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</button> <ul id="toc-Asexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sexual reproduction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_sexual_reproduction_of_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_sexual_reproduction_of_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>History of sexual reproduction of plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_sexual_reproduction_of_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flowering_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flowering_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Flowering plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flowering_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pollination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Pollination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ferns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ferns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ferns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ferns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bryophytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bryophytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Bryophytes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bryophytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dispersal_and_offspring_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispersal_and_offspring_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dispersal and offspring care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dispersal_and_offspring_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant reproduction</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تكاثر النبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكاثر النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3n_vexetal" title="Reproducción vexetal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reproducción vexetal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitkil%C9%99rin_%C3%A7oxalmas%C4%B1" title="Bitkilərin çoxalması – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bitkilərin çoxalması" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A8" title="উদ্ভিদ প্রজনন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উদ্ভিদ প্রজনন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D2%AB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D2%99%D0%B5%D2%A3_%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Үҫемлектәрҙең үрсеүе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Үҫемлектәрҙең үрсеүе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3_vegetal" title="Reproducció vegetal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reproducció vegetal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducci%C3%B3n_vegetal" title="Reproducción vegetal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reproducción vegetal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetala_reproduktado" title="Vegetala reproduktado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vegetala reproduktado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landareen_ugalketa" title="Landareen ugalketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Landareen ugalketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_dans_le_r%C3%A8gne_v%C3%A9g%C3%A9tal" title="Reproduction dans le règne végétal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Reproduction dans le règne végétal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%A1irgeadh_planda%C3%AD" title="Atáirgeadh plandaí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Atáirgeadh plandaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduci%C3%B3n_das_plantas" title="Reprodución das plantas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reprodución das plantas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%BD%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Բույսերի բազմացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բույսերի բազմացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8" title="पादप जनन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पादप जनन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razmno%C5%BEavanje_biljaka" title="Razmnožavanje biljaka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Razmnožavanje biljaka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduksi_tumbuhan" title="Reproduksi tumbuhan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reproduksi tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96%D2%A3_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%8E%D1%96" title="Өсімдіктердің көбеюі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өсімдіктердің көбеюі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D2%AF%D0%BC%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%B9%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83" title="Өсүмдүкдүн көбөйүү жолдору – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өсүмдүкдүн көбөйүү жолдору" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Размножување на растенијата – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Размножување на растенијата" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geslachtelijke_voortplanting_bij_Embryophyta" title="Geslachtelijke voortplanting bij Embryophyta – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geslachtelijke voortplanting bij Embryophyta" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozmna%C5%BCanie_ro%C5%9Blin" title="Rozmnażanie roślin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rozmnażanie roślin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Размножение растений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Размножение растений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plant reproduction" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razmno%C5%BEavanje_biljaka" title="Razmnožavanje biljaka – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Razmnožavanje biljaka" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvien_lis%C3%A4%C3%A4ntyminen" title="Kasvien lisääntyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvien lisääntyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவரங்களின் இனப்பெருக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவரங்களின் இனப்பெருக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitkilerde_%C3%BCreme" title="Bitkilerde üreme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bitkilerde üreme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Розмноження рослин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Розмноження рослин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="植物繁殖" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="植物繁殖" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="植物繁殖" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_reproduction" title="Special:EditPage/Plant reproduction">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+reproduction%22">"Plant reproduction"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+reproduction%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+reproduction%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+reproduction%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+reproduction%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+reproduction%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Production of new offspring in plants</div> <p><b>Plant reproduction</b> is the production of new offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>, resulting in offspring genetically different from either parent. <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a> produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, resulting in clonal plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant and each other, unless <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a> occur. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asexual_reproduction">Asexual reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Asexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a></div> <p>Asexual reproduction does not involve the production and fusion of male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction may occur through <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spore_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spore formation">spore formation</a>, regeneration and <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_propagation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetative propagation">vegetative propagation</a>. </p><p>Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction where the offspring comes from one parent only, thus inheriting the characteristics of the parent. Asexual reproduction in plants occurs in two fundamental forms, <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetative reproduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">agamospermy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vegetative reproduction involves a vegetative piece of the original plant producing new individuals by budding, <a href="/wiki/Tiller_(botany)" title="Tiller (botany)">tillering</a>, etc. and is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a>, which is a replacement of sexual reproduction, and in some cases involves seeds. Apomixis occurs in many plant species such as dandelions (<i><a href="/wiki/Taraxacum" title="Taraxacum">Taraxacum</a></i> species) and also in some non-plant organisms. For apomixis and similar processes in non-plant organisms, see <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>. </p><p>Natural vegetative reproduction is a <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">process</a> mostly found in <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennial</a> plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stem</a> or <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> and in a few species <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>. Most plant species that employ vegetative reproduction do so as a means to perennialize the plants, allowing them to survive from one season to the next and often facilitating their expansion in size. A plant that persists in a location through vegetative reproduction of individuals gives rise to a <a href="/wiki/Clonal_colony" title="Clonal colony">clonal colony</a>. A single <a href="/wiki/Ramet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramet">ramet</a>, or apparent individual, of a clonal colony is genetically identical to all others in the same colony. The distance that a plant can move during vegetative reproduction is limited, though some plants can produce ramets from branching rhizomes or stolons that cover a wide area, often in only a few growing seasons. In a sense, this process is not one of reproduction but one of survival and expansion of biomass of the individual. When an individual <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> increases in size via cell multiplication and remains intact, the process is called vegetative growth. However, in vegetative reproduction, the new plants that result are new individuals in almost every respect except genetic. A major disadvantage of vegetative reproduction is the transmission of pathogens from parent to offspring. It is uncommon for pathogens to be transmitted from the plant to its seeds (in sexual reproduction or in apomixis), though there are occasions when it occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-plant_resistance_to_herbivores_and_pathogens_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plant_resistance_to_herbivores_and_pathogens-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Seeds generated by apomixis are a means of asexual reproduction, involving the formation and dispersal of seeds that do not originate from the fertilization of the <a href="/wiki/Embryo#Embryos_of_plants_and_animals" title="Embryo">embryos</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hawkweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawkweed">Hawkweeds</a> (<i>Hieracium</i>), <a href="/wiki/Dandelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dandelion">dandelions</a> (<i>Taraxacum</i>), some species of <i><a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">Citrus</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_blue_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentucky blue grass">Kentucky blue grass</a> (<i>Poa pratensis</i>) all use this form of asexual reproduction. <a href="/wiki/Pseudogamy" title="Pseudogamy">Pseudogamy</a> occurs in some plants that have apomictic seeds, where pollination is often needed to initiate embryo growth, though the pollen contributes no genetic material to the developing offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other forms of apomixis occur in plants also, including the generation of a <a href="/wiki/Plantlet" title="Plantlet">plantlet</a> in replacement of a seed or the generation of <a href="/wiki/Bulbil" title="Bulbil">bulbils</a> instead of flowers, where new cloned individuals are produced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structures">Structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">rhizome</a> is a modified underground stem serving as an organ of vegetative reproduction; the growing tips of the rhizome can separate as new plants, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Polypody" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypody">polypody</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iris_(plant)" title="Iris (plant)">iris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Couch_grass" title="Couch grass">couch grass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urtica" title="Urtica">nettles</a>. </p><p>Prostrate aerial stems, called runners or <a href="/wiki/Stolon" title="Stolon">stolons</a>, are important vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">strawberry</a>, numerous <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adventitious" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventitious">Adventitious</a> buds form on roots near the ground surface, on damaged stems (as on the stumps of cut trees), or on old roots. These develop into above-ground stems and leaves. A form of budding called <a href="/wiki/Basal_shoot" title="Basal shoot">suckering</a> is the reproduction or <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a> of a plant by shoots that arise from an existing <a href="/wiki/Root_system" title="Root system">root system</a>. Species that characteristically produce suckers include <a href="/wiki/Elm" title="Elm">elm</a> (<i>Ulmus</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Stace_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stace-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 299">: 299 </span></sup> and many members of the <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a> family such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">Rosa</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stace_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stace-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 285–296">: 285–296 </span></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Kerria_japonica" title="Kerria japonica">Kerria</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Stace_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stace-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 206">: 206 </span></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Rubus" title="Rubus">Rubus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stace_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stace-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 258">: 258 </span></sup> </p><p>Bulbous plants such as <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onion</a> (<i>Allium cepa</i>), <a href="/wiki/Hyacinth_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyacinth (plant)">hyacinths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narcissus_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Narcissus (genus)">narcissi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tulip" title="Tulip">tulips</a> reproduce vegetatively by dividing their underground <a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">bulbs</a> into more bulbs. Other plants like <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potatoes</a> (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Dahlia" title="Dahlia">dahlias</a> reproduce vegetatively from underground <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gladiolus" title="Gladiolus">Gladioli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crocus" title="Crocus">crocuses</a> reproduce vegetatively in a similar way with <a href="/wiki/Corm" title="Corm">corms</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gemma_(botany)" title="Gemma (botany)">Gemmae</a> are single cells or masses of cells that detach from plants to form new clonal individuals. These are common in <a href="/wiki/Liverworts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverworts">Liverworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> generation of some <a href="/wiki/Filmy_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Filmy fern">filmy fern</a>. They are also present in some <a href="/wiki/Club_moss" class="mw-redirect" title="Club moss">Club mosses</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Huperzia_lucidula" title="Huperzia lucidula">Huperzia lucidula </a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also found in some higher plants such as species of <i><a href="/wiki/Drosera" title="Drosera">Drosera</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Usage">Usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common form of plant reproduction used by people is seeds, but a number of asexual methods are used which are usually enhancements of natural processes, including: cutting, grafting, budding, <a href="/wiki/Layering" title="Layering">layering</a>, division, sectioning of rhizomes, roots, tubers, bulbs, stolons, tillers, etc., and artificial propagation by laboratory <a href="/wiki/Plant_tissue_culture" title="Plant tissue culture">tissue cloning</a>. Asexual methods are most often used to propagate <a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> with individual desirable characteristics that do not come true from seed.<sup id="cite_ref-introduction_to_plant_science_a01_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introduction_to_plant_science_a01-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fruit_tree_propagation" title="Fruit tree propagation">Fruit tree propagation</a> is frequently performed by budding or grafting desirable cultivars (<a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a>), onto <a href="/wiki/Rootstock" title="Rootstock">rootstocks</a> that are also clones, propagated by <a href="/wiki/Stool_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Stool bed">stooling</a>. </p><p>In horticulture, a cutting is a branch that has been cut off from a mother <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> below an <a href="/wiki/Internodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Internodes">internode</a> and then rooted, often with the help of a <a href="/wiki/Rooting_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooting powder">rooting liquid or powder</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">hormones</a>. When a full root has formed and leaves begin to sprout anew, the clone is a self-sufficient plant,<sup id="cite_ref-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> genetically identical. </p><p>Examples include cuttings from the stems of <a href="/wiki/Blackberry" title="Blackberry">blackberries</a> (<i>Rubus occidentalis</i>), <a href="/wiki/African_violet" class="mw-redirect" title="African violet">African violets</a> (<i>Saintpaulia</i>), <a href="/wiki/Vervain" class="mw-redirect" title="Vervain">verbenas</a> (<i>Verbena</i>) to produce new plants. A related use of cuttings is <a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">grafting</a>, where a stem or bud is joined onto a different stem. <a href="/wiki/Nursery_(horticulture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursery (horticulture)">Nurseries</a> offer for sale trees with grafted stems that can produce four or more varieties of related fruits, including <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apples</a>. The most common usage of grafting is the propagation of cultivars onto already rooted plants, sometimes the rootstock is used to dwarf the plants or protect them from root damaging <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-introductory_horticulture_a04_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-introductory_horticulture_a04-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since vegetatively propagated plants are clones, they are important tools in plant research. When a clone is grown in various conditions, differences in growth can be ascribed to environmental effects instead of genetic differences.<sup id="cite_ref-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_reproduction">Sexual reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction of plants">Sexual reproduction of plants</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:22.0em;white-space:wrap;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex" title="Category:Sex">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff; font-size:135%;font-weight:normal;color:black;"><b><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/200px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/300px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/400px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="285" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Biological terms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Heterogametic sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Homogametic sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome_anomalies" title="Sex chromosome anomalies">Sex chromosome anomalies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_(biology)" title="Intersex (biology)">Intersex (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating type</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile-vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile-vaginal intercourse">Penile-vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_system" title="Sexual system">Sexual system</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">Dioecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonochorism" title="Gonochorism">Gonochorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_sidebar" title="Template talk:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Sexual reproduction involves two fundamental processes: <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, which rearranges the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and reduces the number of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, which restores the chromosome to a complete <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> number. In between these two processes, different types of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> vary, but many of them, including all <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a>, undergo <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>, with two different multicellular structures (phases), a <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a>. The evolutionary origin and adaptive significance of sexual reproduction are discussed in the pages <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Origin and function of meiosis</a>. </p><p>The gametophyte is the multicellular structure (plant) that is <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>, containing a single set of chromosomes in each cell. The gametophyte produces male or female <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> (or both), by a process of cell division, called <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. In vascular plants with separate gametophytes, female gametophytes are known as mega gametophytes (mega=large, they produce the large egg cells) and the male gametophytes are called micro gametophytes (micro=small, they produce the small sperm cells). </p><p>The fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization) produces a diploid <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, which develops by mitotic cell divisions into a multicellular sporophyte. </p><p>The mature sporophyte produces <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> by meiosis, sometimes referred to as reduction division because the chromosome pairs are separated once again to form single sets. </p><p>In mosses and liverworts, the gametophyte is relatively large, and the sporophyte is a much smaller structure that is never separated from the gametophyte. In <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> (angiosperms), the gametophytes are relatively small and the sporophyte is much larger. In gymnosperms and flowering plants the megagametophyte is contained within the <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a> (that may develop into a seed) and the microgametophyte is contained within a <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_sexual_reproduction_of_plants">History of sexual reproduction of plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History of sexual reproduction of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_reproduction" title="Special:EditPage/Plant reproduction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Unlike animals, plants are immobile, and cannot seek out sexual partners for reproduction. In the evolution of early plants, abiotic means, including water and much later, wind, transported <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> for reproduction. The first plants were <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic</a>, as described in the page <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>, and released sperm freely into the water to be carried with the currents. Primitive land plants such as liverworts and mosses had motile sperm that swam in a thin film of water or were splashed in water droplets from the male reproduction organs onto the female organs. As taller and more complex plants evolved, modifications in the alternation of generations evolved. In the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> era <a href="/wiki/Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">progymnosperms</a> reproduced by using spores dispersed on the wind. The seed plants including <a href="/wiki/Seed_fern" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed fern">seed ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cordaites" title="Cordaites">cordaites</a>, which were all <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, evolved 350 million years ago. They had pollen grains that contained the male <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> for protection of the sperm during the process of transfer from the male to female parts. </p><p>It is believed that insects fed on the pollen, and plants thus evolved to use <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> to actively carry pollen from one plant to the next. Seed producing plants, which include the angiosperms and the gymnosperms, have a heteromorphic alternation of generations with large sporophytes containing much-reduced gametophytes. Angiosperms have distinctive reproductive organs called flowers, with <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpels</a>, and the female gametophyte is greatly reduced to a female embryo sac, with as few as eight cells. Each pollen grains contains a greatly reduced male gametophyte consisting of three or four cells. The sperm of seed plants are non-motile, except for two older groups of plants, the <a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a>, which have flagella. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flowering_plants">Flowering plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flowering plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_reproduction" title="Special:EditPage/Plant reproduction">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plants</a>, the dominant plant group,<sup id="cite_ref-Judd_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Judd-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168">: 168 </span></sup> reproduce both by sexual and asexual means. Their distinguishing feature is that their reproductive organs are contained in <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a>. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the production of separate male and female gametophytes that produce <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">anther</a> produces <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen grains</a> that contain male <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>. The pollen grains attach to the stigma on top of a <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a>, in which the female gametophytes (inside ovules) are located. Plants may either <a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollinate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">cross-pollinate</a>. The transfer of pollen (the male gametophytes) to the female <a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigmas</a> occurs is called <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a>. After pollination occurs, the pollen grain germinates to form a pollen tube that grows through the carpel's style and transports male nuclei to the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and central cell within the female gametophyte in a process termed <a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">double fertilization</a>. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus a binucleate female cell) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The fertilized ovules develop into seeds within a <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> formed from the ovary. When the seeds are ripe they may be <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersed</a> together with the fruit or freed from it by various means to <a href="/wiki/Germinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Germinate">germinate</a> and grow into the next generation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pollination">Pollination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pollination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orchidflower3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Orchidflower3.jpg/220px-Orchidflower3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Orchidflower3.jpg/330px-Orchidflower3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Orchidflower3.jpg/440px-Orchidflower3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>An orchid flower</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants that use insects or other animals to move pollen from one flower to the next have developed greatly modified flower parts to attract pollinators and to facilitate the movement of pollen from one flower to the insect and from the insect to the next flower. Flowers of wind-pollinated plants tend to lack petals and or sepals; typically large amounts of pollen are produced and pollination often occurs early in the growing season before leaves can interfere with the dispersal of the pollen. Many trees and all grasses and sedges are wind-pollinated. </p><p>Plants have a number of different means to attract pollinators including color, scent, heat, nectar glands, edible pollen and flower shape. Along with modifications involving the above structures two other conditions play a very important role in the sexual reproduction of flowering plants, the first is the timing of flowering and the other is the size or number of flowers produced. Often plant species have a few large, very showy flowers while others produce many small flowers, often flowers are collected together into large inflorescences to maximize their visual effect, becoming more noticeable to passing pollinators. Flowers are attraction strategies and sexual expressions are functional strategies used to produce the next generation of plants, with pollinators and plants having co-evolved, often to some extraordinary degrees, very often rendering mutual benefit. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telekiaflowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Telekiaflowers.jpg/220px-Telekiaflowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Telekiaflowers.jpg/330px-Telekiaflowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Telekiaflowers.jpg/440px-Telekiaflowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption> Flower heads showing disk and ray florets.</figcaption></figure> <p>The largest family of flowering plants is the orchids (<a href="/wiki/Orchidaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchidaceae">Orchidaceae</a>), estimated by some specialists to include up to 35,000 species,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which often have highly specialized flowers that attract particular insects for pollination. The stamens are modified to produce pollen in clusters called <a href="/wiki/Pollinium" title="Pollinium">pollinia</a>, which become attached to insects that crawl into the flower. The flower shapes may force insects to pass by the pollen, which is "glued" to the insect. Some orchids are even more highly specialized, with flower shapes that mimic the shape of insects to attract them to attempt to 'mate' with the flowers, a few even have scents that mimic insect <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a>. </p><p>Another large group of flowering plants is the <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> or sunflower family with close to 22,000 species,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which also have highly modified inflorescences composed of many individual flowers called florets. Heads with florets of one sex, when the flowers are pistillate or functionally staminate or made up of all bisexual florets, are called homogamous and can include discoid and liguliflorous type heads. Some radiate heads may be homogamous too. Plants with heads that have florets of two or more sexual forms are called heterogamous and include radiate and disciform head forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ferns">Ferns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ferns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ferns typically produce large diploids with stem, roots, and leaves. On fertile leaves <a href="/wiki/Sporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangia">sporangia</a> are produced, grouped together in <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#sorus" title="Glossary of botanical terms">sori</a> and often protected by an <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#indusium" title="Glossary of botanical terms">indusium</a>. If the spores are deposited onto a suitable moist substrate they germinate to produce short, thin, free-living gametophytes called <a href="/wiki/Prothalli" class="mw-redirect" title="Prothalli">prothalli</a> that are typically heart-shaped, small and green in color. The gametophytes produce both motile sperm in the <a href="/wiki/Antheridia" class="mw-redirect" title="Antheridia">antheridia</a> and egg cells in separate <a href="/wiki/Archegonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Archegonia">archegonia</a>. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the antheridia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross-fertilization the sperm is released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of the different thallus. A <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> is formed after fertilization, which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporophyte and gametophyte plants is called <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. Other plants with similar reproductive strategies include <i><a href="/wiki/Psilotum" title="Psilotum">Psilotum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lycopodium" title="Lycopodium">Lycopodium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Selaginella" title="Selaginella">Selaginella</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Equisetum" title="Equisetum">Equisetum</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bryophytes">Bryophytes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bryophytes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte_life_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryophyte life cycle">Bryophyte life cycle</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, can reproduce both sexually and <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetatively</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a> of these plants start with haploid spores that grow into the dominant form, which is a multicellular haploid gametophyte, with thalloid or leaf-like structures that <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesize</a>. The gametophyte is the most commonly known phase of the plant. Bryophytes are typically small plants that grow in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm which swim to the ovule using <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a> and therefore need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their reproductive structures, and a basic outline is as follows: Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia and archegonia by mitosis. The sperm released from the antheridia respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells, thus producing zygotes that are diploid. The zygote divides repeatedly by <a href="/wiki/Mitotic_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitotic division">mitotic division</a> and grows into a diploid sporophyte. The resulting multicellular diploid sporophyte produces spore capsules called <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangia</a>. The spores are produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, and when ripe, the capsules burst open to release the spores. In some species each gametophyte is <a href="/wiki/Dioicous" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioicous">one sex</a> while other species may be <a href="/wiki/Monoicy" title="Monoicy">monoicous</a>, producing both <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#antheridium" title="Glossary of botanical terms">antheridia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#archegonium" title="Glossary of botanical terms">archegonia</a> on the same gametophyte which is thus <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite#Plants" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispersal_and_offspring_care">Dispersal and offspring care</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dispersal and offspring care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal</a></div> <p>One of the outcomes of plant reproduction is the generation of seeds, spores, and fruits<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that allow plants to move to new locations or new habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants do not have nervous systems or any will for their actions. Even so, scientists are able to observe mechanisms that help their offspring thrive as they grow. All organisms have mechanisms to increase survival in offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Offspring care is observed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mammillaria_hernandezii" title="Mammillaria hernandezii">Mammillaria hernandezii</a></i>, a small cactus found in Mexico. A cactus is a type of succulent, meaning it retains water when it is available for future droughts. <i>M. hernandezii</i> also stores a portion of its seeds in its stem, and releases the rest to grow.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be advantageous for many reasons. By delaying the release of some of its seeds, the cactus can protect these from potential threats from insects, herbivores, or mold caused by micro-organisms. A study found that the presence of adequate water in the environment causes <i>M. Hernandezii</i> to release more seeds to allow for germination. The plant was able to perceive a water potential gradient in the surroundings, and act by giving its seeds a better chance in this preferable environment.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This evolutionary strategy gives a better potential outcome for seed germination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarrettBarrett2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Barrett_(evolutionary_biologist)" title="Spencer Barrett (evolutionary biologist)">Barrett, Spencer C. H.</a>; Barrett, Spencer Charles Hilton (2008-11-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcP_AAAAQBAJ&dq=sexual+reproduction&pg=PA158"><i>Major Evolutionary Transitions in Flowering Plant Reproduction</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03816-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03816-2"><bdi>978-0-226-03816-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Major+Evolutionary+Transitions+in+Flowering+Plant+Reproduction&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008-11-28&rft.isbn=978-0-226-03816-2&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.+H.&rft.au=Barrett%2C+Spencer+Charles+Hilton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZcP_AAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsexual%2Breproduction%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plant_resistance_to_herbivores_and_pathogens-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-plant_resistance_to_herbivores_and_pathogens_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritzSimms1992" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, Robert E.; Simms, Ellen Louise (1992). <i>Plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens: ecology, evolution, and genetics</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 359. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-26554-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-26554-4"><bdi>978-0-226-26554-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+resistance+to+herbivores+and+pathogens%3A+ecology%2C+evolution%2C+and+genetics&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=359&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-226-26554-4&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft.au=Simms%2C+Ellen+Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026234030/http://www.lifescientist.com.au/article/29781/why_apomixis_genetic_gold">"Why apomixis is genetic gold - Australian Life Scientist"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+apomixis+is+genetic+gold+-+Australian+Life+Scientist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lifescientist.com.au%2Farticle%2F29781%2Fwhy_apomixis_genetic_gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stace-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stace_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stace_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stace_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stace_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStace2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stace,_C._A." class="mw-redirect" title="Stace, C. A.">Stace, C. 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Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.: C & M Floristics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5272-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5272-2630-2"><bdi>978-1-5272-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Middlewood+Green%2C+Suffolk%2C+U.K.&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=C+%26+M+Floristics&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5272-2630-2&rft.aulast=Stace&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uwgb.edu/biodiversity-old/herbarium/pteridophytes/hupluc01.htm">"Ferns and Fern Allies of Wisconsin"</a>. 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Delmar Thomson Learning. 2004. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4018-4188-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4018-4188-1"><bdi>978-1-4018-4188-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+To+Plant+Science&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=Delmar+Thomson+Learning&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4018-4188-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rooting_cuttings_of_tropical_trees_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Rooting cuttings of tropical trees</i>. 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(2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080454054008600">"Seed Dispersal"</a>, <i>Encyclopedia of Ecology</i>, Elsevier, pp. 3188–3194, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-008045405-4.00860-0">10.1016/b978-008045405-4.00860-0</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045405-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045405-4"><bdi>978-0-08-045405-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-28</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Seed+Dispersal&rft.pages=3188-3194&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-008045405-4.00860-0&rft.isbn=978-0-08-045405-4&rft.aulast=Traveset&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez-P%C3%A9rez%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FB9780080454054008600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/natural-selection">"Natural Selection - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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An assessment using the cactus <i>Mammillaria hernandezii</i>"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>100</b> (2): 365–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.1200106">10.3732/ajb.1200106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23345416">23345416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Does+retained-seed+priming+drive+the+evolution+of+serotiny+in+drylands%3F+An+assessment+using+the+cactus+Mammillaria+hernandezii&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=365-373&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.1200106&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23345416&rft.aulast=Santini&rft.aufirst=Bianca+A.&rft.au=Martorell%2C+Carlos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.3732%2Fajb.1200106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniKodandaramaiah2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dani, K. G. Srikanta; Kodandaramaiah, Ullasa (2017-05-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00038">"Plant and Animal Reproductive Strategies: Lessons from Offspring Size and Number Tradeoffs"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>5</b>: 38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00038">10.3389/fevo.2017.00038</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-701X">2296-701X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Plant+and+Animal+Reproductive+Strategies%3A+Lessons+from+Offspring+Size+and+Number+Tradeoffs&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2017-05-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00038&rft.issn=2296-701X&rft.aulast=Dani&rft.aufirst=K.+G.+Srikanta&rft.au=Kodandaramaiah%2C+Ullasa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffevo.2017.00038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproduction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plant_reproduction" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tenquestion.com/video-tutorials-on-reproduction-in-plants/">Simple Video Tutorial on Reproduction in Plant</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Botany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar 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botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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