CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Plant evolutionary developmental biology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"8f450ac7-41f6-4b9f-961d-e680ca0e2b0e","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology","wgTitle":"Plant evolutionary developmental biology","wgCurRevisionId":1244516437,"wgRevisionId":1244516437,"wgArticleId":13571938,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Articles containing German-language text","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2013","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2013","Plant development","Evolutionary biology","Evolution of plants"], "wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology","wgRelevantArticleId":13571938,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty": false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q591138","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible", "mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Plant evolutionary developmental biology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology rootpage-Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Plant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Plant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Plant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Plant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Historical perspective</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_perspective-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical perspective subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Before 1900</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1900_to_the_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1900_to_the_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1900 to the present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1900_to_the_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisms,_databases_and_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisms,_databases_and_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Organisms, databases and tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisms,_databases_and_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_plant_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_plant_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution of plant morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_plant_morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of plant morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_plant_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview_of_plant_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_plant_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Overview of plant evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_plant_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meristems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meristems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Meristems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meristems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_plant_transcriptional_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_plant_transcriptional_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Evolution of plant transcriptional regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_plant_transcriptional_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_leaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_leaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Evolution of leaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_leaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_leaf" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_leaf"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Origins of the leaf</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_leaf-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_influencing_leaf_architectures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_influencing_leaf_architectures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Factors influencing leaf architectures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factors_influencing_leaf_architectures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_evidences_for_leaf_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_evidences_for_leaf_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Genetic evidences for leaf evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_evidences_for_leaf_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_flowers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_flowers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Evolution of flowers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_flowers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_flower" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_flower"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Origins of the flower</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_flower-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_the_MADS-box_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_the_MADS-box_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Evolution of the MADS-box family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_the_MADS-box_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_influencing_floral_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_influencing_floral_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>Factors influencing floral diversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factors_influencing_floral_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flowering_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flowering_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.4</span> <span>Flowering time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flowering_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_flower_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_flower_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.5</span> <span>Theories of flower evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_flower_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptive_function_of_flowers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptive_function_of_flowers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Adaptive function of flowers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptive_function_of_flowers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_secondary_metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_secondary_metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Evolution of secondary metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_secondary_metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms_and_players_in_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms_and_players_in_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mechanisms and players in evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms_and_players_in_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant evolutionary developmental biology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 5 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-5" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">5 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="علم الأحياء النمائي التطوري النباتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء النمائي التطوري النباتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucijska_historija_biljaka" title="Evolucijska historija biljaka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Evolucijska historija biljaka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desenvolupament_vegetal" title="Desenvolupament vegetal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desenvolupament vegetal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desarrollo_vegetal" title="Desarrollo vegetal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Desarrollo vegetal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%8A_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="د نباتاتو تکاملي پرمختیایي بیولوجي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د نباتاتو تکاملي پرمختیایي بیولوجي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q591138#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&oldid=1244516437" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&id=1244516437&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPlant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPlant_evolutionary_developmental_biology"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q591138" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of developmental programs and patterns in plants from an evolutionary perspective</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more ecological discussion on the evolution of plant morphology, see <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>.</div> <p><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a> (evo-devo) is the study of developmental programs and patterns from an evolutionary perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seeks to understand the various influences shaping the form and nature of life on the planet. <a href="/wiki/Evo-devo" class="mw-redirect" title="Evo-devo">Evo-devo</a> arose as a separate branch of science rather recently. An early sign of this occurred in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the synthesis in evo-devo has been in the field of <a href="/wiki/Animal_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal evolution">animal evolution</a>, one reason being the presence of <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model systems</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">C. elegans</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a></i>. However, since 1980, a wealth of information on <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">plant morphology</a>, coupled with modern molecular techniques has helped shed light on the conserved and unique developmental patterns in the <a href="/wiki/Plant_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant kingdom">plant kingdom</a> also.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_perspective">Historical perspective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_1900">Before 1900</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Before 1900"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goethe_(Stieler_1828).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg/150px-Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg/225px-Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg/300px-Goethe_%28Stieler_1828%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1972" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> first used the word <i>morphology</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The origin of the term "<a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>" is generally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> (1749–1832). He was of the opinion that there is an underlying fundamental organisation (<i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bauplan</i></span></i>) in the diversity of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>. In his book <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0918024684">The Metamorphosis of Plants</a></i>, he proposed that the <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bauplan</i></span></i> enabled us to predict the forms of plants that had not yet been discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goethe was the first to make the perceptive suggestion that <a href="/wiki/Flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Flowers">flowers</a> consist of modified <a href="/wiki/Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">leaves</a>. He also entertained different complementary interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Philosophy_of_Plant_Morphology_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philosophy_of_Plant_Morphology-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the middle centuries, several basic foundations of our current understanding of plant morphology were laid down. <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_Grew" title="Nehemiah Grew">Nehemiah Grew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilhelm_von_Nageli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilhelm von Nageli (page does not exist)">Wilhelm von Nageli</a> were just some of the people who helped build knowledge on <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">plant morphology</a> at various levels of organisation. It was the taxonomical classification of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in the eighteenth century though, that generated a firm base for the knowledge to stand on and expand.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> in contemporary scientific discourse also had had an effect on the thinking on plant forms and their evolution. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hofmeister" title="Wilhelm Hofmeister">Wilhelm Hofmeister</a>, one of the most brilliant botanists of his times, was the one to diverge away from the idealist way of pursuing botany. Over the course of his life, he brought an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> outlook into botanical thinking. He came up with biophysical explanations on phenomena like <a href="/wiki/Phototaxis" title="Phototaxis">phototaxis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geotaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Geotaxis">geotaxis</a>, and also discovered the <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a> in the plant life cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1900_to_the_present">1900 to the present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1900 to the present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/150px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/225px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg/300px-Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, a flowering plant that has been a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model system</a> for most of plant molecular studies</figcaption></figure> <p>The past century witnessed a rapid progress in the study of <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">plant anatomy</a>. The focus shifted from the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> level to more <a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionist</a> levels. While the first half of the century saw expansion in developmental knowledge at the <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</a> level, in the latter half, especially since the 1990s, there has also been a strong impetus on gaining molecular information. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Charles_Jeffrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Charles Jeffrey">Edward Charles Jeffrey</a> was one of the early <a href="/wiki/Evo-devo" class="mw-redirect" title="Evo-devo">evo-devo</a> researchers of the 20th century. He performed a comparative analyses of the vasculatures of living and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a> and came to the conclusion that the storage <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a> has been derived from <a href="/wiki/Tracheids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheids">tracheids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His research<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focussed primarily on <a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">plant anatomy</a> in the context of <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>. This tradition of evolutionary analyses of plant architectures was further advanced by <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a>, best known for her book <i>The Plant Anatomy</i>. Her work focussed on the origin and development of various tissues in different plants. Working with <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Cheadle" title="Vernon Cheadle">Vernon Cheadle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she also explained the evolutionary specialization of the <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> tissue with respect to its function. </p><p>In 1959 Walter Zimmermann published a revised edition of <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Die Phylogenie der Planzen</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This very comprehensive work, which has not been translated into English, has no equal in the literature. It presents plant evolution as the evolution of plant development (hologeny). In this sense it is plant evolutionary developmental biology (plant evo-devo). According to Zimmermann, diversity in plant evolution occurs though various developmental processes. Three very basic processes are <a href="/wiki/Heterochrony" title="Heterochrony">heterochrony</a> (changes in the timing of developmental processes), heterotopy (changes in the relative positioning of processes), and heteromorphy (changes in form processes).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the meantime, by the beginning of the latter half of the 1900s, <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> had begun to be used in some developmental studies. The first collection of <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> mutants were made around 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However it formally became established as a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> only in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-Fink_G_1998_473–477_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fink_G_1998_473–477-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <p>The recent spurt in information on various plant-related processes has largely been a result of the revolution in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. Powerful techniques like <a href="/wiki/Mutagenesis" title="Mutagenesis">mutagenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complementation_(genetics)" title="Complementation (genetics)">complementation</a> were made possible in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> via generation of <a href="/wiki/Transfer_DNA" title="Transfer DNA">T-DNA</a> containing mutant lines, recombinant <a href="/wiki/Plasmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmids">plasmids</a>, techniques like <a href="/wiki/Transposon_tagging" title="Transposon tagging">transposon tagging</a> etc. Availability of complete physical and genetic maps,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/RNAi" class="mw-redirect" title="RNAi">RNAi</a> vectors, and rapid <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> protocols are some of the technologies that have significantly altered the scope of the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Fink_G_1998_473–477_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fink_G_1998_473–477-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, there has also been a massive increase in the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">EST</a> sequences<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of various non-model species, which, coupled with the <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> tools existing today, generate opportunities in the field of plant evo-devo research. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C3%A9rard_Cusset&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gérard Cusset (page does not exist)">Gérard Cusset</a> provided a detailed in-depth analysis of the history of plant morphology, including plant development and evolution, from its beginnings to the end of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Sattler" title="Rolf Sattler">Rolf Sattler</a> discussed fundamental principles of plant morphology<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and plant evo-devo.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rolf_Rutishauser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rolf Rutishauser (page does not exist)">Rolf Rutishauser</a> surveyed the past and future of plant evo-devo with regard to continuum and process morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organisms,_databases_and_tools"><span id="Organisms.2C_databases_and_tools"></span>Organisms, databases and tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Organisms, databases and tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif/440px-Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif" decoding="async" width="440" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif/660px-Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Sampling_of_the_Floral_Genome_Project.gif 2x" data-file-width="693" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>The sampling of the Floral Genome Project</figcaption></figure> <p>The most important <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model systems</a> in plant development have been <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">arabidopsis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>. Maize has traditionally been the favorite of plant geneticists, while extensive resources in almost every area of <a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">plant physiology</a> and development are available for <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i>. Apart from these, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum_majus" title="Antirrhinum majus">Antirrhinum majus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Brassica" title="Brassica">Brassica</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a> are also being used in a variety of studies. The genomes of <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> and rice have been completely sequenced, while the others are in process.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It must be emphasized here that the information from these "model" organisms form the basis of our developmental knowledge. While <i><a href="/wiki/Brassica" title="Brassica">Brassica</a></i> has been used primarily because of its convenient location in the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic tree</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a> family, <i><a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum_majus" title="Antirrhinum majus">Antirrhinum majus</a></i> is a convenient system for studying <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> architecture. <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> has been traditionally used for studying responses to <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a> like <a href="/wiki/Abscissic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscissic acid">abscissic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gibberelin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibberelin">gibberelin</a> as well as responses to <a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">stress</a>. However, recently, not just the <a href="/wiki/Domesticated" class="mw-redirect" title="Domesticated">domesticated</a> rice strain, but also the <a href="/wiki/Wildness" title="Wildness">wild</a> strains have been studied for their underlying genetic architectures.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some people have objected against extending the results of <a href="/wiki/Model_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Model organisms">model organisms</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> world. One argument is that the effect of <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockouts</a> in lab conditions wouldn't truly reflect even the same plant's response in the <a href="/wiki/Natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural">natural</a> world. Also, these supposedly <i>crucial</i> genes might not be responsible for the evolutionary origin of that character. For these reasons, a comparative study of plant <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">traits</a> has been proposed as the way to go now.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronk2001_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronk2001-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the past few years, researchers have indeed begun looking at non-model, "non-conventional" organisms using modern genetic tools. One example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Floral_Genome_Project" title="Floral Genome Project">Floral Genome Project</a>, which envisages to study the evolution of the current patterns in the genetic architecture of the flower through comparative genetic analyses, with a focus on EST sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the FGP, there are several such ongoing projects that aim to find out conserved and diverse patterns in evolution of the plant shape. <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">Expressed sequence tag</a> (EST) sequences of quite a few non-model plants like <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">apple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cycas" title="Cycas">cycas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, to name a few, are available freely online.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cycad Genomics Project,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, aims to understand the differences in structure and function of <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> between <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a> through sampling in the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Cycadales" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadales">Cycadales</a>. In the process, it intends to make available information for the study of <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_seed_size" title="Evolution of seed size">evolution of seeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cones</a> and evolution of life cycle patterns. Presently the most important sequenced genomes from an <a href="/wiki/Evo-devo" class="mw-redirect" title="Evo-devo">evo-devo</a> point of view include those of <i><a href="/wiki/A._thaliana" class="mw-redirect" title="A. thaliana">A. thaliana</a></i> (a flowering plant), <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a> (a woody plant), <i><a href="/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></i> (a bryophyte), <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (extensive genetic information), and <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></i> (a green alga). The impact of such a vast amount of information on understanding common underlying developmental mechanisms can easily be realised. </p><p>Apart from <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">EST</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> sequences, several other tools like <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeast_two-hybrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeast two-hybrid">yeast two-hybrid</a> system, <a href="/wiki/Microarrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Microarrays">microarrays</a>, <a href="/wiki/RNA_Interference" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA Interference">RNA Interference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serial_analysis_of_gene_expression" title="Serial analysis of gene expression">SAGE</a>, <a href="/wiki/QTL_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="QTL mapping">QTL mapping</a> etc. permit the rapid study of plant developmental patterns. Recently, cross-species hybridization has begun to be employed on microarray chips, to study the conservation and divergence in <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a> expression patterns between closely related <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Techniques for analyzing this kind of data have also progressed over the past decade. We now have better models for <a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a>, more refined analysis <a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and better <a href="/wiki/Computing_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Computing power">computing power</a> as a result of advances in <a href="/wiki/Computer_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer sciences">computer sciences</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_plant_morphology">Evolution of plant morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Evolution of plant morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_of_plant_evolution">Overview of plant evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Overview of plant evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <p>Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,200">1,200</a> million years ago</span>, but it was not until the Ordovician period, around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=500">500</a> million years ago</span>, that land plants appeared. These began to diversify in the late Silurian period, around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=420">420</a> million years ago</span>, and the fruits of their diversification are displayed in remarkable detail in an early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> fossil assemblage known as the <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a>. This chert preserved early plants in cellular detail, petrified in volcanic springs. By the middle of the Devonian period most of the features recognised in plants today are present, including roots and leaves. By the late Devonian, plants had reached a degree of sophistication that allowed them to form forests of tall trees. Evolutionary innovation continued after the Devonian period. Most plant groups were relatively unscathed by the <a href="/wiki/Permo-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permo-Triassic extinction event">Permo-Triassic extinction event</a>, although the structures of communities changed. This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> million years ago</span>), which exploded the Cretaceous and Tertiary. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the grasses, which became important in the mid Tertiary, from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=40">40</a> million years ago</span>. The grasses, as well as many other groups, evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=10">10</a> million years</span>. Although animals and plants evolved their <a href="/wiki/Bodyplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodyplan">bodyplan</a> independently, they both express a developmental constraint during mid-<a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a> that limits their morphological diversification.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meristems">Meristems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Meristems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristem</a> architectures differ between <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pteridophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophytes">pteridophytes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> vegetative meristem lacks organization into distinct tunica and corpus layers. They possess large cells called central mother cells. In <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, the outermost layer of cells divides anticlinally to generate the new cells, while in gymnosperms, the plane of division in the meristem differs for different cells. However, the apical cells do contain organelles like large <a href="/wiki/Vacuoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuoles">vacuoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> grains, like the angiosperm meristematic cells. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pteridophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophytes">Pteridophytes</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>, on the other hand, do not possess a multicellular apical meristem. They possess a <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahedral">tetrahedral</a> apical cell, which goes on to form the plant body. Any <a href="/wiki/Somatic_mutation" title="Somatic mutation">somatic mutation</a> in this cell can lead to hereditary transmission of that <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest meristem-like organization is seen in an <a href="/wiki/Algal" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal">algal</a> organism from group <i><a href="/wiki/Charales" title="Charales">Charales</a></i> that has a single dividing cell at the tip, much like the pteridophytes, yet simpler. One can thus see a clear pattern in evolution of the meristematic tissue, from pteridophytes to angiosperms: Pteridophytes, with a single meristematic cell; gymnosperms with a multicellular, but less defined <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a>; and finally, <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, with the highest degree of organization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_plant_transcriptional_regulation">Evolution of plant transcriptional regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Evolution of plant transcriptional regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Transcription factors and transcriptional regulatory networks play key roles in plant development and stress responses, as well as their evolution. During plant landing, many novel transcription factor families emerged and are preferentially wired into the networks of multicellular development, reproduction, and organ development, contributing to more complex morphogenesis of land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-MBE_1767_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MBE_1767-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_leaves">Evolution of leaves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolution of leaves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the evolution of photosynthesis, see <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_the_leaf">Origins of the leaf</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Origins of the leaf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#leaves" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants § leaves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microphyll" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphyll">Microphyll</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/250px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/375px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/500px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption> Leaf lamina. The <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> architecture probably arose multiple times in the plant lineage</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">Leaves</a> are the primary <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> organs of a plant. Based on their structure, they are classified into two types - <a href="/wiki/Microphylls" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphylls">microphylls</a>, that lack complex venation patterns and <a href="/wiki/Megaphylls" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaphylls">megaphylls</a>, that are large and with a complex <a href="/wiki/Leaf#Venation" title="Leaf">venation</a>. It has been proposed that these structures arose independently.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Megaphylls, according to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telome_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telome theory (page does not exist)">telome theory</a>, have evolved from plants that showed a three-dimensional branching architecture, through three transformations: <b>planation</b>, which involved formation of a <a href="/wiki/Plane_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plane (geometry)">planar</a> architecture, <b>webbing</b>, or formation of the outgrowths between the planar branches and <b>fusion</b>, where these webbed outgrowths fused to form a proper <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> lamina. Studies have revealed that these three steps happened multiple times in the evolution of today's leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contrary to the telome theory, developmental studies of compound leaves have shown that, unlike simple leaves, compound leaves branch in three dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutishauser,_R_1997_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutishauser,_R_1997-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix,_C._2003_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix,_C._2003-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, they appear partially homologous with shoots as postulated by <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Arber" title="Agnes Arber">Agnes Arber</a> in her partial-shoot theory of the leaf.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They appear to be part of a continuum between morphological categories, especially those of leaf and shoot.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular genetics confirmed these conclusions (see below). </p><p>It has been proposed that the before the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">leaves</a>, plants had the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> apparatus on the stems. Today's megaphyll leaves probably became commonplace some 360 <abbr title="million years ago">mya</abbr>, about 40 my after the simple leafless plants had colonized the land in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">early Devonian</a> period. This spread has been linked to the fall in the atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> concentrations in the late <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> era associated with a rise in density of <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> on leaf surface. This must have allowed for better <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> rates and gas exchange. Large leaves with less stomata would have heated up in the sun's rays, but an increased stomatal density allowed for a better-cooled leaf, thus making its spread feasible.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factors_influencing_leaf_architectures">Factors influencing leaf architectures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Factors influencing leaf architectures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various physical and physiological forces like <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> intensity, <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_speeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind speeds">wind speeds</a> etc. are thought to have influenced evolution of leaf shape and size. It is observed that high trees rarely have large leaves, owing to the obstruction they generate for winds. This obstruction can eventually lead to the tearing of leaves, if they are large. Similarly, trees that grow in <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a> regions have pointed leaves, presumably to prevent <a href="/wiki/Nucleation_of_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleation of ice">nucleation of ice</a> onto the leaf surface and reduce water loss due to transpiration. <a href="/wiki/Herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivory">Herbivory</a>, not only by large mammals, but also small <a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a> has been implicated as a driving force in leaf evolution, an example being plants of the genus <i>Aciphylla</i>, that are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. The now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Moas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moas">moas</a> (birds) fed upon these plants, and the spines on the leaves probably discouraged the moas from feeding on them. Other members of <i>Aciphylla</i> that did not co-exist with the moas were spineless.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_evidences_for_leaf_evolution">Genetic evidences for leaf evolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetic evidences for leaf evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the genetic level, developmental studies have shown that repression of the KNOX genes is required for initiation of the <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Primordium" title="Primordium">primordium</a>. This is brought about by <i>ARP</i> genes, which encode <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription factors">transcription factors</a>. Genes of this type have been found in many plants studied till now, and the mechanism i.e. repression of KNOX genes in leaf primordia, seems to be quite conserved. Expression of KNOX genes in leaves produces complex leaves. It is speculated that the <i>ARP</i> function arose quite early in <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plant</a> evolution, because members of the primitive group <a href="/wiki/Lycophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycophytes">lycophytes</a> also have a functionally similar gene <sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other players that have a conserved role in defining leaf primordia are the phytohormone <a href="/wiki/Auxin" title="Auxin">auxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gibberelin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibberelin">gibberelin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytokinin" title="Cytokinin">cytokinin</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_Varieties_(15_sp).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png/330px-Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png/495px-Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png/660px-Leaf_Varieties_%2815_sp%29.png 2x" data-file-width="8160" data-file-height="8189" /></a><figcaption>The diversity of leaves</figcaption></figure> <p>One feature of a plant is its <a href="/wiki/Phyllotaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyllotaxy">phyllotaxy</a>. The arrangement of leaves on the plant body is such that the plant can maximally harvest light under the given constraints, and hence, one might expect the trait to be genetically <a href="/wiki/Robustness_(evolution)" title="Robustness (evolution)">robust</a>. However, it may not be so. In <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, a mutation in only one gene called <i>abphyl</i> (<i>abnormal phyllotaxy</i>) was enough to change the phyllotaxy of the leaves. It implies that sometimes, mutational tweaking of a single locus on the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> is enough to generate diversity. The <i>abphyl</i> gene was later on shown to encode a <a href="/wiki/Cytokinin" title="Cytokinin">cytokinin</a> response regulator protein.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the leaf primordial cells are established from the SAM cells, the new <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">axes</a> for leaf growth are defined, one important (and more studied) among them being the abaxial-adaxial (lower-upper surface) axis. The genes involved in defining this, and the other axes seem to be more or less conserved among higher plants. Proteins of the <i>HD-ZIPIII</i> family have been implicated in defining the adaxial identity. These proteins deviate some cells in the leaf <a href="/wiki/Primordium" title="Primordium">primordium</a> from the default <a href="/wiki/Abaxial" title="Abaxial">abaxial</a> state, and make them <a href="/wiki/Adaxial" title="Adaxial">adaxial</a>. It is believed that in early plants with leaves, the leaves just had one type of surface - the abaxial one. This is the underside of today's leaves. The definition of the adaxial identity occurred some 200 million years after the abaxial identity was established.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronk2001_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronk2001-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One can thus imagine the early leaves as an intermediate stage in evolution of today's leaves, having just arisen from spiny stem-like outgrowths of their leafless ancestors, covered with <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> all over, and not optimized as much for <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">light harvesting</a>. </p><p>How the infinite variety of plant leaves is generated is a subject of intense research. Some common themes have emerged. One of the most significant is the involvement of KNOX genes in generating <a href="/wiki/Compound_leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound leaves">compound leaves</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a> <i>(see above)</i>. But this again is not universal. For example, <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">pea</a> uses a different mechanism for doing the same thing.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutations in genes affecting leaf <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> can also change leaf form, by changing the leaf from flat, to a crinkly shape,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like the shape of <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a> leaves. There also exist different <a href="/wiki/Morphogen" title="Morphogen">morphogen</a> gradients in a developing leaf which define the leaf's axis. Changes in these morphogen gradients may also affect the leaf form. Another very important class of regulators of leaf development are the <a href="/wiki/MicroRNAs" class="mw-redirect" title="MicroRNAs">microRNAs</a>, whose role in this process has just begun to be documented. The coming years should see a rapid development in comparative studies on leaf development, with many <a href="/wiki/Expressed_Sequence_Tag" class="mw-redirect" title="Expressed Sequence Tag">EST</a> sequences involved in the process coming online. </p><p>Molecular genetics has also shed light on the relation between radial symmetry (characteristic of stems) and dorsiventral symmetry (typical for leaves). James (2009) stated that "it is now widely accepted that... radiality [characteristic of most shoots] and dorsiventrality [characteristic of leaves] are but extremes of a continuous spectrum. In fact, it is simply the timing of the KNOX gene expression!"<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact there is evidence for this continuum already at the beginning of land plant evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, studies in molecular genetics confirmed that compound leaves are intermediate between simple leaves and shoots, that is, they are partially homologous with simple leaves and shoots, since "it is now generally accepted that compound leaves express both leaf and shoot properties”.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conclusion was reached by several authors on purely morphological grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutishauser,_R_1997_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutishauser,_R_1997-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix,_C._2003_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix,_C._2003-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_flowers">Evolution of flowers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Evolution of flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more ecological discussion on the evolution of flowers, see <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants#Evolution_of_flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Evolution of plants § Evolution of flowers</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossotheca_nodule.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/200px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/300px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/400px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption>The pollen-bearing organs of the early flower <i><a href="/wiki/Crossotheca" title="Crossotheca">Crossotheca</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Flower-like structures first appear in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> records some ~130 mya, in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The flowering plants have long been assumed to have evolved from within the <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a>; according to the traditional morphological view, they are closely allied to the <a href="/wiki/Gnetales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetales">gnetales</a>. However, recent molecular evidence is at odds to this hypothesis,<sup id="cite_ref-Chaw2000_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaw2000-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soltis2002_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soltis2002-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and further suggests that gnetales are more closely related to some gymnosperm groups than angiosperms,<sup id="cite_ref-Bowe2000_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowe2000-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that gymnosperms form a distinct clade to the angiosperms,.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaw2000_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaw2000-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soltis2002_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soltis2002-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bowe2000_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowe2000-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a> analysis predicts the divergence of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> (anthophytes) and <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a> to ~<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=300">300</a> mya</span><sup id="cite_ref-Nam2003_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nam2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216315873">.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery{display:table;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery>div{line-height:1.5em;padding:0.2em 0.4em;border:1px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.main-caption{text-align:center;font-weight:bold;border:none}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.main-footer{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.main-content{display:table}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element{float:left!important;border:1px none;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:5px;margin:1px;border-collapse:collapse}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.gallery-element{float:left;border:1px none;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:5px;margin:1px;border-collapse:collapse}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery .no-border{border:none}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element.vertical{float:none}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element caption.caption{text-align:center;font-weight:bold;border:none}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element th.header{text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element td.cladogram{padding:10px;margin:-1px 0}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery table.gallery-element td.footer{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.header.shading{background-color:#eaecf0}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.cladogram.shading{background-color:#f8f9fa}.mw-parser-output div.clade-gallery div.footer.shading{background-color:#f8f9fa}</style><div class="clade-gallery"><div class="main-content no-border"><table class="gallery-element" style=""><tbody><tr class="header"><th>Traditional view</th></tr><tr><td class="cladogram"> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Cycads </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Ginkgo </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Conifers </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Anthophytes </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Bennettitales </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Gnetales </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Angiosperms </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-element" style=""><tbody><tr class="header"><th>Modern view</th></tr><tr><td class="cladogram"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Angiosperms </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Gymnosperms </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Cycads </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Bennettitales </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Ginkgo </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Conifers </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Gnetales </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="main-footer"><b>Phylogeny of anthophytes and gymnosperms based on Crepet <i>et al.</i> (2000)</b><sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <p>The main function of a flower is <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>, which, before the evolution of the flower and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, was the job of microsporophylls and megasporophylls. A flower can be considered a powerful evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>, because its presence allowed the plant world to access new means and mechanisms for reproduction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_the_flower">Origins of the flower</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Origins of the flower"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It seems that on the level of the organ, the <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> may be the ancestor of the flower, or at least some floral organs. When we <a href="/wiki/Mutate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutate">mutate</a> some crucial genes involved in flower development, we end up with a cluster of leaf-like structures. Thus, sometime in history, the developmental program leading to formation of a leaf must have been altered to generate a flower. There probably also exists an overall robust framework within which the floral diversity has been generated. An example of that is a gene called <i><a href="/wiki/LEAFY" class="mw-redirect" title="LEAFY">LEAFY</a> (LFY)</i>, which is involved in flower development in <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologs</a> of this gene are found in <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a> as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum" title="Antirrhinum">snapdragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">pea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a>. Expression of <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> LFY in distant plants like <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> also results in flower-production in these plants. The <i>LFY</i> gene regulates the expression of some gene belonging to the <a href="/wiki/MADS-box" title="MADS-box">MADS-box</a> family. These genes, in turn, act as direct controllers of flower development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evolution_of_the_MADS-box_family">Evolution of the MADS-box family</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Evolution of the MADS-box family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The members of the <a href="/wiki/MADS-box" title="MADS-box">MADS-box</a> family of transcription factors play a very important and evolutionarily conserved role in flower development. According to the <a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">ABC model of flower development</a>, three zones - A, B and C - are generated within the developing flower primordium, by the action of some <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription factors">transcription factors</a>, that are members of the <a href="/wiki/MADS-box" title="MADS-box">MADS-box</a> family. Among these, the functions of the B and C domain genes have been evolutionarily more conserved than the A domain gene. Many of these genes have arisen through <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplications</a> of ancestral members of this family. Quite a few of them show redundant functions. </p><p>The evolution of the <a href="/wiki/MADS-box" title="MADS-box">MADS-box</a> family has been extensively studied. These genes are present even in <a href="/wiki/Pteridophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophytes">pteridophytes</a>, but the spread and diversity is many times higher in <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There appears to be quite a bit of pattern into how this family has evolved. Consider the evolution of the C-region gene <i><a href="/wiki/AGAMOUS" class="mw-redirect" title="AGAMOUS">AGAMOUS</a></i> (<i>AG</i>). It is expressed in today's flowers in the <a href="/wiki/Stamens" class="mw-redirect" title="Stamens">stamens</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a>, which are reproductive organs. It's ancestor in <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a> also has the same expression pattern. Here, it is expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Strobilus" title="Strobilus">strobili</a>, an organ that produces <a href="/wiki/Pollens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollens">pollens</a> or ovules.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the B-genes' <i>(AP3 and PI)</i> ancestors are expressed only in the male organs in <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">gymnosperms</a>. Their descendants in the modern angiosperms also are expressed only in the <a href="/wiki/Stamens" class="mw-redirect" title="Stamens">stamens</a>, the male reproductive organ. Thus, the same, then-existing components were used by the plants in a novel manner to generate the first flower. This is a recurring pattern in <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factors_influencing_floral_diversity">Factors influencing floral diversity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Factors influencing floral diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flores.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flores.gif/150px-Flores.gif" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flores.gif/225px-Flores.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flores.gif/300px-Flores.gif 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>The various shapes and colors of flowers</figcaption></figure> <p>How is the enormous diversity in the shape, color and sizes of flowers established? There is enormous variation in the developmental program in different plants. For example, <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a> possess structures like <a href="/wiki/Monocot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocot">lodicules</a> and palea, that were believed to be analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Dicot" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicot">dicot</a> petals and carpels respectively. It turns out that this is true, and the variation is due to slight changes in the MADS-box genes and their expression pattern in the monocots. Another example is that of the toad-flax, <i><a href="/wiki/Linaria_vulgaris" title="Linaria vulgaris">Linaria vulgaris</a></i>, which has two kinds of flower symmetries: <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology#Radial_symmetry" title="Symmetry in biology">radial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_in_biology#Bilateral_symmetry" title="Symmetry in biology">bilateral</a>. These symmetries are due to changes in copy number, timing, and location of expression in <i>CYCLOIDEA,</i> which is related to TCP1 in Arabidopsis.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg/200px-Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg/300px-Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg/400px-Pink_rose_albury_botanical_gardens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption> The large number of <a href="/wiki/Petals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petals">petals</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a> has probably been a result of human selection.</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> has a gene called <i><a href="/wiki/AGAMOUS" class="mw-redirect" title="AGAMOUS">AGAMOUS</a></i> that plays an important role in defining how many <a href="/wiki/Petals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petals">petals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sepals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepals">sepals</a> and other organs are generated. Mutations in this gene give rise to the floral <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristem</a> obtaining an indeterminate fate, and many floral organs keep on getting produced. We have flowers like <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">roses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnations" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnations">carnations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morning_glory" title="Morning glory">morning glory</a>, for example, that have very dense floral organs. These flowers have been selected by horticulturists since long for increased number of <a href="/wiki/Petals" class="mw-redirect" title="Petals">petals</a>. Researchers have found that the morphology of these flowers is because of strong <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a> in the <i>AGAMOUS</i> homolog in these plants, which leads to them making a large number of petals and sepals.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several studies on diverse plants like <a href="/wiki/Petunia" title="Petunia">petunia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impatiens" title="Impatiens">impatiens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> etc. have suggested that the enormous diversity of flowers is a result of small changes in <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> controlling their development.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these changes also cause changes in expression patterns of the developmental genes, resulting in different <a href="/wiki/Phenotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenotypes">phenotypes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Floral_Genome_Project" title="Floral Genome Project">Floral Genome Project</a> looked at the <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">EST</a> data from various tissues of many flowering plants. The researchers confirmed that the <a href="/wiki/ABC_Model_of_flower_development" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC Model of flower development">ABC Model of flower development</a> is not conserved across all <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>. Sometimes expression domains change, as in the case of many <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a>, and also in some basal angiosperms like <i><a href="/wiki/Amborella" title="Amborella">Amborella</a></i>. Different models of flower development like the <i>fading boundaries model</i>, or the <i>overlapping-boundaries model</i> which propose non-rigid domains of expression, may explain these architectures.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a possibility that from the basal to the modern angiosperms, the domains of floral architecture have gotten more and more fixed through evolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flowering_time">Flowering time</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Flowering time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another floral feature that has been a subject of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> is flowering time. Some plants flower early in their life cycle, others require a period of <a href="/wiki/Vernalization" title="Vernalization">vernalization</a> before flowering. This decision is based on factors like <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intensity_(physics)" title="Intensity (physics)">light intensity</a>, presence of <a href="/wiki/Pollinators" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinators">pollinators</a> and other environmental signals. In <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> it is known that genes like <i>CONSTANS (CO)</i>, <i>FRIGIDA</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Flowering_Locus_C" title="Flowering Locus C">Flowering Locus C</a></i> (<i>FLC</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Florigen" title="Florigen">FLOWERING LOCUS T</a> (FT)</i> integrate the environmental signals and initiate the flower development pathway. Allelic variation in these loci have been associated with flowering time variations between plants. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> ecotypes that grow in the cold <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> regions require prolonged vernalization before they flower, while the <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> varieties and common lab strains, do not. Much of this variation is due to mutations in the <i>FLC</i> and <i>FRIGIDA</i> genes, rendering them non-functional.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many genes in the flowering time pathway are conserved across all plants studied to date. However, this does not mean that the mechanism of action is similarly conserved. For example, the monocot <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> accelerates its flowering in short-day conditions, while <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, a eudicot, responds to long-day conditions. In both plants, the proteins <i>CO</i> and <i>FT</i> are present but in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> <i>CO</i> enhances <i>FT</i> production, while in rice the <i>CO</i> homolog represses <i>FT</i> production, resulting in completely opposite downstream effects.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theories_of_flower_evolution">Theories of flower evolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Theories of flower evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#flowers" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants § flowers</a></div> <p>There are many theories that propose how flowers evolved. Some of them are described below. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Anthophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthophyte">Anthophyte</a> Theory</i> was based on the observation that a gymnospermic family <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetaceae</a> has a flower-like <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a>. It has partially developed <a href="/wiki/Vessel_element" title="Vessel element">vessels</a> as found in the <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Megasporangium" class="mw-redirect" title="Megasporangium">megasporangium</a> is covered by three envelopes, like the <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a> structure of angiosperm flowers. However, many other lines of evidence show that gnetophytes are not related to angiosperms.<sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Mostly Male Theory</i> has a more genetic basis. Proponents of this theory point out that the gymnosperms have two very similar copies of the gene <i>LFY</i> while angiosperms only have one. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a> analysis has shown that the other <i>LFY</i> paralog was lost in angiosperms around the same time as flower fossils become abundant, suggesting that this event might have led to floral evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this theory, loss of one of the <i>LFY</i> <a href="/wiki/Paralog" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralog">paralog</a> led to flowers that were more male, with the <a href="/wiki/Ovules" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovules">ovules</a> being expressed ectopically. These ovules initially performed the function of attracting <a href="/wiki/Pollinators" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinators">pollinators</a>, but sometime later, may have been integrated into the core flower. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptive_function_of_flowers">Adaptive function of flowers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Adaptive function of flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1878 Charles Darwin published a book “The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom”<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flowers</a> likely emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation to facilitate cross-<a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilisation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcrossing</a>), a process that allows the masking of recessive deleterious <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of progeny. This masking effect is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Complementation_(genetics)" title="Complementation (genetics)">genetic complementation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1985_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also considered to be the basis of <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_vigour" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid vigour">hybrid vigor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heterosis" title="Heterosis">heterosis</a>. Once flowers became established in a lineage with the adaptive function of promoting cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually then becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>. Also, <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, the process in flowering plants by which seed progeny are produced, provides a direct mechanism for <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing germ-line DNA</a> through genetic recombination.<sup id="cite_ref-Horandl2024_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horandl2024-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, in flowering plants, the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction are cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis and these appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair of germline DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1985_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_secondary_metabolism">Evolution of secondary metabolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Evolution of secondary metabolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Azadirachtin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Azadirachtin.png/250px-Azadirachtin.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Azadirachtin.png/375px-Azadirachtin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Azadirachtin.png/500px-Azadirachtin.png 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Structure of <a href="/wiki/Azadirachtin" title="Azadirachtin">azadirachtin</a>, a terpenoid produced by the <a href="/wiki/Neem" class="mw-redirect" title="Neem">neem</a> plant, which helps ward off microbes and insects. Many secondary metabolites have complex structures.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plant <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary metabolites">secondary metabolites</a> are low <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> compounds, sometimes with complex structures that have no essential role in <a href="/wiki/Primary_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary metabolism">primary metabolism</a>. They function in processes such as anti-herbivory, <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinator</a> attraction, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> between plants, <a href="/wiki/Allelopathy" title="Allelopathy">allelopathy</a>, maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> associations with <a href="/wiki/Soil_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil flora">soil flora</a> and enhancing the rate of <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (April 2013)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup>. Secondary metabolites have great structural and functional diversity and many thousands of enzymes may be involved in their synthesis, coded for by as much as 15–25% of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many plant secondary metabolites such as the colour and flavor components of <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a> and the chemotherapeutic drug <a href="/wiki/Taxol" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxol">taxol</a> are of culinary and medical significance to humans and are therefore of commercial importance. In plants they seem to have diversified using mechanisms such as gene duplications, evolution of novel genes and the development of novel biosynthetic pathways. Studies have shown that diversity in some of these compounds may be positively selected for.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyanogenic_glycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanogenic glycosides">Cyanogenic glycosides</a> may have been proposed to have evolved multiple times in different plant lineages, and there are several other instances of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>. For example, the enzymes for synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Limonene" title="Limonene">limonene</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">terpene</a> – are more similar between angiosperms and gymnosperms than to their own terpene synthesis enzymes. This suggests independent evolution of the limonene biosynthetic pathway in these two lineages.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms_and_players_in_evolution">Mechanisms and players in evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mechanisms and players in evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microrna_secondary_structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Microrna_secondary_structure.png/220px-Microrna_secondary_structure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Microrna_secondary_structure.png/330px-Microrna_secondary_structure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Microrna_secondary_structure.png/440px-Microrna_secondary_structure.png 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Stem-loop" title="Stem-loop">stem-loop</a> <a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">secondary structure</a> of a pri-microRNA from <i><a href="/wiki/Brassica_oleracea" title="Brassica oleracea">Brassica oleracea</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>While environmental factors are significantly responsible for evolutionary change, they act merely as agents for <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Some of the changes develop through interactions with <a href="/wiki/Pathosystem" title="Pathosystem">pathogens</a>. Change is inherently brought about via phenomena at the genetic level – <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a>, chromosomal rearrangements and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetic</a> changes. While the general types of mutations hold true across the living world, in plants, some other mechanisms have been implicated as highly significant. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a> is a very common feature in plants. It is believed that at least half plants are or have been polyploids. Polyploidy leads to <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> doubling, thus generating functional redundancy in most genes. The duplicated genes may attain new function, either by changes in expression pattern or changes in activity. Polyploidy and <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a> are believed to be among the most powerful forces in evolution of plant form. It is not known though, why genome doubling is such a frequent process in plants. One possible reason is the production of large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary metabolites">secondary metabolites</a> in plant cells. Some of them might interfere in the normal process of <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomal segregation">chromosomal segregation</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Polypoidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypoidy">polypoidy</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maize-teosinte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/150px-Maize-teosinte.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/225px-Maize-teosinte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/300px-Maize-teosinte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1037" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption> Left: <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a>; right: <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>; middle: maize-teosinte hybrid</figcaption></figure> <p>In recent times, plants have been shown to possess significant <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a> families, which are conserved across many plant lineages. In comparison to <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, while the number of plant miRNA families is less, the size of each family is much larger. The miRNA genes are also much more spread out in the genome than those in animals, where they are found clustered. It has been proposed that these miRNA families have expanded by duplications of chromosomal regions.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many miRNA genes involved in regulation of <a href="/wiki/Plant_development" title="Plant development">plant development</a> have been found to be quite conserved between plants studied. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a> of plants such as <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> etc. has also been a significant driving force in their evolution. Some studies<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> have looked at the origins of the maize plant and found that maize is a domesticated derivative of a wild plant from <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> called <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a>. Teosinte belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <i>Zea</i>, just as maize, but bears very small <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a>, 5–10 hard cobs, and a highly branched and spread-out stem. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cauliflower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Cauliflower.JPG/150px-Cauliflower.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Cauliflower.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="172" data-file-height="189" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Cauliflower" title="Cauliflower">Cauliflower</a> – <i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>botrytis</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Crosses between a particular teosinte variety and maize yield fertile offspring that are intermediate in <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> between maize and teosinte. <a href="/wiki/QTL" class="mw-redirect" title="QTL">QTL</a> analysis has also revealed some loci that when mutated in maize yield a teosinte-like stem or teosinte-like cobs. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a> analysis of these genes estimates their origins to some 9000 years ago, well in accordance with other records of maize domestication. It is believed that a small group of farmers must have selected some maize-like natural mutant of teosinte some 9000 years ago in Mexico, and subjected it to continuous selection to yield the maize plant as known today.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Another case is that of <a href="/wiki/Cauliflower" title="Cauliflower">cauliflower</a>. The edible cauliflower is a domesticated version of the wild plant <i><a href="/wiki/Brassica_oleracea" title="Brassica oleracea">Brassica oleracea</a></i>, which does not possess the dense undifferentiated inflorescence, called the curd, that cauliflower possesses. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"></p><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Brassicaceae" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div><p> Cauliflower possesses a single mutation in a gene called <i>CAL</i>, controlling <a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">meristem</a> differentiation into inflorescence. This causes the cells at the floral meristem to gain an undifferentiated identity, and instead of growing into a <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a>, they grow into a lump of undifferentiated cells.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mutation has been selected through domestication at least since the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> empire. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_phylogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative phylogenetics">Comparative phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Plant evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHall_B2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hall B (2000). "Evo-Devo or Devo-Evo - Does it matter?". <i>Evolution and Development</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 177–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1525-142x.2000.00003e.x">10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00003e.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11252559">11252559</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40347284">40347284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution+and+Development&rft.atitle=Evo-Devo+or+Devo-Evo+-+Does+it+matter%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=177-178&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40347284%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11252559&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1525-142x.2000.00003e.x&rft.au=Hall+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman_C,_Coughlin_B2000" class="citation journal cs1">Goodman C, Coughlin B (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18255">"The evolution of evo-devo biology"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. <b>97</b> (9): 4424–4425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.9.4424">10.1073/pnas.97.9.4424</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18255">18255</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10781035">10781035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+evo-devo+biology&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=4424-4425&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18255%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10781035&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.9.4424&rft.au=Goodman+C%2C+Coughlin+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVergara-Silva2003" class="citation journal cs1">Vergara-Silva F (2003). "Plants and the conceptual articulation of evolutionary developmental biology". <i>Biology and Philosophy</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 249–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1023936102602">10.1023/A:1023936102602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:81013686">81013686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Plants+and+the+conceptual+articulation+of+evolutionary+developmental+biology&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-284&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1023936102602&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A81013686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vergara-Silva&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Minelli, A. 2018. Plant Evolutionary Biology. The Evolvability of the Phenotype. New York: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107034921" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107034921">978-1107034921</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan_D_2001_1711–1741_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan_D2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kaplan D (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3558347">"The Science of Plant Morphology: Definition, History and Role in Modern Biology"</a>. <i>Am. J. Bot</i>. <b>88</b> (10). Botanical Society of America: 1711–1741. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3558347">10.2307/3558347</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3558347">3558347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21669604">21669604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Bot.&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Plant+Morphology%3A+Definition%2C+History+and+Role+in+Modern+Biology&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1711-1741&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21669604&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3558347%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3558347&rft.au=Kaplan+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F3558347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cusset G (1982). "The Conceptual Bases of Plant Morphology." In: Sattler R (1982). Axioms and Principles of Plant Construction. The Hague: Martinus Nijoff/ Dr W. Junk Publishers, p.27 (also published in <i>Acta Biotheretica</i> <b>31</b>A)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philosophy_of_Plant_Morphology-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Philosophy_of_Plant_Morphology_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R. (2018). "Philosophy of Plant Morphology". <i>Elemente der Naturwissenschaft</i>. <b>108</b>: 55–79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elemente+der+Naturwissenschaft&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Plant+Morphology&rft.volume=108&rft.pages=55-79&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span>(for an expanded version of this article see <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.beyondWilber.ca/about/plant-morphology/philosophy-of-plant-morphology.html">[1]</a></i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~meicenrd/ANATOMY/Ch0_History/history.html">http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~meicenrd/ANATOMY/Ch0_History/history.html</a> Plant Morphology: Timeline</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_CE1925" class="citation journal cs1">Jeffrey CE (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085847">"The Origin of Parenchyma in Geological Time"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 106–110. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925PNAS...11..106J">1925PNAS...11..106J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.11.1.106">10.1073/pnas.11.1.106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085847">1085847</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16586955">16586955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Parenchyma+in+Geological+Time&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=106-110&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1085847%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16586955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.11.1.106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925PNAS...11..106J&rft.au=Jeffrey+CE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1085847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_CE1910" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey CE (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIouAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA317"><i>Collected papers</i></a>. pp. 317–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+papers&rft.pages=317-&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Jeffrey+CE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRIouAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1995-41-3.php#cheadle">Plant Science Bulletin</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zimmermann, W. 1959. Die Phylogenie der Pflanzen. Revised 2nd edition. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattlerRutishauser2023" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R.; Rutishauser, R. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9823526">"Fundamentals of plant morphology and plant evo-devo (evolutionary developmental biology)"</a>. <i>Plants</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 118–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fplants12010118">10.3390/plants12010118</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9823526">9823526</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36616247">36616247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants&rft.atitle=Fundamentals+of+plant+morphology+and+plant+evo-devo+%28evolutionary+developmental+biology%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=118-131&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9823526%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36616247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fplants12010118&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Rutishauser%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9823526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp">[2]</a> TAIR: About <i>Arabidopsis</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fink_G_1998_473–477-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fink_G_1998_473–477_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fink_G_1998_473–477_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFink_G1998" class="citation journal cs1">Fink G (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1460179">"Anatomy of a Revolution"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>149</b> (2): 473–477. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F149.2.473">10.1093/genetics/149.2.473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1460179">1460179</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9611166">9611166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Anatomy+of+a+Revolution&rft.volume=149&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=473-477&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1460179%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9611166&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F149.2.473&rft.au=Fink+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1460179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabidopsis.org/index.jsp">The Arabidopsis Information Resource</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/dbEST/dbEST_summary.html">NCBI dbEST Statistics</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cusset G (1982). "The Conceptual Bases of Plant Morphology." In: Sattler R (1982). Axioms and Principles of Plant Construction. The Hague: Martinus Nijoff/ Dr W. Junk Publishers, pp. 8–86 (also published in <i>Acta Biotheretica</i> <b>31</b>A)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sattler, R. "Plant Morphology. Fundamental Issues".<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.beyondWilber.ca/about/plantmorphology/plant_morphology.html">[3]</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R. (2018). "Philosophy of Plant Morphology". <i>Elemente der Naturwissenschaft</i>. <b>108</b>: 55–79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elemente+der+Naturwissenschaft&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Plant+Morphology&rft.volume=108&rft.pages=55-79&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span>(for an expanded version of this article see <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.beyondWilber.ca/about/plant-morphology/philosophy-of-plant-morphology.html">[4]</a></i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattlerRutishauser2023" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R.; Rutishauser, R. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9823526">"Fundamentals of plant morphology and plant evo-devo (evolutionary developmental biology)"</a>. <i>Plants</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 118–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fplants12010118">10.3390/plants12010118</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9823526">9823526</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36616247">36616247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants&rft.atitle=Fundamentals+of+plant+morphology+and+plant+evo-devo+%28evolutionary+developmental+biology%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=118-131&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9823526%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36616247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fplants12010118&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Rutishauser%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9823526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler2024" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10935004">"Morpho evo-devo of the gynoecium: heterotopy, redefiition of the carpel, and a topographic appraoch"</a>. <i>Plants</i>. <b>13</b> (5): 599. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fplants13050599">10.3390/plants13050599</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10935004">10935004</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38475445">38475445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants&rft.atitle=Morpho+evo-devo+of+the+gynoecium%3A+heterotopy%2C+redefiition+of+the+carpel%2C+and+a+topographic+appraoch&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=599&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10935004%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38475445&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fplants13050599&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10935004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sattler, R. "Plant evo-devo and the morphological research by Rolf Sattler and collaboraters". <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.beyondWilber.ca/about/plantmorphology/plant-evo-devo.html">[5]</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutishauser2020" class="citation journal cs1">Rutishauser, R. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fphilosophies5040041">"EvoDevo: Past and future of continuum and process plant morphology"</a>. <i>Philosophies</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 166–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fphilosophies5040041">10.3390/philosophies5040041</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5040041">5040041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophies&rft.atitle=EvoDevo%3A+Past+and+future+of+continuum+and+process+plant+morphology&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=166-168&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fphilosophies5040041&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5040041&rft.aulast=Rutishauser&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fphilosophies5040041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/PLANTS/PlantList.html#C_SEQ">NCBI Plant Genomes Central</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGe1999" class="citation journal cs1">Ge S, et al. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC24448">"Phylogeny of rice genomes with emphasis on origins of allotetraploid species"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. <b>96</b> (25): 14400–14405. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PNAS...9614400G">1999PNAS...9614400G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.96.25.14400">10.1073/pnas.96.25.14400</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC24448">24448</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10588717">10588717</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+rice+genomes+with+emphasis+on+origins+of+allotetraploid+species&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=14400-14405&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC24448%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10588717&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.96.25.14400&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PNAS...9614400G&rft.aulast=Ge&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC24448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cronk2001-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cronk2001_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cronk2001_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronk_Q.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Cronk Q. (2001). "Plant evolution and development in a post-genomic context". <i>Nature Reviews Genetics</i>. <b>2</b> (8): 607–619. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35084556">10.1038/35084556</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11483985">11483985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22929939">22929939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Plant+evolution+and+development+in+a+post-genomic+context&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=607-619&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22929939%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11483985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35084556&rft.au=Cronk+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floralgenome.org/">The Floral Genome Project Home</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plantgdb.org">PlantGDB</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nypg.bio.nyu.edu/cycadgenomics.htm">Cycad Genomics Project home</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071017035012/http://nypg.bio.nyu.edu/cycadgenomics.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLai_ZGrossZouAndrews2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lai Z; Gross, BL; Zou, Y; Andrews, J; Rieseberg, LH (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2536761">"Microarray analysis reveals differential gene expression in hybrid sunflower species"</a>. <i>Molecular Ecology</i>. <b>15</b> (5): 1213–1227. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MolEc..15.1213L">2006MolEc..15.1213L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2006.02775.x">10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02775.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2536761">2536761</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16626449">16626449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Microarray+analysis+reveals+differential+gene+expression+in+hybrid+sunflower+species&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1213-1227&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2536761%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16626449&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2006.02775.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006MolEc..15.1213L&rft.au=Lai+Z&rft.au=Gross%2C+BL&rft.au=Zou%2C+Y&rft.au=Andrews%2C+J&rft.au=Rieseberg%2C+LH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2536761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrostJanitzaGrosseQuint2017" class="citation journal cs1">Drost, Hajk-Georg; Janitza, Philipp; Grosse, Ivo; Quint, Marcel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gde.2017.03.003">"Cross-kingdom comparison of the developmental hourglass"</a>. <i>Current Opinion in Genetics & Development</i>. <b>45</b>: 69–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gde.2017.03.003">10.1016/j.gde.2017.03.003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28347942">28347942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Genetics+%26+Development&rft.atitle=Cross-kingdom+comparison+of+the+developmental+hourglass&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=69-75&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gde.2017.03.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28347942&rft.aulast=Drost&rft.aufirst=Hajk-Georg&rft.au=Janitza%2C+Philipp&rft.au=Grosse%2C+Ivo&rft.au=Quint%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.gde.2017.03.003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrieKuratani2011" class="citation journal cs1">Irie, Naoki; Kuratani, Shigeru (2011-03-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109953">"Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals vertebrate phylotypic period during organogenesis"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>2</b>: 248. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NatCo...2..248I">2011NatCo...2..248I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms1248">10.1038/ncomms1248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109953">3109953</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21427719">21427719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Comparative+transcriptome+analysis+reveals+vertebrate+phylotypic+period+during+organogenesis&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=248&rft.date=2011-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3109953%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011NatCo...2..248I&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21427719&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms1248&rft.issn=2041-1723&rft.aulast=Irie&rft.aufirst=Naoki&rft.au=Kuratani%2C+Shigeru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3109953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomazet-LošoTautz2010" class="citation journal cs1">Domazet-Lošo, Tomislav; Tautz, Diethard (2010-12-09). "A phylogenetically based transcriptome age index mirrors ontogenetic divergence patterns". <i>Nature</i>. <b>468</b> (7325): 815–818. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.468..815D">2010Natur.468..815D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09632">10.1038/nature09632</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21150997">21150997</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1417664">1417664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+phylogenetically+based+transcriptome+age+index+mirrors+ontogenetic+divergence+patterns&rft.volume=468&rft.issue=7325&rft.pages=815-818&rft.date=2010-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1417664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.468..815D&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature09632&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21150997&rft.aulast=Domazet-Lo%C5%A1o&rft.aufirst=Tomislav&rft.au=Tautz%2C+Diethard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuintDrostGabelUllrich2012" class="citation journal cs1">Quint, Marcel; Drost, Hajk-Georg; Gabel, Alexander; Ullrich, Kristian Karsten; Bönn, Markus; Grosse, Ivo (2012-10-04). "A transcriptomic hourglass in plant embryogenesis". <i>Nature</i>. <b>490</b> (7418): 98–101. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.490...98Q">2012Natur.490...98Q</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11394">10.1038/nature11394</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22951968">22951968</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4404460">4404460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+transcriptomic+hourglass+in+plant+embryogenesis&rft.volume=490&rft.issue=7418&rft.pages=98-101&rft.date=2012-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4404460%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Natur.490...98Q&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature11394&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22951968&rft.aulast=Quint&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rft.au=Drost%2C+Hajk-Georg&rft.au=Gabel%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Ullrich%2C+Kristian+Karsten&rft.au=B%C3%B6nn%2C+Markus&rft.au=Grosse%2C+Ivo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrostGabelGrosseQuint2015" class="citation journal cs1">Drost, Hajk-Georg; Gabel, Alexander; Grosse, Ivo; Quint, Marcel (2015-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4408408">"Evidence for Active Maintenance of Phylotranscriptomic Hourglass Patterns in Animal and Plant Embryogenesis"</a>. <i>Molecular Biology and Evolution</i>. <b>32</b> (5): 1221–1231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsv012">10.1093/molbev/msv012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0737-4038">0737-4038</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4408408">4408408</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25631928">25631928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+Active+Maintenance+of+Phylotranscriptomic+Hourglass+Patterns+in+Animal+and+Plant+Embryogenesis&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1221-1231&rft.date=2015-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4408408%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0737-4038&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25631928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsv012&rft.aulast=Drost&rft.aufirst=Hajk-Georg&rft.au=Gabel%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Grosse%2C+Ivo&rft.au=Quint%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4408408&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlekowski_E.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Klekowski E. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8312.2003.00183.x">"Plant clonality, mutation, diplontic selection and mutational meltdown"</a>. <i>Biol. J. Linn. Soc</i>. <b>79</b> (1): 61–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8312.2003.00183.x">10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00183.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biol.+J.+Linn.+Soc.&rft.atitle=Plant+clonality%2C+mutation%2C+diplontic+selection+and+mutational+meltdown&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-67&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1095-8312.2003.00183.x&rft.au=Klekowski+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1095-8312.2003.00183.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MBE_1767-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MBE_1767_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJin_JP2015" class="citation journal cs1">Jin JP; et al. (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4476157">"An Arabidopsis transcriptional regulatory map reveals distinct functional and evolutionary features of novel transcription factors"</a>. <i>Molecular Biology and Evolution</i>. <b>32</b> (7): 1767–1773. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsv058">10.1093/molbev/msv058</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4476157">4476157</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25750178">25750178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=An+Arabidopsis+transcriptional+regulatory+map+reveals+distinct+functional+and+evolutionary+features+of+novel+transcription+factors&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1767-1773&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4476157%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25750178&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsv058&rft.au=Jin+JP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4476157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrane_and_KenrickKenrick1997" class="citation journal cs1">Crane and Kenrick; Kenrick, Paul (1997). "Diverted development of reproductive organs: A source of morphological innovation in land plants". <i>Plant Systematics and Evolution</i>. <b>206</b> (1): 161–174. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PSyEv.206..161C">1997PSyEv.206..161C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00987946">10.1007/BF00987946</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23626358">23626358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Systematics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Diverted+development+of+reproductive+organs%3A+A+source+of+morphological+innovation+in+land+plants&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=161-174&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23626358%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00987946&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997PSyEv.206..161C&rft.au=Crane+and+Kenrick&rft.au=Kenrick%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiazza2005" class="citation journal cs1">Piazza P, et al. (2005). "Evolution of leaf developmental mechanisms". <i>New Phytol</i>. <b>167</b> (3): 693–710. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2005.01466.x">10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01466.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16101907">16101907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytol.&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+leaf+developmental+mechanisms&rft.volume=167&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=693-710&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2005.01466.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16101907&rft.aulast=Piazza&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutishauser,_R_1997-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rutishauser,_R_1997_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutishauser,_R_1997_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutishauser, R. and Sattler, R. 1997. Expression of shoot processes in leaf development of Polemonium caeruleum. Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik 119: 563-582.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacroix,_C._2003-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix,_C._2003_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix,_C._2003_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacroix_C.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Lacroix C.; et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.00222.x">"Shoot and compound leaf comparisons in eudicots: dynamic morphology as an alternative approach"</a>. <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>143</b> (3): 219–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.00222.x">10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.00222.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=Shoot+and+compound+leaf+comparisons+in+eudicots%3A+dynamic+morphology+as+an+alternative+approach&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=219-230&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.00222.x&rft.au=Lacroix+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1095-8339.2003.00222.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutishauser,_R.Isler,_B.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rutishauser, R.; Isler, B. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.systbot.uzh.ch/static/personen/rolf_rutishauser_assets/Rut_Isl_AnnBot_2001.pdf">"Developmental genetics and morphological evolution of flowering plants, especially bladderworts (Utricularia): fuzzy arberian morphology complements classical morphology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Botany" title="Annals of Botany">Annals of Botany</a></i>. <b>88</b>: 1184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fanbo.2001.1498">10.1006/anbo.2001.1498</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Developmental+genetics+and+morphological+evolution+of+flowering+plants%2C+especially+bladderworts+%28Utricularia%29%3A+fuzzy+arberian+morphology+complements+classical+morphology&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=1184&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fanbo.2001.1498&rft.au=Rutishauser%2C+R.&rft.au=Isler%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.systbot.uzh.ch%2Fstatic%2Fpersonen%2Frolf_rutishauser_assets%2FRut_Isl_AnnBot_2001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler,_R.Jeune,_B.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Sattler, R.; Jeune, B. (1992). "Multivariate analysis confirms the continuum view of plant form". <i>Annals of Botany</i>. <b>69</b> (3): 249–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.aob.a088338">10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a088338</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42758718">42758718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Multivariate+analysis+confirms+the+continuum+view+of+plant+form&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=249-262&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.aob.a088338&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42758718%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Sattler%2C+R.&rft.au=Jeune%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeune_B.,_Sattler_R.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Jeune B., Sattler R. (1992). "Multivariate analysis in process morphology". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>156</b>: 147–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0022-5193%2805%2980670-8">10.1016/s0022-5193(05)80670-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Multivariate+analysis+in+process+morphology&rft.volume=156&rft.pages=147-167&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0022-5193%2805%2980670-8&rft.au=Jeune+B.%2C+Sattler+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeerling2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Beerling" title="David Beerling">Beerling D</a>, et al. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/59/1/osbornecp2.pdf">"Evolution of leaf-form in land plants linked to atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> decline in the Late Palaeozoic era"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>410</b> (6826): 352–354. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.410..352B">2001Natur.410..352B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35066546">10.1038/35066546</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11268207">11268207</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4386118">4386118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+leaf-form+in+land+plants+linked+to+atmospheric+CO%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+decline+in+the+Late+Palaeozoic+era&rft.volume=410&rft.issue=6826&rft.pages=352-354&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35066546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4386118%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11268207&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Natur.410..352B&rft.aulast=Beerling&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F59%2F1%2Fosbornecp2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.corante.com/loom/archives/004766.html">A perspective on the CO<sub>2</sub> theory of early leaf evolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629184105/http://www.corante.com/loom/archives/004766.html">Archived</a> 2011-06-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1991" class="citation journal cs1">Brown V, et al. (1991). "Herbivory and the Evolution of Leaf Size and Shape". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a></i>. <b>333</b> (1267): 265–272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1991.0076">10.1098/rstb.1991.0076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Herbivory+and+the+Evolution+of+Leaf+Size+and+Shape&rft.volume=333&rft.issue=1267&rft.pages=265-272&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1991.0076&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison_C._J.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison C. J.; et al. (2005). "Independent recruitment of a conserved developmental mechanism during leaf evolution". <i>Nature</i>. <b>434</b> (7032): 509–514. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.434..509H">2005Natur.434..509H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03410">10.1038/nature03410</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15791256">15791256</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4335275">4335275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Independent+recruitment+of+a+conserved+developmental+mechanism+during+leaf+evolution&rft.volume=434&rft.issue=7032&rft.pages=509-514&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature03410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4335275%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15791256&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.434..509H&rft.au=Harrison+C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson_D.,_Hake_S.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson D., Hake S. (1999). "Control of Phyllotaxy in Maize by the ABPHYL1 Gene". <i>Development</i>. <b>126</b> (2): 315–323. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fdev.126.2.315">10.1242/dev.126.2.315</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9847245">9847245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Development&rft.atitle=Control+of+Phyllotaxy+in+Maize+by+the+ABPHYL1+Gene&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=315-323&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fdev.126.2.315&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9847245&rft.au=Jackson+D.%2C+Hake+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTattersallTurnerKnoxAmbrose2005" class="citation journal cs1">Tattersall; Turner, L; Knox, MR; Ambrose, MJ; Ellis, TH; Hofer, JM; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087985">"The Mutant crispa Reveals Multiple Roles for PHANTASTICA in Pea Compound Leaf Development"</a>. <i>Plant Cell</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 1046–1060. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1105%2Ftpc.104.029447">10.1105/tpc.104.029447</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087985">1087985</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15749758">15749758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Cell&rft.atitle=The+Mutant+crispa+Reveals+Multiple+Roles+for+PHANTASTICA+in+Pea+Compound+Leaf+Development&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1046-1060&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1087985%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15749758&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1105%2Ftpc.104.029447&rft.au=Tattersall&rft.au=Turner%2C+L&rft.au=Knox%2C+MR&rft.au=Ambrose%2C+MJ&rft.au=Ellis%2C+TH&rft.au=Hofer%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1087985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBharathan_and_SinhaSinha2001" class="citation journal cs1">Bharathan and Sinha; Sinha, NR (Dec 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1540187">"The Regulation of Compound Leaf Development"</a>. <i>Plant Physiol</i>. <b>127</b> (4): 1533–1538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.010867">10.1104/pp.010867</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1540187">1540187</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11743098">11743098</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiol.&rft.atitle=The+Regulation+of+Compound+Leaf+Development&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1533-1538&rft.date=2001-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1540187%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11743098&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.010867&rft.au=Bharathan+and+Sinha&rft.au=Sinha%2C+NR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1540187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNath2003" class="citation journal cs1">Nath U, et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rico-coen.jic.ac.uk/uploads/0/0f/Nath_Science.pdf">"Genetic Control of Surface Curvature"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Science</i>. <b>299</b> (5611): 1404–1407. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.625.1791">10.1.1.625.1791</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1079354">10.1126/science.1079354</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12610308">12610308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8059321">8059321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Genetic+Control+of+Surface+Curvature&rft.volume=299&rft.issue=5611&rft.pages=1404-1407&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.625.1791%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8059321%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12610308&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1079354&rft.aulast=Nath&rft.aufirst=U&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frico-coen.jic.ac.uk%2Fuploads%2F0%2F0f%2FNath_Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James, P. J. 2009. 'Tree and Leaf': A different angle. The Linnean 25, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sattler, R. 1998. On the origin of symmetry, branching and phyllotaxis in land plants. In: R.V. Jean and D. Barabé (eds) Symmetry in Plants. World Scientific, Singapore, pp. 775-793.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckardt_N._A.,_Baum_D.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Eckardt N. A., Baum D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929115">"The Podostemad puzzle: The evolution of unusual morphology in the Podostemonaceae"</a>. <i>The Plant Cell</i>. <b>22</b> (7): 2131–2140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1105%2Ftpc.110.220711">10.1105/tpc.110.220711</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929115">2929115</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20647343">20647343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Plant+Cell&rft.atitle=The+Podostemad+puzzle%3A+The+evolution+of+unusual+morphology+in+the+Podostemonaceae&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2131-2140&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2929115%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20647343&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1105%2Ftpc.110.220711&rft.au=Eckardt+N.+A.%2C+Baum+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2929115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lawton-Rauh_A._et_al._2000_144–149_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawton-Rauh2000" class="citation journal cs1">Lawton-Rauh A, et al. (2000). "Molecular evolution of flower development". <i>Trends Ecol. Evol</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 144–149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2899%2901816-9">10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01816-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10717683">10717683</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Ecol.+Evol.&rft.atitle=Molecular+evolution+of+flower+development&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=144-149&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2899%2901816-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10717683&rft.aulast=Lawton-Rauh&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaw2000-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chaw2000_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chaw2000_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaw,_S.M.Parkinson,_C.L.Cheng,_Y.Vincent,_T.M.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Chaw, S.M.; Parkinson, C.L.; Cheng, Y.; Vincent, T.M.; Palmer, J.D. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18157">"Seed plant phylogeny inferred from all three plant genomes: Monophyly of extant gymnosperms and origin of Gnetales from conifers"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>97</b> (8): 4086–91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...97.4086C">2000PNAS...97.4086C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.8.4086">10.1073/pnas.97.8.4086</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18157">18157</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10760277">10760277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Seed+plant+phylogeny+inferred+from+all+three+plant+genomes%3A+Monophyly+of+extant+gymnosperms+and+origin+of+Gnetales+from+conifers&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=4086-91&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18157%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10760277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.8.4086&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...97.4086C&rft.au=Chaw%2C+S.M.&rft.au=Parkinson%2C+C.L.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Y.&rft.au=Vincent%2C+T.M.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+J.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soltis2002-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Soltis2002_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soltis2002_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoltis,_D.E.Soltis,_P.S.Zanis,_M.J.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Soltis, D.E.; <a href="/wiki/Pamela_S._Soltis" title="Pamela S. Soltis">Soltis, P.S.</a>; Zanis, M.J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.89.10.1670">"Phylogeny of seed plants based on evidence from eight genes"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>89</b> (10): 1670–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.89.10.1670">10.3732/ajb.89.10.1670</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21665594">21665594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+seed+plants+based+on+evidence+from+eight+genes&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1670-81&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.89.10.1670&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21665594&rft.au=Soltis%2C+D.E.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+P.S.&rft.au=Zanis%2C+M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.89.10.1670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowe2000-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowe2000_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowe2000_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowe,_L.M.Coat,_G.Depamphilis,_C.W.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Bowe, L.M.; Coat, G.; Depamphilis, C.W. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18159">"Phylogeny of seed plants based on all three genomic compartments: Extant gymnosperms are monophyletic and Gnetales' closest relatives are conifers"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>97</b> (8): 4092–7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...97.4092B">2000PNAS...97.4092B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.8.4092">10.1073/pnas.97.8.4092</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18159">18159</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10760278">10760278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+seed+plants+based+on+all+three+genomic+compartments%3A+Extant+gymnosperms+are+monophyletic+and+Gnetales%27+closest+relatives+are+conifers&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=4092-7&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18159%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10760278&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.8.4092&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...97.4092B&rft.au=Bowe%2C+L.M.&rft.au=Coat%2C+G.&rft.au=Depamphilis%2C+C.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nam2003-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nam2003_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNam,_J.DepamphilisMaNei2003" class="citation journal cs1">Nam, J.; Depamphilis, CW; Ma, H; Nei, M (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/20/9/1435">"Antiquity and Evolution of the MADS-Box Gene Family Controlling Flower Development in Plants"</a>. <i>Mol. Biol. Evol</i>. <b>20</b> (9): 1435–1447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg152">10.1093/molbev/msg152</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12777513">12777513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mol.+Biol.+Evol.&rft.atitle=Antiquity+and+Evolution+of+the+MADS-Box+Gene+Family+Controlling+Flower+Development+in+Plants&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1435-1447&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg152&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12777513&rft.au=Nam%2C+J.&rft.au=Depamphilis%2C+CW&rft.au=Ma%2C+H&rft.au=Nei%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmbe.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F20%2F9%2F1435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crepet2000-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crepet2000_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crepet2000_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrepet,_W._L.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Crepet, W. L. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34068">"Progress in understanding angiosperm history, success, and relationships: Darwin's abominably "perplexing phenomenon"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>97</b> (24): 12939–41. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...9712939C">2000PNAS...9712939C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.24.12939">10.1073/pnas.97.24.12939</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34068">34068</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11087846">11087846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Progress+in+understanding+angiosperm+history%2C+success%2C+and+relationships%3A+Darwin%27s+abominably+%22perplexing+phenomenon%22&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=12939-41&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34068%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11087846&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.24.12939&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...9712939C&rft.au=Crepet%2C+W.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedarg_NG_and_Yanofsky_M2001" class="citation journal cs1">Medarg NG and Yanofsky M (March 2001). "Function and evolution of the plant MADS-box gene family". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics" title="Nature Reviews Genetics">Nature Reviews Genetics</a></i>. <b>2</b> (3): 186–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35056041">10.1038/35056041</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11256070">11256070</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7399106">7399106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Function+and+evolution+of+the+plant+MADS-box+gene+family&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=186-195&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7399106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11256070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35056041&rft.au=Medarg+NG+and+Yanofsky+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJagerHassaninManuelLe_Guyader2003" class="citation journal cs1">Jager; Hassanin, A; Manuel, M; Le Guyader, H; Deutsch, J; et al. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/20/5/842">"MADS-Box Genes in Ginkgo biloba and the Evolution of the AGAMOUS Family"</a>. <i>Mol. Biol. Evol</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 842–854. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg089">10.1093/molbev/msg089</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12679535">12679535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mol.+Biol.+Evol.&rft.atitle=MADS-Box+Genes+in+Ginkgo+biloba+and+the+Evolution+of+the+AGAMOUS+Family&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=842-854&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg089&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12679535&rft.au=Jager&rft.au=Hassanin%2C+A&rft.au=Manuel%2C+M&rft.au=Le+Guyader%2C+H&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmbe.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F20%2F5%2F842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kramer, Elena M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30612618/">"Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose: The developmental evolution of flowers"</a>. <i>Current Topics in Developmental Biology</i>. <b>131</b>: 211–238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fbs.ctdb.2018.11.015">10.1016/bs.ctdb.2018.11.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128098042" title="Special:BookSources/9780128098042"><bdi>9780128098042</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1557-8933">1557-8933</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30612618">30612618</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58620687">58620687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Topics+in+Developmental+Biology&rft.atitle=Plus+%C3%A7a+change%2C+plus+c%27est+la+m%C3%AAme+chose%3A+The+developmental+evolution+of+flowers&rft.volume=131&rft.pages=211-238&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58620687%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fbs.ctdb.2018.11.015&rft.issn=1557-8933&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30612618&rft.isbn=9780128098042&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Elena+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F30612618%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitahara_K_and_Matsumoto_S.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Kitahara K and Matsumoto S. (2000). "Rose MADS-box genes 'MASAKO C1 and D1' homologous to class C floral identity genes". <i>Plant Science</i>. <b>151</b> (2): 121–134. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PlnSc.151..121K">2000PlnSc.151..121K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-9452%2899%2900206-X">10.1016/S0168-9452(99)00206-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10808068">10808068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Rose+MADS-box+genes+%27MASAKO+C1+and+D1%27+homologous+to+class+C+floral+identity+genes&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=121-134&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10808068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-9452%2899%2900206-X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PlnSc.151..121K&rft.au=Kitahara+K+and+Matsumoto+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKater1998" class="citation journal cs1">Kater M, et al. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC143982">"Multiple AGAMOUS Homologs from Cucumber and Petunia Differ in Their Ability to Induce Reproductive Organ Fate"</a>. <i>Plant Cell</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 171–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1105%2Ftpc.10.2.171">10.1105/tpc.10.2.171</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC143982">143982</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9490741">9490741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Cell&rft.atitle=Multiple+AGAMOUS+Homologs+from+Cucumber+and+Petunia+Differ+in+Their+Ability+to+Induce+Reproductive+Organ+Fate&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=171-182&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC143982%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9490741&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1105%2Ftpc.10.2.171&rft.aulast=Kater&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC143982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoltis2007" class="citation journal cs1">Soltis D, et al. (2007). "The floral genome: an evolutionary history of gene duplication and shifting patterns of gene expression". <i>Trends Plant Sci</i>. <b>12</b> (8): 358–367. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007TPS....12..358S">2007TPS....12..358S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2007.06.012">10.1016/j.tplants.2007.06.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17658290">17658290</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Plant+Sci.&rft.atitle=The+floral+genome%3A+an+evolutionary+history+of+gene+duplication+and+shifting+patterns+of+gene+expression&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=358-367&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17658290&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2007.06.012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007TPS....12..358S&rft.aulast=Soltis&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutterill2004" class="citation journal cs1">Putterill; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121216152310/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/107640082/ABSTRACT">"It's time to flower: the genetic control of flowering time"</a>. <i>BioEssays</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 353–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.20021">10.1002/bies.20021</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15057934">15057934</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43335309">43335309</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/107640082/ABSTRACT">the original</a> on 2012-12-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=It%27s+time+to+flower%3A+the+genetic+control+of+flowering+time&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=353-363&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43335309%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15057934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.20021&rft.au=Putterill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fabstract%2F107640082%2FABSTRACT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlazquezKoornneefPutterill2001" class="citation journal cs1">Blazquez; Koornneef, M; Putterill, J; et al. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084172">"Flowering on time: genes that regulate the floral transition"</a>. <i>EMBO Reports</i>. <b>2</b> (12): 1078–1082. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fembo-reports%2Fkve254">10.1093/embo-reports/kve254</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084172">1084172</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11743019">11743019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EMBO+Reports&rft.atitle=Flowering+on+time%3A+genes+that+regulate+the+floral+transition&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1078-1082&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1084172%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11743019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fembo-reports%2Fkve254&rft.au=Blazquez&rft.au=Koornneef%2C+M&rft.au=Putterill%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1084172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawton-Rauh2000" class="citation journal cs1">Lawton-Rauh A, et al. (2000). "The Mostly Male Theory of Flower Evolutionary Origins: from Genes to Fossils". <i>Syst. Bot</i>. <b>25</b> (2). American Society of Plant Taxonomists: 155–170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2666635">10.2307/2666635</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2666635">2666635</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85612923">85612923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Syst.+Bot.&rft.atitle=The+Mostly+Male+Theory+of+Flower+Evolutionary+Origins%3A+from+Genes+to+Fossils&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-170&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85612923%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2666635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2666635&rft.aulast=Lawton-Rauh&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernstein1985-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein1985_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein1985_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277–81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horandl2024-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horandl2024_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPichersky_E._and_Gang_D.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Pichersky E. and Gang D. (2000). "Genetics and biochemistry of secondary metabolites in plants: an evolutionary perspective". <i>Trends Plant Sci</i>. <b>5</b> (10): 439–445. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000TPS.....5..439P">2000TPS.....5..439P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1360-1385%2800%2901741-6">10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01741-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11044721">11044721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Plant+Sci.&rft.atitle=Genetics+and+biochemistry+of+secondary+metabolites+in+plants%3A+an+evolutionary+perspective&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=439-445&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11044721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1360-1385%2800%2901741-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000TPS.....5..439P&rft.au=Pichersky+E.+and+Gang+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohlmann1998" class="citation journal cs1">Bohlmann J, et al. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC22453">"Plant terpenoid synthases: molecular and phylogenetic analysis"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. <b>95</b> (8): 4126–4133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.95.8.4126">10.1073/pnas.95.8.4126</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC22453">22453</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9539701">9539701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=Plant+terpenoid+synthases%3A+molecular+and+phylogenetic+analysis&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=4126-4133&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC22453%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9539701&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.95.8.4126&rft.aulast=Bohlmann&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC22453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi_A_and_Mao_L.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Li A and Mao L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.cr.7310113">"Evolution of plant microRNA gene families"</a>. <i>Cell Research</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 212–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.cr.7310113">10.1038/sj.cr.7310113</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17130846">17130846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Research&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+plant+microRNA+gene+families&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=212-218&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.cr.7310113&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17130846&rft.au=Li+A+and+Mao+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.cr.7310113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoebley_J.F.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Doebley J.F. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/895359">"The genetics of maize evolution"</a>. <i>Annu. Rev. Genet</i>. <b>38</b>: 37–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.genet.38.072902.092425">10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.092425</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15568971">15568971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annu.+Rev.+Genet.&rft.atitle=The+genetics+of+maize+evolution&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=37-59&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.genet.38.072902.092425&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15568971&rft.au=Doebley+J.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F895359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurugannanBoylesSuddith2000" class="citation journal cs1">Purugannan; Boyles, AL; Suddith, JI; et al. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1461124">"Variation and Selection at the CAULIFLOWER Floral Homeotic Gene Accompanying the Evolution of Domesticated Brassica olerace"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>155</b> (2): 855–862. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F155.2.855">10.1093/genetics/155.2.855</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1461124">1461124</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10835404">10835404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Variation+and+Selection+at+the+CAULIFLOWER+Floral+Homeotic+Gene+Accompanying+the+Evolution+of+Domesticated+Brassica+olerace&rft.volume=155&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=855-862&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1461124%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10835404&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F155.2.855&rft.au=Purugannan&rft.au=Boyles%2C+AL&rft.au=Suddith%2C+JI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1461124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+evolutionary+developmental+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130202064544/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VS4-44VDKVN-B&_user=1111158&_coverDate=02/01/2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000051676&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1111158&md5=882ad06a2be1c297e6d642dba55436be">The Genetics of plant morphological evolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v2/n8/abs/nrg0801_607a.html">Plant evolution and development in a post-genomic context</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01466.x">Evolution of leaf developmental mechanisms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cplbookshop.com/contents/C1460.htm">Developmental genetics and plant evolution</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25791-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25791-3">0-415-25791-3</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Botany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&oldid=1244516437">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&oldid=1244516437</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Plant_development" title="Category:Plant development">Plant development</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolution_of_plants" title="Category:Evolution of plants">Evolution of plants</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_April_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2013">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_June_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2013">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 September 2024, at 15:47<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-4cmjj","wgBackendResponseTime":146,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.066","walltime":"1.293","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7299,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":224312,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3603,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":295612,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1070.795 1 -total"," 42.34% 453.354 1 Template:Reflist"," 32.99% 353.264 56 Template:Cite_journal"," 20.28% 217.164 12 Template:Clade"," 11.47% 122.830 3 Template:Lang"," 9.44% 101.089 1 Template:Botany"," 9.00% 96.415 1 Template:Anthophyta"," 8.58% 91.885 1 Template:Clade_gallery"," 7.21% 77.242 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.03% 43.145 1 Template:Clade_sequential"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.636","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":15347915,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-786j2","timestamp":"20241122191939","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Plant evolutionary developmental biology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q591138","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q591138","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-10-04T21:20:10Z","dateModified":"2024-09-07T15:47:04Z","headline":"study of developmental programs and patterns in plants from an evolutionary perspective"}</script> </body> </html>