li> <li>Hunter, Tera W. <i>To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War</i> (Harvard University Press, 1997).</li> <li>Oglesby, Catherine. "Gender and History of the Postbellum US South." <i>History Compass</i> 8.12 (2010): 1369–1379; historiography, mostly of white women.</li> <li>Olson, Lynne. <i>Freedom's daughters: The unsung heroines of the civil rights movement from 1830 to 1970</i> (2001).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_local_studies">State and local studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: State and local studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cresswell, Stephen. <i>Multiparty Politics in Mississippi, 1877–1902</i> (1995).</li> <li>Davis, D. F., et al. "Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century." <i>Urban History Review</i> (1977) 6#1 pp. 99–106 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43561566">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Doyle, Don H. <i>New Men, New Cities, New South: Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860–1910</i> (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/New-Men-Cities-South-Charleston/dp/0807842702">excerpt</a></li> <li>Drago, Edmund L. <i>Black Politicians and Reconstruction in Georgia: A Splendid Failure</i> (1992)</li> <li>Green, Hilary. <i> Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South, 1865–1890</i> (Fordham UP, 2016), Case studies of Richmond, Virginia, and Mobile, Alabama. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=47593">online review</a></li> <li>Hornsby Jr., Alton, ed. <i>Black America: A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia</i> (2 vol 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Black-America-volumes-State---State/dp/0313341125/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Hornsby Jr., Alton. <i>A Short History of Black Atlanta, 1847–1993</i> (2015).</li> <li>Jenkins, Wilbert L. <i>Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post–Civil War Charleston.</i> (2003).</li> <li>Jewell, Joseph O. <i>Race, social reform, and the making of a middle class: The American Missionary Association and Black Atlanta, 1870–1900</i> (2007).</li> <li>Rabinowitz, Howard N. <i>Race Relations in the Urban South: 1865–1890</i> (1978)</li> <li>Wharton, Vernon Lane. <i>The Negro in Mississippi: 1865–1890</i> (1947)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Foner, Philip, ed. <i>The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass: Reconstruction and After</i> (1955).</li> <li>Smith, John David. <i>We Ask Only for Even-handed Justice: Black Voices from Reconstruction, 1865–1877</i> (2nd ed. 2014)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWork,_Monroe_N.1912" class="citation book cs1">Work, Monroe N. (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oc5HAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA13"><i>Negro Year Book and Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Year+Book+and+Annual+Encyclopedia+of+the+Negro&rft.date=1912&rft.au=Work%2C+Monroe+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doc5HAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span>, First edition was 1913.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid,_Whitelaw1866" class="citation book cs1">Reid, Whitelaw (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924028782781"><i>After the War: A Southern Tour</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+War%3A+A+Southern+Tour.&rft.date=1866&rft.au=Reid%2C+Whitelaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924028782781&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span>, detailed coverage by Yankee journalist, with focus on Freedmen.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson,_Joe_M.1965" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, Joe M. (1965). "The Negro in Post Civil-War Tennessee: A Report by a Northern Missionary". <i>Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>34</b> (4): 419–424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2294093">10.2307/2294093</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2294093">2294093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=The+Negro+in+Post+Civil-War+Tennessee%3A+A+Report+by+a+Northern+Missionary.&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=419-424&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2294093&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2294093%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Joe+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wells-Barnett, Ida B. <i>Southern horrors and other writings: the anti-lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells, 1892–1900</i>. Ed. Jacqueline Jones Royster. Bedford Books, 1997.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinegarten,_Ruthie2014" class="citation book cs1">Winegarten, Ruthie, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-tSBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44"><i>Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook</i></a>. University of Texas Press. pp. 44–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780292785564" title="Special:BookSources/9780292785564"><bdi>9780292785564</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Texas+Women%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=44-69&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780292785564&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-tSBBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACivil+rights+movement+%281865%E2%80%931896%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aap/aaphome.html">"African American Perspectives: Pamphlets from the Daniel A. P. Murray Collection, 1818–1907"</a> Most are from 1875 to 1900.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/43gds9bp9780252004100.html"><i>Booker T. Washington Papers, vol 1-3</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315155135/http://192.203.127.197/archive/handle/123456789/834">"Booker T. Washington: The Man and the Myth Revisited." (2007) PowerPoint presentation By Dana Chandler</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/civilrights/home.html">Civil Rights Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu/omeka2/collections/show/114">"The Long History of the African American Civil Rights Movement in Florida"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160110203104/https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu/omeka2/collections/show/114">Archived</a> 2016-01-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> 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